ORIGINAL PAPER
Visi o Mobili y Pa e ns in Cul u al
Des ina ions: Explo ing he Cogni i e
Maps o San Sebas ian and Bilbao,
Inspi ed by Lynch (1960)
Ibon A anbu u1— Bea iz Plaza2— Ma isol Es eban2
1School o Enginee ing, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y UPV/EHU
2Facul y o Economics and Business, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y UPV/EHU
[email p o ec ed]
Abs ac
Lynch’s (1960) Theo y o Imageabili y explo es how indi iduals pe cei e and na iga e u -
ban en i onmen s, emphasizing he ole o pa hs, edges, dis ic s, nodes, and landma ks.
This heo y highligh s he signi icance o hese elemen s in shaping people’s men al maps
and enhancing hei unde s anding and na iga ion o u ban spaces. Howe e , cul u al
ou ism in oduces complexi ies o Lynch’s amewo k due o i s unique mo i a ions, in-
e es s, and beha iou s. This a icle in es iga es he ela ionship be ween isi o mo-
bili y pa e ns and u ban mo phology in he con ex o wo cul u al des ina ions: Bilbao
and San Sebas ian. The s udy u ilizes Ne wo k Analysis o isi o s’ GPS da a o anal-
yse he dynamics o isi o mobili y wi hin hese u ban en i onmen s. This da a-d i en
app oach acili a es a comp ehensi e unde s anding o how cul u al des ina ions ope a e
wi hin hei physical e i o ies. Resul s e eal ha bo h San Sebas ian and Bilbao exhibi
a dis inc ”D-shaped” mobili y pa e n, cha ac e ized by a clea and uncomplica ed low
o mo emen . This inding aligns wi h Lynch’s heo y (1960), emphasizing he impo ance
o simplici y and legibili y in shaping isi o s’ cogni i e maps and men al ep esen a ions
o he u ban space. The concen a ion o cul u al landma ks in he Old Town and he
challenges o conges ion and o e ou ism a e b ough o ligh h ough he ne wo k anal-
ysis o GPS da a. The accompanying igu es isually illus a e how he ease o na iga ion
in hese ci ies signi ican ly con ibu es o he o ma ion o isi o s’ cogni i e maps.
Highligh s o public adminis a ion, managemen and planning:
• The a icle explo es he in e play be ween isi o mobili y pa e ns and u ban mo -
phology ( e e encing Lynch, 1960) wi hin wo cul u al des ina ions: Bilbao and San
Sebas ian.
• We examine he hypo hesis ha cul u al des ina ions may de ia e om Lynch’s
(1960) amewo k.
• To achie e his objec i e, we employ he ollowing h ee me hodologies in ou s udy:
(1) GPS acking o isi o s, (2) Ne wo k Analysis o GPS da a, and (3) isi o su -
eys.
• In his a icle, he emphasis is on “cul u al ou is beha iou & u ban mo phology”
a he han GPS echnology i sel .
• The ne wo k analysis o GPS da a illumina es he clus e ing o cul u al landma ks
in he Old Town, shedding ligh on challenges ela ed o conges ion and o e ou ism
in San Sebas ian.
Keywo ds
Cul u al des ina ions,
Mobili y pa e ns,
Ne wo k analysis o GPS
da a,
Lynch,
Imageabili y,
Bilbao, San Sebas ian,
Cogni i e Map
Recei ed:
18 July 2023
Recei ed in e ised o m:
28 Ap il 2024
Accep ed:
7 May 2024
© Jan E angelis a Pu kyně Uni e si y in Ús í nad Labem 53
A ailable online a con en .sciendo.com GeoScape 18(1) — 2024: 53—65 doi: 10.2478/geosc-2024-0004
1 In oduc ion
S udying he mobili y pa e ns o isi o s in cul u al
des ina ions is essen ial o a ious easons, includ-
ing enhancing he isi o expe ience, planning in-
as uc u e, managing ou ism sus ainably, boos -
ing he local economy, p omo ing sus ainable ans-
po a ion, and p ese ing cul u al he i age. Such
s udies o e aluable insigh s o e ec i e des ina-
ion managemen and os e a ha monious ela ion-
ship be ween ou ism, he local communi y, and he
cul u al asse s o he des ina ion.
One c ucial aspec o conside is he ela ionship be-
ween cul u al ou ism des ina ions and u ban de-
sign p inciples. While explo ing his connec ion,
i is pe inen o inqui e whe he hese des ina-
ions align wi h es ablished amewo ks in u ban
design. Ke in Lynch’s seminal wo k on u ban de-
sign, as ou lined in ”The Image o he Ci y” (1960),
o e s aluable insigh s in o how indi iduals pe -
cei e and na iga e u ban en i onmen s. Lynch’s
amewo k, which includes elemen s such as pa hs,
edges, dis ic s, nodes, and landma ks, p o ides
a obus ounda ion o unde s anding he spa ial
dynamics o ci ies.
Howe e , i is impo an o app oach he in eg a-
ion o Lynch’s concep s wi h cau ion. While his
amewo k o e s a aluable lens h ough which
o examine cul u al ou ism des ina ions, i is
no he only pe spec i e o conside . The e o e,
a he han immedia ely in oducing Lynch’s ame-
wo k, i may be mo e app op ia e o pose a b oade
ques ion abou he ela ionship be ween cul u al
ou ism and u ban design p inciples. Subsequen ly,
Lynch’s concep ualiza ion can be in oduced as one
o he po en ial amewo ks o analysing his e-
la ionship. Addi ionally, explo ing he in luence
o physical a ibu es on Lynch’s heo y o u ban de-
sign can u he en ich ou unde s anding o cul-
u al ou ism des ina ions and hei spa ial cha -
ac e is ics. Cul u al ou is s can exhibi di e en
beha iou s compa ed o wha is ou lined in Ke in
Lynch’s amewo k. While Lynch’s amewo k p o-
ides aluable insigh s in o u ban design and na i-
ga ion pa e ns, i may no ully cap u e he unique
beha iou s and mo i a ions o cul u al ou is s. Cul-
u al ou is s o en ha e speci ic in e es s, such
as isi ing museums, his o ical si es, o expe ienc-
ing local adi ions and a s. Thei beha iou s
can be in luenced by ac o s like pe sonal p e -
e ences, cul u al backg ounds, a el mo i a ions,
and he speci ic cul u al des ina ion hey a e isi -
ing (Th osby 2010).
Cul u al ou is s migh de ia e om Lynch’s ame-
wo k in se e al ways:
Fi s ly, cul u al ou is s may p io i ize speci ic cul-
u al a ac ions o landma ks o e adi ional u -
ban pa hs. They migh choose al e na i e ou es
ha align wi h hei cul u al in e es s a he han
ollowing he main pa hways iden i ied in Lynch’s
amewo k.
Secondly, Lynch’s amewo k emphasizes he ole
o dis ic s, bu cul u al ou is s migh be pa ic-
ula ly d awn o speci ic cul u al dis ic s/clus e s
o neighbou hoods ha o e a concen a ion o cul-
u al expe iences (Jacobs 1969;Gomez-Vega e al.
2022). These a eas migh no align wi h he ypical
bounda ies o u ban dis ic s.
Thi dly, cul u al ou is s o en spend mo e ime
a cul u al a ac ions, such as museums o he -
i age si es, compa ed o he a e age u ban dwelle .
This ex ended dwell ime migh in luence hei na -
iga ion pa e ns and he impo ance hey place
on ce ain nodes o landma ks (A anbu u e al.
2020).
Fou hly, cul u al ou is s o en seek in e ac ions
wi h local esiden s and cul u al communi ies.
This engagemen can in luence hei mo emen s,
as hey migh ac i ely seek ou oppo uni ies o en-
gage wi h local adi ions, a end cul u al e en s,
o pa icipa e in guided ou s led by locals.
Fi hly, cul u al ou is s may be mo e open
o se endipi ous explo a ion, de ia ing om p e-
de ined ou es and allowing o spon aneous dis-
co e ies o lesse -known cul u al si es o hidden
gems ha migh no be pa o es ablished u ban
design pa e ns.
I is essen ial o ecognize ha cul u al ou ism
adds a laye o complexi y o Lynch’s ame-
wo k, as i in ol es speci ic mo i a ions, in e -
es s, and beha iou s. Conside ing hese di e -
ences can help u ban planne s, des ina ion man-
age s, and esea che s be e unde s and and ca e
o he unique needs and p e e ences o cul u al
ou is s, ensu ing ha cul u al des ina ions a e de-
signed and managed e ec i ely o enhance hei ex-
pe iences and sus ainabili y.
We will e alua e he applicabili y o Lynch’s he-
o y by employing h ee me hods such as (1) GPS
acking o ou is s (2) ne wo k analysis o GPS
da a, and (3) isi o su eys. These app oaches en-
able us o examine how isi o s na iga e cul u al
ou ism des ina ions and assess whe he hei mo-
bili y pa e ns align wi h Lynch’s concep ual ame-
wo k (Lynch 1960).
54 © Jan E angelis a Pu kyně Uni e si y in Ús í nad Labem
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1.1 Case S udies: Bilbao and San Sebas ian
The issues o ou is mobili y pa e ns and u ban
mo phology a e examined h ough he case o wo
ci ies: Bilbao and San Sebas ian. Loca ed in Spain’s
no he n Basque egion, nea he F ench bo de ,
hese ci ies ep esen wo dis inc ou ism s o-
ies. Bo h ci ies a e conside ed second- ie ci ies
a he Eu opean le el bu excel as i s - ie des ina-
ions in speci ic cul u al ou is subma ke s.
On he one hand, Bilbao has achie ed global ecog-
ni ion wi h he Guggenheim Museum a ac ing
o e 1,000,000 isi o s annually (Plaza e al. 2022).
I s ands as an iconic case s udy whe e a mu-
seum has been ins umen al in u ban egene a-
ion e o s in ecen yea s (Heiden eich & Plaza
2015). The ci y o Bilbao, loca ed wi hin an hou ’s
d i e om San Sebas ian, has eme ged as a model
o he e i aliza ion o declining u ban and in-
dus ial a eas (Heiden eich & Plaza 2015;Pipan
2018). Following he inaugu a ion o he Guggen-
heim Museum in 1997, Bilbao emb aced cul u al
ou ism as a means o di e si y i s economy and ad-
d ess unemploymen . Despi e i s p e ious epu a-
ion as an old indus ial ci y wi h limi ed ou ism po-
en ial, he Guggenheim Museum Bilbao a ac ed
1,322,611 isi o s in 2017. No ably, he o al num-
be o isi o s o he p o ince o Bizkaia, o which
Bilbao is he capi al, eached 1,500,237 in 2017,
while in he same yea he e we e 1,204,395 isi-
o s o Gipuzkoa, he p o ince whe e San Sebas ian
is loca ed.
On he o he hand, San Sebas ian has become an in-
e na ional e e ence o Michelin S a Che s, hos -
ing 50 pe cen o all h ee-s a Michelin es au-
an s in Spain. Ini ially a seaside eso , San Se-
bas ian expe ienced a signi ican inc ease in ou is
signi icance du ing he 19 h cen u y due o i s sea-
ba hing and spa acili ies. I became Spain’s lead-
ing eso , a ac ing ens o housands o isi o s
by he ea ly 1870s and con inued o g ow o e
he nex hal cen u y (Wal on & Smi h 1994). Pos -
1945, he ci y u he de eloped i s ou ism o -
e ings by inco po a ing leisu e, a , and cul u e.
I in oduced he ”San Sebas ian In e na ional Film
Fes i al” in 1953 and he Heineken Jazz Fes i al
in 1965, bo h o which ha e become some o Eu-
ope’s oldes and mos signi ican cul u al e en s
(F anklin 2016). Mo eo e , San Sebas ian was des-
igna ed as he Eu opean Capi al o Cul u e in 2016.
Addi ionally, i has eme ged as he op Spanish ci y
o Hau e Cuisine, boas ing 17 Michelin s a s wi hin
a 25 km adius om he ci y cen e. By 1997, when
he Guggenheim Museum Bilbao opened, San Se-
bas ian was al eady a ac ing o e hal a million
ou is s annually (516,986 in 1997).
O e all, hese wo ci ies exempli y he ans o -
ma ional powe o cul u al a ac ions and ou ism
in shaping hei u ban de elopmen and economic
g ow h (Plaza & Haa ich 2017).
The pape is s uc u ed as ollows: The subse-
quen sec ion discusses he heo e ical hypo heses
o he a icle. I is ollowed by an explana ion
o he main applied me hodologies used o conduc
he empi ical analysis. Finally, he ob ained esul s
a e p esen ed, and he conclusions a e p o ided.
2 Li e a u e e iew
Ke in Lynch, an u ban planne and heo is a ili-
a ed wi h he Massachuse s Ins i u e o Technology
(MIT), g ea ly in luenced u ban design h ough his
wo k on u ban planning, pe cep ion o he buil en-
i onmen , and he concep o ”imageabili y”. His
1960 book, ”The Image o he Ci y,” is a e e ed
classic in u ban planning li e a u e and in oduced
he concep o imageabili y. Imageabili y pe ains
o he quali y o a ci y’s physical en i onmen , en-
abling i id pe cep ion and ecall among i s inhabi-
an s and isi o s, shaping hei abili y o o m men-
al images o he ci y’s layou , landma ks, and pa hs
(Lynch 1960).
In he con ex o u ban se ings, Lynch (1960;1995)
asse s ha he ease o mobili y and he simplici y
o mo ing a ound a ci y play a c ucial ole in in lu-
encing des ina ion consump ion and i s sus ainabil-
i y. Once ou is s a i e a hei des ina ion, hei
o e all expe ience is g ea ly in luenced by hei
abili y o na iga e he ci y wi h ease.
Lynch’s wo k on pe cep ion aligns wi h Mo loch’s
(2000) no ion o pe cei ed dis ance. Mo loch em-
phasizes ha subjec i e pe cep ion o a jou ney
is in luenced by a ious ac o s, including he qual-
i y o he landscape, p io in o ma ion abou he des-
ina ion, and emo ional s a e. Addi ionally, Mo loch
explains ha pe cei ed dis ance is in luenced by an-
icipa ed di icul ies in mo emen , such as conges-
ion, bad wea he , o poo anspo a ion.
In his con ex , u ban cul u al landma ks play
a signi ican ole in shaping he imageabili y
o a ci y. Landma ks se e as p ominen e e ence
poin s wi hin he u ban ab ic, p o iding dis inc-
i e and ecognizable ea u es. They can become
key elemen s in indi iduals’ men al maps, se ing
as ancho s o ocal poin s o na iga ion and o i-
en a ion. Cul u al landma ks, such as enowned
museums, his o ic si es, o iconic s uc u es, o en
ha e a s ong isual o symbolic p esence ha en-
hances hei imageabili y (Rybe g-Webs e & Kina-
han 2014).
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In line wi h Sco (1997), Plaza e al. (2022) ec-
ognizes he impo ance o semio ic cha ac e is-
ics o symbolic/cul u al goods in shaping spa io-
empo al landscape pe cep ion. Symbolic goods,
including cul u e, he i age, landscape, and cui-
sine, play a signi ican ole in c ea ing associa ions
and econnec ions ha a ec he subjec i e pe -
cep ion o ime and dis ance. This esona es wi h
Asheim e al. (2011), Plaza e al. (2022), Sacco
(2017) and Plaza e al. (2024), who discuss he im-
pac o symbolic associa ions and image econnec-
ions on he pe cep ion o he isi expe ience.
Howe e , in cul u al ou ism des ina ions, ou is s
wi h a speci ic in e es in cul u al a ac ions
o landma ks o en exhibi di e en mobili y pa -
e ns compa ed o adi ional u ban isi o s. These
cul u al ou is s p io i ize explo ing si es ha align
wi h hei cul u al in e es s, which may lead
hem o de ia e om he main pa hways iden i-
ied in Lynch’s amewo k. Ra he han ollowing
he p ede ined u ban pa hs, hey seek al e na i e
ou es ha o e a close connec ion o he cul u al
aspec s o he des ina ion (Al a ado-Sizzo 2016).
This de ia ion om adi ional u ban pa hs can
be a ibu ed o he unique mo i a ions and p e -
e ences o cul u al ou is s. Cul u al landma ks
ha ecei e epea ed media co e age o en gain
public ecogni ion and a ac isi o s, e en i hey
a e no cen ally loca ed wi hin a des ina ion.
The powe o media exposu e can in luence he pe -
cep ion and desi abili y o a place, leading people
o seek ou and isi hese popula ized si es (Plaza
e al. 2022).
In some cases, hese media- ea u ed loca ions may
be si ua ed in pe iphe al a eas o ou ski s o a des-
ina ion, away om he adi ional cen al a eas.
Howe e , hei p ominence in he media c ea es
a sense o in igue and cu iosi y among ou is s,
mo i a ing hem o en u e beyond he ypical ci y
cen e and explo e hese ecognized si es (Richa ds
2018).
The in luence o media ex ends beyond geog aph-
ical cen ali y, as i shapes he pe cep ion and ap-
peal o a place. Media co e age can gene a e buzz
and c ea e a pe cep ion o uniqueness, au hen ic-
i y, o cul u al signi icance associa ed wi h hese
ea u ed loca ions (Cu id & Williams 2010). As
a esul , isi o s a e d awn o hese places, d i en
by he desi e o expe ience o wi ness wha has
been po ayed in he media.
As a esul , he ela ionship be ween isi o mobili y
pa e ns and u ban mo phology in cul u al des ina-
ions may di e om wha is desc ibed in Lynch’s
(1960) amewo k. The amewo k, which p ima -
ily ocuses on he spa ial o ganiza ion and legi-
bili y o u ban en i onmen s, may no ully cap-
u e he in ica e mo emen pa e ns and p e e -
ences o cul u al ou is s. Ins ead, he s udy an ic-
ipa es ha cul u al des ina ions will exhibi de ia-
ions om Lynch’s amewo k, as cul u al ou is s
seek ou unique expe iences and p io i ize hei cul-
u al in e es s o e adi ional u ban pa hs (Lo en-
zen e al. 2008;Plaza e al. 2022).
Unde s anding hese de ia ions and mobili y pa -
e ns o cul u al ou is s is c ucial o des i-
na ion managemen in cul u al ci ies. I en-
ables ou ism s akeholde s o iden i y and p o-
mo e lesse -known cul u al asse s, design special-
ized i ine a ies, and enhance he isi o expe ience
by p o iding ailo ed in o ma ion and guidance. By
acknowledging and accommoda ing he unique mo-
bili y pa e ns o cul u al ou is s, des ina ions can
be e align hei o e ings wi h isi o expec a ions
and c ea e a mo e en iching cul u al ou ism expe-
ience (A anbu u e al. 2020).
When combining he opics o ”ne wo k analysis
o GPS da a” and ”cul u al ou ism,” esea che s
ha e explo ed how ne wo k analysis echniques
can be applied o GPS da a collec ed om cul u al
ou ism con ex s. This allows o a deepe unde -
s anding o he spa ial pa e ns, connec i i y, and in-
e ac ions wi hin cul u al des ina ions (A anbu u
e al. 2020).
3 Da a and me hods:
ne wo k analysis o GPS da a
This pape ocuses on he spa ial dimension o is-
i o mobili y o unde s and which u ban spaces
a e equen ed by ou is s and which loca ions se e
as cen al a ac ions in he ci y.
3.1 Da a
Visi o s’ mo emen s in Bilbao and San Sebas ian
we e cap u ed using GPS acking de ices. The GPS
de ices we e dis ibu ed o isi o s s aying a ho els
o medium o high ca ego y, which we e selec ed
semi- andomly. Pa icipa ion in he expe imen was
olun a y. CIC ou GUNE conduc ed he da a ga h-
e ing p ocess. Visi o s ca ied he GPS de ices
h oughou he day, p og ammed o eco d hei
geoposi ion e e y wo minu es. The s udy esul ed
in a alid sample o 112 ackings, wi h 51 o Bilbao
and 61 o San Sebas ian. The esea ch was con-
duc ed du ing he peak mon hs o cul u al ou ism:
July, Augus , and Sep embe 2019, co esponding
o he summe pe iod. We can con iden ly iden-
i y hem as cul u al ou is s o h ee easons: (1)
56 © Jan E angelis a Pu kyně Uni e si y in Ús í nad Labem
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we conduc ed a su ey, (2) isi o s du ing he sum-
me mon hs ypically engage in cul u al ac i i ies,
and (3) analysis o GPS pa e ns subsequen ly e-
ealed hei p e e ences du ing he isi . The e o e,
he selec ion o isi o s is p edica ed on he assump-
ion ha all ou is s s aying in he selec ed ho els
du ing his pe iod we e mo i a ed by cul u al in-
e es s. This asse ion was la e con i med h ough
analysis o he GPS da a. Addi ionally, ieldwo k was
conduc ed ou side key cul u al e en s aking place
in he des ina ion. Finally, he selec ion o espon-
den s was made h ough a wo-s age andom selec-
ion based on ho el da a: Fi s ly, a andom selec ion
o ho els and secondly a andom selec ion o isi o s
wi hin he selec ed ho els.
The applied analysis me hods we e based on i e
main s eps: 1) P e-p ocessing GPS ackings; 2)
D awing up space consump ion hea maps; 3) De-
ec ing isi ed a ac ions; 4) Composing he isi ed
a ac ion ne wo ks; 5) Quan i ying he impo ance
o ne wo k nodes by means o cen ali y measu es.
GPS da a collec ion me hods o en encoun e e o s
due o incomple e sa elli e co e age. As a esul ,
i is necessa y o clean he GPS acking da a be-
o e analysis by emo ing any in alid da a caused
by poo signal quali y, such as incohe en speeds
and missing alues (Shen & S ophe 2014). A -
e p e-p ocessing he GPS da a, we gene a ed hea
map isualiza ions o examine he spa ial consump-
ion wi hin he ci ies. A hea map is a g aphi-
cal ep esen a ion ha depic s he densi y o do s
on a map, in ou case ep esen ing he geoloca ion
o ou is s.
The geoloca ed acking poin s on he map
do no co espond o speci ic places. The e o e,
i is necessa y o iden i y s op poin s and associa e
hem wi h speci ic loca ions o ex ac he isi ed
a ac ions (Sho al 2008;G inbe ge e al. 2014).
An algo i hm is applied o de ec he s op poin s,
conside ing acking da a as a s op poin i a ou is
emains in one place (dis ance h eshold) o a min-
imum amoun o ime ( ime h eshold).
To iden i y he isi ed a ac ions, he iden i ied s op
poin s a e linked wi h he Open Da a Euskadi (Gob-
ie no Vasco 2012). As e y b ie s ops a e no o in-
e es , i is conside ed ha a ou is is isi ing
an a ac ion only i hey spend mo e han 10 min-
u es wi hin he a ea o in luence o ha a ac ion.
Since many a ac ions do no ha e p ecise bound-
a ies (e.g., he Ei el Towe ), an a ea o in luence
is de ined based on he a ac ion’s ca ego y (mon-
umen s, museums, e c.), ollowing a me hod simila
o ha used by Boh e & Maa (2009). The de e -
mina ion o he a ea o in luence in ol es conduc -
ing es s and simula ions wi h a ying adii o assign
an a ac ion o each de ec ed s op poin . I a s op
poin alls wi hin he a ea o in luence o mul iple
a ac ions, he closes a ac ion is selec ed (Mon-
oliu e al. 2013;Pe ýlo á & Jaššo 2022;Bol ižia
2023).
In some cases, a s op poin may no ma ch any a -
ac ion in he da abase. In such si ua ions, a ho -
ough examina ion o he s op poin is equi ed o de-
e mine i i should be conside ed as a new a ac-
ion and added o he da abase.
A e iden i ying he isi ed a ac ions, a ne wo k
was cons uc ed o analyse he spa ial in e ac ion
among cul u al a ac ions. A ne wo k consis s
o nodes and links, whe e nodes ep esen indi-
idual en i ies wi hin he ne wo k and links ep-
esen he ela ionships be ween hese en i ies.
Spa ial ne wo k analysis ocuses on unde s anding
he s uc u e o ela ionships among spa ial en i ies.
De i ed om g aph heo y, ne wo k analysis aims
o desc ibe he ela ionships wi hin a gi en ne wo k
and employs quan i a i e echniques o gene a e
ele an indica o s and esul s o s udying he ne -
wo k’s cha ac e is ics and he posi ioning o indi-
idual en i ies wi hin i s s uc u e (Shih 2006).
In his s udy, he nodes in he ne wo k ep esen cul-
u al a ac ions, and he links be ween hem signi y
he ela ionship be ween hose a ac ions. The as-
sump ion is ha a connec ion exis s be ween wo a -
ac ions i isi o s end o isi bo h o hem. A sep-
a a e ne wo k is p esen ed o each ci y unde s udy.
In he case o Bilbao, he ne wo k consis s o 9 nodes
o a ac ions wi h 20 links connec ing hem. Simi-
la ly, in he case o San Sebas ian, he ne wo k com-
p ises 11 nodes o a ac ions wi h 36 links be ween
hem. These a ac ion ne wo ks a e undi ec ed,
meaning he connec ions do no ha e a speci ic di-
ec ion, and no weigh s a e applied o he links.
The p ima y goal is o iden i y he p esence o in e -
ac ions be ween a ac ions and analyse he o e all
opology o he ne wo k.
To assess he impo ance o nodes wi hin he ne -
wo ks, ou cen ali y indices we e calcula ed: de-
g ee, be weenness, closeness, and eigen ec o cen-
ali ies. Acco ding o F eeman (1978), deg ee cen-
ali y is de e mined by he numbe o di ec con-
nec ions a node has. Be weenness cen ali y p i-
ma ily measu es he ex en o which a node lies
on he sho es pa hs be ween o he nodes. Close-
ness cen ali y is a measu e o he dis ance be-
ween a node and all o he nodes in he ne wo k.
Las ly, eigen ec o cen ali y gauges he impo -
ance o in luence o a node based on i s connec ions
o o he cen al nodes (Ruhnau 2000). I is impo -
an o no e ha when calcula ing eigen ec o cen-
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ali y, each connec ed node is weigh ed di e en ly
based on hei espec i e connec ions.
Among hese cen ali y measu es, he ones ha bes
e lec he ansac ion cos s o an a ac ion a e Be-
weenness Cen ali y and Eigen ec o Cen ali y.
While he shape o he ci y in luences bo h mea-
su es, Be weenness Cen ali y may be in luenced
by a ious ac o s such as physical ba ie s (slopes,
i e s) o obs acles ha a ec he accessibili y
o pa hways. Addi ionally, Be weenness Cen al-
i y cap u es he connec ion cos s o a ac ions
i hey a e well-connec ed h ough di e en modes
o anspo a ion.
Ano he signi ican index in he ne wo k analysis
is he a e age pa h leng h, which is calcula ed
be ween eachable pai s. This me ic ep esen s
he a e age numbe o s eps along he sho es
pa hs be ween all possible pai s o ne wo k nodes.
I p o ides insigh in o he e iciency o anspo a-
ion wi hin he ne wo k.
3.2 Tools
The GPS da a and geoloca ion o a ac ions we e
s o ed in a Pos g eSQL da abase, u ilizing he Pos -
GIS package o spa ial analysis. The e o e, he p e-
p ocessing and de ec ion o isi ed a ac ions we e
pe o med wi hin Pos g eSQL.
Fu he mo e, he da a on cul u al a ac ions was
ob ained om Open Da a Euskadi (Gobie no Vasco
2012), an open-access da abase ha p o ides de-
ailed desc ip ions and geog aphical coo dina es
o cul u al a ac ions such as museums and mon-
umen s.
To c ea e he space consump ion hea maps,
Lea le o R (Cheng e al. 2017), an open-sou ce
Ja aSc ip lib a y o in e ac i e maps, was em-
ployed. The base map u ilized sa elli e and high-
esolu ion ae ial image y p o ided by Es i, a sup-
plie o GIS so wa e. Lea le and Lea le .Ex as li-
b a ies we e u ilized o plo ing hea poin s and dis-
playing a ac ions on he maps.
Finally, he cen ali y measu es and ne wo k ep-
esen a ion we e ob ained using Gephi, a ne wo k
analysis so wa e (Bas ian e al. 2009). Addi ion-
ally, a GeoLayou plugin was employed, allowing
he g aph o be displayed based on geocoded a -
ibu es and s anda d p ojec ions.
4 Resul s
Space and mobili y a e c ucial ac o s o ou is s
isi ing u ban des ina ions, as hey signi ican ly im-
pac hei o e all expe ience. The spa ial cen al-
i y o ou ism esou ces plays a i al ole, as cul-
u al ou is s end o mo e and consume mainly
wi hin he ci y cen e (Richa ds 2018). Accessibil-
i y and cen ali y a e key de e minan s o he suc-
cess and sus ainabili y o an u ban des ina ion. Pe-
iphe al loca ions o en incu highe ansac ion
cos s due o ac o s such as inc eased anspo a-
ion cos s, sea ch cos s, limi ed specialized inpu s
in p oduc ion, and ewe specialized local consume
goods (Johansson & Quigley 2004). Cen ali y is in-
luenced by a ious ac o s, including in o ma ion
economies, anspo a ion ne wo k densi y, sha ed
in as uc u e, lowe accessibili y cos s, and e-
duced sea ch cos s. In his con ex , cen ali y e e s
o bo h he concen a ion o cul u al ou ism as-
se s (his o ic and cul u al alues, a is ic and a chi-
ec u al pieces, anspo a ion, es au an s, shops,
e c.) and spa ial cen ali y wi hin he ci y cen e.
To analyse he spa ial consump ion o cul u al a -
ac ions, GPS acking da a has been isualized us-
ing a hea map wi h a pu ple- o-yellow colou g a-
dien . The colou in ensi y becomes ligh e as he
densi y o isi s inc eases, wi h he mos equen ly
isi ed cul u al a ac ions ep esen ed by a yellow
colou .
As obse ed in he hea maps o each ci y (Fig.
1and Fig. 2), many o he ho spo s co espond
o he loca ions o cul u al a ac ions. In San Se-
bas ian (Fig. 2), isi o s p ima ily mo e a ound
he Old Town, he ci y cen e, and along he sea-
side p omenade o La Concha. The pic u esque
sea on p omenade, ado ned wi h ees, ga dens,
and benches, o e s a highly appealing walking ex-
pe ience, p o iding scenic iews o he wa e on .
Simila ly, in Bilbao (Fig. 1), he mos popula
a ac ions a e si ua ed in he Old Town, along
he i e side, and on he main s ee (includ-
ing he Guggenheim Museum, Fine A s Museum,
and Plaza Moyua). No ably, hese newly de el-
oped pedes ian a eas in Bilbao a e pa o a com-
p ehensi e u ban egene a ion plan ini ia ed a -
e he 1983 loods, beginning wi h he Old Town
and con inuing in he 1990s wi h he Abandoiba a
a ea whe e he Guggenheim Museum is loca ed.
This u ban egene a ion p ojec signi ican ly al-
e ed he mobili y pa e ns, enhancing accessibili y
o he i e wa e on and expanding pedes ian
walkways along he i e side. As a esul , walka-
bili y (Fig. 1) has g ea ly imp o ed, con ibu ing
o an enhanced quali y o li e in Bilbao, wi h esi-
den s and isi o s enjoying he ib an a mosphe e
and scenic iews o e ed by he e i alized wa e -
on .
Bo h Bilbao and San Sebas ian ha e ela i ely small
ci y cen es, making a el imes, e en by oo ,
58 © Jan E angelis a Pu kyně Uni e si y in Ús í nad Labem
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Fig. 1 Space consump ion by isi o s in he ci y cen e o Bilbao (GPS da a)
sho . Cul u al si es and ameni ies a e easily ac-
cessible wi hin a 30–45 minu e walking dis ance
om any impo an poin in he ci y cen e (Fig. 1
and Fig. 2). Mo eo e , local au ho i ies ha e made
subs an ial e o s o ca e o he needs o indi id-
uals wi h es ic ed mobili y, including he elde ly,
people wi h disabili ies, and amilies wi h child en.
Rega ding he shape o mobili y, bo h des ina ions
exhibi a simple and easily na igable mobili y pa -
e n, o en e e ed o as a ”D-shaped” silhoue e,
aligning wi h Lynch’s heo y (Lynch 1960). This im-
plies ha as ou is des ina ions, San Sebas ian
and Bilbao possess legible and uncomplica ed men-
al maps, making na iga ion s aigh o wa d and e-
ducing ansac ion cos s.
The ans o ma ion o Bilbao’s wa e on h ough
an u ban egene a ion plan, o ins ance, no only
al e ed mobili y pa e ns bu also con ibu ed
o c ea ing a mo e legible and na igable u ban en-
i onmen . The delibe a e design choices in San
Sebas ian’s sea on p omenade simila ly enhance
he legibili y o he ci y, p o iding esiden s and is-
i o s wi h ecognizable landma ks and pa hways
ha con ibu e o a sense o place. In his way,
he GPS mobili y analysis no only unde sco es
he signi icance o u ban wa e on s, bu also p o-
ides empi ical e idence suppo ing Lynch’s he-
o y by showcasing how in en ional wa e on u -
ban planning shapes he legibili y and unc ionali y
o ci ies.
4.1 Ne wo k analysis o GPS da a
The combina ion o GPS acking da a and ne wo k
analysis o e s aluable insigh s o ci y manage s
o enhance hei unde s anding o he cen ali y
o u ban a ac ions, as depic ed in Fig. 3 and Fig.
4. I is wo h no ing ha he size o he nodes in he
igu es is p opo ional o hei Deg ee Cen ali y,
ep esen ing he numbe o di ec connec ions each
node has. Addi ionally, he colo o he nodes ep e-
sen s hei Be weenness Cen ali y alue. The e-
sul s e eal ha he Old Town holds he highes
popula i y and cen ali y in bo h ci ies, as indi-
ca ed by i s highes Be weenness Cen ali y (Ta-
ble 1 and Table 2). Be weenness Cen ali y signi-
ies he numbe o sho es pa hs ha pass h ough
a node.
The calcula ed ne wo k pa ame e s yield simila e-
sul s o bo h ci ies, as indica ed in Table 1 and Ta-
© Jan E angelis a Pu kyně Uni e si y in Ús í nad Labem 59
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Fig. 2 Space consump ion by isi o s in he ci y cen e o San Sebas ian (GPS da a)
ble 2. These indings emphasize he signi icance
o cul u al and he i age asse s in Bilbao, alongside
he na u al asse s p esen in San Sebas ian.
Table 1 Cen ali y measu es o he isi ed a ac ions
in Bilbao
A ac ion nDeg ee nClose-
ness
nBe ween-
ness
Eigen-
ec o
OldTown (n1) 100.00 100.00 13.52 1.000
La Concha (n7) 100.00 100.00 13.52 0.999
Buen Pas o (n8) 80.00 83.33 2.78 0.906
Pue o (n2) 80.00 83.33 4.07 0.892
Mi ama (n9) 80.00 83.33 5.37 0.865
Ku saal (n5) 70.00 76.92 0.37 0.845
Za a (n13) 70.00 76.92 0.37 0.845
Ma ia C is ina (n15) 60.00 71.43 0.00 0.742
Igeldo (n12) 40.00 62.50 0.00 0.510
U gull (n3) 30.00 58.82 0.00 0.392
Chillida (n14) 30.00 58.82 0.00 0.388
In e ms o Deg ee Cen ali y, he Old Town in Bil-
bao has he highes nDeg ee (70 ou o 100), in-
dica ing ha 70% o he isi o s who isi he Old
Town also isi 70% o he o he a ac ions wi hin
a sho walking dis ance (conside ed one s ep in ne -
wo k language). Simila ly, in San Sebas ian, he Old
Town and ”La Concha,” he iconic beach and seaside
o he ci y, bo h ha e he highes nDeg ee (100 ou
o 100).
Rega ding Closeness Cen ali y (which e lec s how
close a node is o all o he nodes), he esul s
a e simila o bo h ci ies. The nodes show ela i ely
simila nCloseness alues, which is unde s andable
conside ing ha he ci y cen es o Bilbao and San
Sebas ian a e no la ge e i o ies, and e en walk-
ing dis ances a e ela i ely sho .
Rega ding Be weenness Cen ali y, he Old Town
in Bilbao has he highes nBe weeness (53.3 ou
o 100), meaning ha 53% o isi o s who ake
he sho es pa h-leng h pass h ough he Old Town
a some poin . In San Sebas ian, he Old Town also
has he highes nBe weeness (13.5 ou o 100). Be-
weeness Cen ali y measu es he connec ion cos s
o nodes wi hin he ou es.
Eigen ec o Cen ali y indica es he in luence
and economic cen ali y o a node. Nodes wi h
eigen ec o alues abo e 0.5 a e conside ed in lu-
en ial. In Bilbao, he mos in luen ial a ac ions
60 © Jan E angelis a Pu kyně Uni e si y in Ús í nad Labem
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Fig. 3 Ne wo k o he mos isi ed cul u al a ac ions in Bilbao
Table 2 Cen ali y measu es o he isi ed a ac ions in San Sebas ian
A ac ion nDeg ee nCloseness nBe weenness Eigen ec o
Old Town (n2) 70.00 58.80 53.30 1.000
Moyua Squa e (n4) 30.00 47.60 15.60 0.561
Edi icio La Bolsa (n11) 20.00 45.50 0.00 0.515
Guggenheim Museum (n10) 20.00 43.50 0.00 0.489
Museo de Bellas A es (n7) 20.00 43.50 0.00 0.489
Bay Sala (n1) 10.00 41.70 0.00 0.329
To e Salaza (n14) 10.00 41.70 0.00 0.329
Windso Kul u gin za (n15) 10.00 41.70 0.00 0.329
Museo del Pescado (n8) 10.00 35.70 0.00 0.186
a e he Old Town (n1), Moyua Squa e (n4), and Ed-
i icio la Bolsa (n11). The Guggenheim Museum
and ”Bellas A es” Museum ha e eigen ec o alues
close o 0.5. In San Sebas ian, he mos in luen ial
a ac ions include he Old Town (n1), La Concha
(n7), Buen Pas o (n8), Pue o (n2), Mi ama (n9),
Ku saal (n5), Za a (n13), and Ma ia C is ina (n15).
The A e age Pa h Leng h is ela i ely small in bo h
ci ies: 1.86 s eps o Bilbao and 1.33 o San Sebas-
ian. This sugges s ha mos a ac ions a e con-
cen a ed in a small a ea, speci ically he ci y cen-
e s, and a e easily eachable by walking. The e
is a posi i e co ela ion be ween public space use
and walkabili y in bo h ci ies.
© Jan E angelis a Pu kyně Uni e si y in Ús í nad Labem 61
