Op ical Fibe Technology 85 (2024) 103794
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Regula A icles
Ca bon-coa ed ibe o op oelec onic s ain and ib a ion sensing
Josu Amo ebie a
a
,
*
, Joao Pe ei a
b
, Ca olina F anciscangelis
b
, Gaizka Du ana
c
, Joseba Zubia
c
,
Joel Villa o o
c
,
d
, Wal e Ma gulis
b
a
Depa men o Applied Ma hema ics, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y UPV/EHU, Ingenie o To es Que edo Plaza, 1, 48013 Bilbao, Spain
b
RISE Fibe Op ics, RISE Resea ch Ins i u es o Sweden, Elec um 236, Kis a, S ockholm, SE 164 40, Sweden
c
Depa men o Communica ions Enginee ing, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y UPV/EHU, Ingenie o To es Que edo Plaza, 1, 48013, Bilbao, Spain
d
Ike basque, Basque Founda ion o Science, Bilbao 48013, Spain
ARTICLE INFO
Keywo ds:
Op ical ibe
Op ical senso
Ca bon coa ing
Low cohe ence in e e ome e
S ain
Vib a ion
Impedance
ABSTRACT
In his a icle, we epo on a ca bon-coa ed op ical ibe ha is sui able o be used simul aneously as a ans-
mission medium and as a senso . I consis s o a s anda d single mode ibe (SMF) slee ed in wo laye s o
coa ing, which p o ide p o ec ion and isola ion om ex e nal elemen s. The inne laye is made o ca bon,
whe eas he ou e is made o polyme . When he ibe is subjec ed o mechanical s ess, he elec ical esis ance
o he ca bon laye changes acco dingly. The ol age a ia ions caused by he o me can be measu ed wi h high
accu acy and wi hou in e e ing wi h he ligh p opaga ing h ough he SMF. In his wo k, he easibili y o his
ope a ing p inciple is demons a ed in a low cohe ence Michelson in e e ome e in which elec ical and op ical
signals we e measu ed simul aneously and compa ed o each o he . Resul s indica e ha elec ical measu emen s
a e as p ecise as he op ical ones and wi h linea beha io , eaching a sensi i i y o 1.582 mV/
με
and able o
de ec ib a ions down o 100 mHz.
1. In oduc ion
Op ical ibe s play a signi ican ole in elecommunica ions [1,2] and
sensing applica ions [3,4]. On he one hand, o elecommunica ions,
hey p o ide high bandwid h and low a enua ion a es o e long dis-
ances, which esul s in links wi h low la ency a es and high capaci y,
s abili y and speed [5,6]. On he o he hand, o sensing, op ical ibe s
p o ide high sensi i i y, elec omagne ic immuni y, ligh weigh and
small size. Thanks o hese cha ac e is ics, hey can be deployed in ha sh
en i onmen s such as nuclea plan s, embedded in ai c a composi es
o in e nal inspec ions, o in eg a ed wi h ease in in as uc u es as gas
pipes o high- ol age lines wi hou a ec ing hei pe o mance [7–10].
Commonly, o he a o emen ioned applica ions, polyme -coa ed
glass op ical ibe s a e ins alled. Polyme ic coa ings p o ide high
sho - e m s eng h, bu in humid en i onmen s, long- e m s eng h
deg ada ion occu s and, hus, he me ically coa ed op ical ibe s become
o in e es . To ha end, addi ional ma e ials a e inco po a ed o op ical
ibe s in o de o expand hei unc ionali ies and applica ions [11], and
o imp o e hei ea u es so ha hey can exhibi high esis ance o
mois u e a ack, o hey can wi hs and high empe a u es [12]. Ca bon
ep esen s one o hose ma e ials ha ac as a he me ic seal o p e en
he p esence o hyd ogen in he co e [13], bu i s use would also be o
g ea in e es o o he applica ions in he ield o sensing. Ul ima ely,
ha ing an op ical ibe capable o managing bo h asks −wi hin ele-
communica ions and sensing- simul aneously esul s o g ea in e es , as
i would allow op imizing esou ces, minimizing he le el o in usi e-
ness and educing he ins alla ion complexi y.
In his wo k, we epo on a ca bon-coa ed op ical ibe ha akes
ad an age o i s conduc i e coa ing o ac as an elec onic senso as well.
I consis s o a s anda d single mode ibe (SMF) slee ed in a coa ing ha
is comp ised o wo laye s. The inne and ou e laye s a e made o
ca bon and polyme , espec i ely, in o de o p o ide isola ion and
p o ec ion agains ex e nal elemen s. When such a ibe is subjec ed o
mechanical s ess o bending, he ligh guided h ough he SMF co e
emains unal e ed whe eas he physical p ope ies o he ca bon o he
inne laye o he coa ing change, he eby modi ying i s elec ical
esis ance. The la e is p opo ional o he s ain applied o he ibe .
Thus, one can use he minimally in asi e cha ac e o he ibe o sense
he s ain h ough he elec ical esis ance o he ca bon coa ing,
wi hou a ec ing he in ensi y o he guided ligh .
The easibili y o his ope a ing p inciple is demons a ed h ough
he measu emen o s ain and ib a ions in a low cohe ence Michelson
* Co esponding au ho .
E-mail add ess: [email p o ec ed] (J. Amo ebie a).
Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec
Op ical Fibe Technology
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h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.yo e.2024.103794
Recei ed 6 Feb ua y 2024; Recei ed in e ised o m 21 Ma ch 2024; Accep ed 8 Ap il 2024
Op ical Fibe Technology 85 (2024) 103794
2
in e e ome e in which he e e ence a m consis ed o s anda d SMF
and he a m exposed o he mechanical s ess consis ed o ca bon-coa ed
ibe . Ou se up allowed compa ing elec ical measu emen s ob ained
om he ca bon coa ing wi h op ical measu emen s om he in e e -
ome e , which a e well known o hei accu acy and eliabili y. Resul s
indica e ha elec ical measu emen s beha ed linea ly in all he es ed
ange, and ha hey a e as accu a e as op ical measu emen s, eaching a
sensi i i y o 1.582 mV/
με
in he s ain ange om 0 o 1552.8
με
, and
able o de ec ib a ions down o 100 mHz.
2. Ma e ials and me hodology
The schema ic o he expe imen al se up used in his wo k is shown
in Fig. 1.
In he ollowing subsec ions he ca bon-coa ed ibe and he me h-
odology o elec ical and op ical measu emen s a e desc ibed.
2.1. The ibe
The ca bon-coa ed ibe used in his wo k has been designed and
ab ica ed a RISE Resea ch Ins i u es o Sweden. I has a diame e o
250
μ
m and i is composed o an SMF commonly used in elecommu-
nica ions (nume ical ape u e o 0.14 a 1550 nm) slee ed in wo
di e en coa ings o iden ical hickness (31.25
μ
m each) (see Fig. 2). The
inne coa ing is made o ca bon, whe eas he ou e coa ing is made o
polyme . Thanks o he o me , his ibe can be deployed in ha sh en-
i onmen s such as he ones wi h high le els o adia ion, co osi e
ma e ials o unde sea [14,15], as i a oids he a enua ion caused by
hyd ogen in he abso p ion band close o he ansmission window
a ound 1550 nm [16]. The polyme coa ing p o ides p o ec ion agains
en i onmen al ac o s and elec ically isola es he conduc i e laye .
The use o a ca bon coa ing as a ool o enhance he sensing pe -
o mance o SMFs has been epo ed al eady [17,18]. Howe e , in his
wo k he elec ical esis ance o he ca bon coa ing i sel has been used
o sensing pu poses, as i s a ia ions can be con e ed in o a ol age
le el and measu ed wi h high accu acy, linking i di ec ly o he
pa ame e causing he mechanical s ess o he ibe [19]. Al hough he
elec ical esis ance o he ca bon laye depends on he ab ica ion
p ocess [20], and he mechanical p ope ies o he ca bon-coa ed op ical
ibe depend on he coa ing s uc u e and oughness [21], in he p esen
esea ch hey all emain cons an . Thus, in addi ion o p o iding
p o ec ion, he ca bon coa ing could be also used o sensing, whe eas
he SMF could be used simul aneously o he ansmission o ligh , as
op ical and elec ical signals do no in e e e wi h each o he .
2.2. Elec ical measu emen s
Rega ding elec ical measu emen s, hey we e ca ied ou on a
Whea s one b idge, as he la e is a e y ma u e, eliable and sensi i e
echnique o ol age a ia ion measu emen s. I was esponsible o
con e ing he s ain-dependen esis ance in o ol age and i was con-
nec ed o an oscilloscope (Tek onix TDS 3034) o display and eco d he
incoming signal (see Fig. 1). To ha end, he ca bon-coa ed ibe was
loca ed a one o he legs o he b idge ci cui , which was con igu ed o
be balanced when he ibe was es ing a 0
με
, which was aken as
e e ence poin . In ha case, he ol age d op in he wo edges o he
b idge is iden ical:
VR2−VR3=0(1)
whe e R2 is a s anda d esis ance (R1 is iden ical o R2, and bo h e-
sis ances con o m one o he legs o he b idge), and R3 is a a iable
esis ance so ha he b idge can be easily and p ecisely adjus ed o be
balanced o di e en ca bon-coa ed ibe samples (see Fig. 1), whose
esis ance is named RCa bonFibe .
Such con igu a ion allows measu ing e y small esis ance a ia-
ions. When he ibe is subjec ed o any e ec ha causes a change in i s
impedance, he Whea s one b idge is unbalanced, and he ol age di -
Fig. 1. Schema ic o he expe imen al se up. The mi o s ands a a ce ain dis ance om bo h a ms, whe e he ligh exi ing bo h ibe s is e lec ed and couples again
in bo h ibe s. R s ands o Resis ance and Vsou ce is he ol age supply, ixed a 24 V.
Fig. 2. C oss-sec ion o he manu ac u ed ca bon-coa ed ibe .
J. Amo ebie a e al.
Op ical Fibe Technology 85 (2024) 103794
3
e ence can be measu ed and calcula ed as:
Vou pu =VR2−VR3=Vsou ce(R2
R2+R1
−R3
R3+RCa bonFibe )(2)
whe e Vsou ce is ixed o 24 V. Mo eo e , wi h his con igu a ion, i could
be gua an eed ha he o de o magni ude o he cu en h ough he
ca bon-coa ed ibe would be o mA, a oiding any damage o he ca bon
o he polyme coa ings o he ibe .
A e wa ds, in o de o ampli y he sligh ol age a ia ions, an
ins umen al ampli ie (AD624C) was connec ed a i s ou pu and
con igu ed o p o ide a gain o 500 (see Fig. 3).
Thus, he ol age displayed in he oscilloscope can be exp essed as:
Voscilloscope =500Vou pu (3)
Rega ding he elec ical connec ion be ween he elec ic componen s
o he b idge and he ca bon-coa ed ibe , i was made a bo h ends o he
la e . Fo ha pu pose, he polyme coa ing was emo ed a hose
endpoin s. As a esul o i , pa o he ca bon coa ing was also emo ed,
educing i s hickness o app oxima ely 3
μ
m along a ibe leng h o 5 cm
(see Fig. 4).
The ea e , a ine coppe wi e was wound a ound a ~ 2 cm-long
sec ion o he ca bon-coa ing wi hou polyme in o de o imp o e he
elec ical con ac . Las ly, a con en ional splice p o ec o was he mally
collapsed on he a angemen . This ensu ed low elec ical esis ance and
ugged mechanical suppo o he ibe a achmen o he expe imen al
se up. The ca bon coa ed ibe and SMF we e usion spliced a bo h ends
using a s anda d usion splice . The hin laye o ca bon had no impac
du ing he splicing p ocess.
2.3. Low cohe ence in e e ome e
Op ical measu emen s we e ca ied ou in a low cohe ence Michel-
son ibe in e e ome e , as his expe imen al con igu a ion allows
measu ing op ical and elec ical signals simul aneously o compa ison
pu poses in o de o e alua e he accu acy and eliabili y o elec ical
measu emen s. Low cohe ence in e e ome y is a ma u e non-con ac
sensing echnology, simila o 1D-op ical cohe ence omog aphy, ha
p o ides high sensi i i y, esolu ion and eliabili y [22–24]. In ac , i
has been equen ly used in he indus y o he de ec ion and/o mea-
su emen o pa ame e s o in e es such as p essu e, empe a u e, e c.
[25–28], and also in medical and biological applica ions [29–31].
B ie ly, when a low-cohe ence ligh sou ce is used in such e-
lec ome e s, he in e e ence inge con as peaks when he a m
leng hs a e exac ly equal, and becomes apidly small as he p obe a m
becomes longe o sho e han he e e ence a m. Thus, he in e e ence
pa e n can be displayed by pe iodically s e ching and eleasing he
e e ence a m in a con olled way. In his pa e n, pe iodical cons uc-
i e and des uc i e in e e ences a e shown when maximum and min-
imum in ensi ies a e displayed, espec i ely. As any dis u bance applied
o he p obe a m (such as empe a u e o s ain, o ins ance) shi s he
posi ion o he maximum o he inge pa e n, he in e e ome e is able
o ead in eal ime and wi h mic on-p ecision small shi s caused by he
a o emen ioned dis u bances.
In his wo k, a comme cial piezo s e che was d i en a 50 Hz,
which elonga ed he e e ence a m o he in e e ome e by up o 1 mm
epe i i ely and allowed showing he pa e n in which pe iodical
cons uc i e and des uc i e in e e ences a e shown. The low cohe -
ence in e e ome e used a supe luminescen diode (SLED, DenseLigh
Semiconduc o s) whose ligh was spli in o wo independen pa hs wi h
nea ly iden ical leng h by means o a 50:50 ibe op ic couple (FOC). As
i can be seen in Fig. 1, in his expe imen al se up, only he p obe pa h
included he ca bon-coa ed ibe . A mi o loca ed a app oxima ely he
same dis ance om he GRIN-lensed ibe ends o bo h pa hs e lec ed
he ligh back in o he in e e ome e a ms. Las ly, a pho o ecei e (New
Focus 2053) cap u ed he in e e ence o bo h e lec ed beams, which
was displayed and eco ded in he same oscilloscope (Tek onix TDS
3034) used o elec ical measu emen s.
3. Resul s and discussion
3.1. S ain measu emen s
The i s es consis ed in applying se e al s ain cycles om 0 o
1552.8
με
o he ca bon-coa ed ibe . Fo ha pu pose, he ibe was
ixed ho izon ally, wi h one o i s ends a ached o a mic ome ic
displacemen pla o m ha allowed s e ching and comp essing i
manually in con olled s eps, and he o he end a ached o a ixed
pla o m so ha he ibe was s eady a his poin . The leng h o he
ca bon-coa ed ibe sec ion in he ai and i s elec ical esis ance a he
e e ence le el o 0
με
we e 96.6 cm and 430.95 kΩ, espec i ely (see
Fig. 5).
Rega ding op ical measu emen s, he ange o he in e e ome e
co e ed a s ain span o 207.05
με
, as his was he maximum displace-
men o he spec um ha could be displayed in he oscilloscope wi hou
o e lapping wi h adjacen pa e ns. The la e a e caused by he low
cohe ence and b oadband ligh sou ce used in he se up, which only
p oduces in e e ence inges when he di e ence be ween he wo pa hs
o in e e ing ligh is less han he wid h o i s cohe ence unc ion. This
means ha as he pa h leng h di e ence (o delay in ime) changes,
se e al iden ical inges will appea a he in e e ome e ou pu . The
di e ence be ween he adjacen maximums is a e y p ecise indica o o
he momen when he in e e ome e pa hs a e equal o any gi en
e lec ion [32]. Mo eo e , he b oadband ligh sou ce ha was used in
he expe imen s was a supe luminiscen diode whose spec um is no
Gaussian, and he less Gaussian he sou ce spec um is, he mo e
equen ly peaks appea in he ime domain [33]. As a esul , he ange
o op ical measu emen s was signi ican ly sho e han he elec ically
measu able span, which was o 1552.8
με
. Thus, in o de o compa e
op ical and elec ical signals, he in e e ome e was con igu ed in such
a way ha i s ange s a ed a 1345.75
με
and ended a 1552.8
με
. In his
egion, 5 equidis an s ain poin s we e measu ed (e e y 51.76
με
). On
he o he hand, in he elec ical measu emen s and in he ange om 0 o
1035.2
με
, 3 s ain poin s e e y 517.6
με
we e conside ed.
The s ain cycles ca ied ou o his es and hei esul s o elec-
ical and op ical measu emen s a e summa ized in Fig. 6. Fo elec ical
Fig. 3. Con igu a ion o he AD624C o a gain o 500.
Fig. 4. C oss-sec ion o he ca bon-coa ed ibe once he polyme coa ing
is emo ed.
J. Amo ebie a e al.
Op ical Fibe Technology 85 (2024) 103794
4
measu emen s, in Fig. 6a, 5 consecu i e s ain cycles a e shown,
whe eas in Fig. 6b he a e age o he ol age a ia ion a each es ed
poin is shown. Such a ia ion was calcula ed as he di e ence be ween
he a e age o he eco ded ol age a each es ed poin and he a e age
o he e e ence ol age (<ΔV>=<V>-<V
e
>). Fo op ical measu e-
men s, he en elope o he uppe hal o he inge pa e n shown in
Fig. 6c was acqui ed om he oscilloscope and a locally es ima ed
sca e plo smoo hing (loess) il e was applied o i (see Fig. 6d).
Fo bo h elec ical and op ical measu emen s, he acqui ed signal
was s able in ime, wi hou peaks o luc ua ions. The esul ing cali-
b a ion om his es is shown in Fig. 7.
The calib a ion cu e o elec ical measu emen s o s ain has a
Fig. 5. Schema ic o he expe imen al se up o s ain measu emen s.
Fig. 6. (a) Elec ically measu ed s ain cycles (b) A e age o he ol age a ia ion a each es ed poin (c) Op ically measu ed s ain cycles (d) A e age o he op ical
measu emen s a each es ed poin .
J. Amo ebie a e al.
Op ical Fibe Technology 85 (2024) 103794
5
linea beha io simila o ha ob ained om op ical measu emen s. Fo
elec ical measu emen s, a Pea sons coe icien abo e 0.999 and a
sensi i i y o 1.582 mV/
με
wi h a maximum s anda d de ia ion o 7.94
mV we e ob ained. As a esul , he co ela ion be ween he ol age
a ia ion (in mV) and s ain (in
με
) is as ollows:
με
=631.1ΔV−25.799 (4)
Rega ding op ical measu emen s, he sensi i i y o he in e e om-
e e was 0.0207 ms/
με
wi h a Pea sons coe icien abo e 0.999 as well.
These esul s a e in good ag eemen wi h hose ha can be ob ained
om he ma hema ical models o low cohe ence in e e ome e s in
[22,23] and [24]. This ac demons a es ha he ca bon coa ing does
no a ec he ansmission o ligh and alida es he easibili y o he
p oposed ope a ing p inciple.
3.2. Vib a ion measu emen s
The second es consis ed in subjec ing he ca bon-coa ed ibe o low
equency ib a ions. Such ange is o in e es in se e al applica ions as
s uc u al heal h moni o ing, seismology [34] o he ae onau ical in-
dus y, o ins ance, whe e hese ib a ions a e moni o ed du ing he
in e nal inspec ion o composi es used in lap and wing ab ica ion
[35–37]. As a i s app oach, a segmen o ca bon-coa ed ibe was
su ace bonded o a 30 cm x 3 cm lexible me hac yla e pla e o 1 mm
hickness ha had been ben a an angle o 90◦unde hea . The la e
subs i u ed he a m o he in e e ome e ha had been used o s ain
measu emen s in he p e ious es . In idle s a e, he esis ance o his
sample o ca bon-coa ed ibe was 393.1 kΩ, which was aken as
e e ence. The lowe esis ance alue compa ed o he sample used o
s ain measu emen s (430.95 kΩ) is due o i s sho e leng h. Vib a ions
we e applied o he uppe pa o he me hac yla e pla e by means o a
shake ha was connec ed o a unc ion gene a o (Hewle Packa d
33120A) and an ampli ie (B üel & Kjae ). Fo i s in e oga ion, he
signal om he pho o ecei e was acqui ed wi h he same analog
oscilloscope as be o e (Tek onix TDS 3034), whe eas he signal om
he Whea s one b idge was measu ed wi h a digi al oscilloscope (Pico-
Scope 5000 Se ies) in o de o eco d se e al cycles o ib a ion. The
schema ic o he expe imen al se up is shown in Fig. 8.
The es consis ed o emi ing a sinusoidal wa e o m o 1 Vpp and
a ying i s equency om 5 Hz down o 100 mHz ( he lowes equency
p o ided by he unc ion gene a o ). The esul s a e shown in Fig. 9. In
Fig. 9a, he elec ical signal as a unc ion o ime o he h ee mos
ep esen a i e cases is shown. I can be no iced ha he ca bon-coa ed
ibe has been able o de ec clea ly e e y emi ed equency down o
100 mHz. In Fig. 9b, he FFT o all he es ed cases is shown, which is he
esul o applying a low pass FFT signal il e ing o he signal in ime in
Fig. 9a. The na owness in wid h o he mos p ominen FFT componen
and he low le el o he ha monic componen s should be highligh ed, as
hese cha ac e is ics a e di ec ly ela ed o he pu i y o he acqui ed
signal. In ac , esul s sugges ha i could be possible o measu e
Fig. 7. Calib a ion cu es o (a) elec ical measu emen s om 0 o 1552.8
με
and (b) op ical and elec ical measu emen s om 1345.75 o 1552.8
με
.
Fig. 8. Schema ic o he expe imen al se up o ib a ion measu emen s.
J. Amo ebie a e al.
Op ical Fibe Technology 85 (2024) 103794
6
equencies below 100 mHz wi h his me hod, as he signal o noise a io
(SNR) in he FFT ampli ude o he mos p ominen componen is
signi ican ly bigge han 3 imes he second mos p ominen componen
in all cases. This c i e ion is commonly aken as a ule o de ine he Limi
o De ec ion (LoD) [38].
4. Conclusions
In his wo k, we ha e epo ed on a ca bon-coa ed ibe able o
ope a e as an op ical ansmission medium and as an elec ical senso
simul aneously. I consis s o a s anda d SMF slee ed in a double coa ing
aimed a p o iding p o ec ion and isola ion om ex e nal elemen s.
Such coa ing is comp ised o an inne laye o ca bon and an ou e laye
o polyme o 31.5
μ
m each. When he a o emen ioned ibe is subjec ed
o mechanical s ess, he physical p ope ies o he ca bon laye change
acco ding o i , modi ying i s esis ance p opo ionally. The ol age
a ia ions caused by he o me can be accu a ely measu ed and di ec ly
linked o he pa ame e causing he mechanical s ess. This measu e-
men p ocess does no in e e e wi h he ligh p opaga ing h ough he
SMF, which emains unal e ed.
To demons a e he easibili y o such ope a ing p inciple, s ain and
ib a ion measu emen s we e ca ied ou in a low cohe ence in e e -
ome e in which he e e ence a m consis ed o s anda d SMF and he
a m exposed o he mechanical s ess was comp ised o his ca bon-
coa ed ibe . In his manne , elec ical and op ical signals could be
measu ed simul aneously and compa ed o each o he by means o a
eliable and accu a e echnology such as in e e ome y. Fo s ain,
elec ical measu emen s showed a linea beha io simila o ha om
op ical measu emen s, eaching a sensi i i y o 1.582 mV/
με
in he
ange om 0
με
o 1552.8
με
, whe eas o ib a ions, signals down o
100 mHz we e eco ded clea ly.
Hence, esul s shown he e indica e ha elec ical measu emen s a e
as accu a e as op ical ones wi h he ad an age o no in e e ing o
ha ing impac on he op ical signal, alida ing he easibili y o he
ope a ing p inciple based on using he ca bon coa ing o sensing apa
om p o iding p o ec ion. These ea u es, added o i s handling and
in e oga ion ease and cos -e ec i eness, make ca bon-coa ed ibe s
appealing o be used in applica ions in which using he same ibe
simul aneously o ansmission and sensing is o in e es . Fo ins ance,
o be embedded in ae onau ical composi es, o be deployed in ha sh
en i onmen s as nuclea plan s o subma ine cables, o o s uc u al
heal h moni o ing applica ions, as i allows op imizing esou ces,
minimizing he le el o in usi eness and educing he ins alla ion
complexi y. Al e na i ely, he dual op ical and elec onic measu emen s
may be used o compensa e he concu en empe a u e/s ain sensi i e
o he senso s.
CRediT au ho ship con ibu ion s a emen
Josu Amo ebie a: W i ing – e iew & edi ing, W i ing – o iginal
d a , Visualiza ion, Valida ion, Me hodology, In es iga ion, Fo mal
analysis, Da a cu a ion. Joao Pe ei a: Valida ion, So wa e, Me hodol-
ogy, In es iga ion, W i ing – e iew & edi ing. Ca olina F anciscan-
gelis: Me hodology, P ojec adminis a ion, Supe ision, W i ing –
e iew & edi ing. Gaizka Du ana: Funding acquisi ion, Resou ces, Su-
pe ision, W i ing – e iew & edi ing. Joseba Zubia: W i ing – e iew &
edi ing, Supe ision, P ojec adminis a ion, Funding acquisi ion. Joel
Villa o o: W i ing – e iew & edi ing, Supe ision, P ojec adminis-
a ion, Funding acquisi ion. Wal e Ma gulis: W i ing – e iew &
edi ing, W i ing – o iginal d a , Visualiza ion, Valida ion, Supe ision,
Resou ces, P ojec adminis a ion, Me hodology, In es iga ion,
Concep ualiza ion.
Decla a ion o compe ing in e es
The au ho s decla e ha hey ha e no known compe ing inancial
in e es s o pe sonal ela ionships ha could ha e appea ed o in luence
he wo k epo ed in his pape .
Da a a ailabili y
Da a will be made a ailable on eques .
Acknowledgemen s
This wo k was suppo ed by he g an s I +D +i/PID2021-
122505OBC31, TED2021-129959B-C21, PDC2022-133053-C21,
RTC2019-007194-4 and PDC2022-133885-100 unded by MCIN/AEI/
10.13039/501100011033, by “ERDF A way o making Eu ope”, by he
“Eu opean Union Nex Gene a ion EU/PRTR”. The esea ch wo k is also
suppo ed by he G an No. IT11452-22 and unded by he Basque
Go e nmen , by ELKARTEK 2023 (
μ
4Sma -KK-2023/00016, MINAKU
KK-2022/00080 and Ekohegaz II-KK-2023/00051) and by he Uni e -
si y o he Basque Coun y. The wo k o Josu Amo ebie a is unded by a
PhD ellowship om he Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y.
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