Ci a ion: Ruiz-Apilánez, B.;
O mae xea, E.; Aguado-Mo alejo, I.
U ban G een In as uc u e
Accessibili y: In es iga ing
En i onmen al Jus ice in a Eu opean
and Global G een Capi al. Land 2023,
12, 1534. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
land12081534
Academic Edi o s:
Cla a Ga cia-Mayo and
Almudena Nolasco-Ci ugeda
Recei ed: 1 July 2023
Re ised: 28 July 2023
Accep ed: 31 July 2023
Published: 2 Augus 2023
Copy igh : © 2023 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/
4.0/).
land
A icle
U ban G een In as uc u e Accessibili y: In es iga ing
En i onmen al Jus ice in a Eu opean and Global G een Capi al
Bo ja Ruiz-Apilánez 1,* , Es i xu O mae xea 2and I zia Aguado-Mo alejo 2
1Depa men o Ci il Enginee ing and Building, School o A chi ec u e, Uni e sidad de Cas illa-La Mancha,
45071 Toledo, Spain
2Depa men o Geog aphy, P ehis o y and A cheology, Facul y o A s, Uni e si y o he Basque
Coun y (UPV/EHU), 01006 Vi o ia-Gas eiz, Spain; [email p o ec ed] (E.O.);
i zia [email p o ec ed] (I.A.-M.)
*Co espondence: bo ja. [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac :
Access o g een spaces o e s nume ous bene i s o ci izens and is key o achie ing en i-
onmen al jus ice. This a icle explo es accessibili y o g een in as uc u e (GI) in Vi o ia-Gas eiz,
Spain, he Eu opean and Global G een Capi al in 2012 and 2019. Vi o ia-Gas eiz was selec ed as a
case s udy because i combines ac ions aimed a p omo ing g een in as uc u e in he ci y along
wi h an u ban model ha in ecen yea s has a o ed mo e expansi e u banism. Manha an dis ance
and con igu a ional analysis is used o in es iga e accessibili y o he mos ele an elemen s o
he GI sys em and hei in eg a ion in he u ban issue. Conside ing he ac ual pedes ian mobili y
ne wo k, con igu a ional accessibili y is examined globally and locally wi h 1 km and 300 m adii.
The analysis e eals g ea di e ences bo h in global and local con igu a ional accessibili y ac oss
i y componen s o he GI sys em ha a e g ea e han 0.5 ha and open o public use. I also shows
ha , while almos all inhabi an s (97.9%) eside wi hin 1 km om hese g een a eas, 27.7% o he
popula ion li e mo e han 300 m away. The in es iga ion demons a es he need o imp o e he
ci y’s GI o p o ide uni e sal accessibili y o g een spaces. I o e s use ul me hods ha planning
p o essionals and local adminis a ions can use o assess esiden s’ access o g een a eas and guide
u u e GI ans o ma ion and de elopmen owa ds en i onmen al jus ice.
Keywo ds:
u ban g een in as uc u e; space syn ax; en i onmen al jus ice; accessibili y;
3-30-300 ule; spa ial con igu a ion
1. In oduc ion
The concep o g een in as uc u e (GI) is gaining p ominence in public policies and is
becoming consolida ed as a ecu ing heme wi hin ci y and egional planning heo y and
p ac ice [
1
,
2
]. GI can be de ined as a planned ne wo k o na u al and semi-na u al spaces
ha , in combina ion wi h o he en i onmen al elemen s, p o ide ecosys em se ices and
p o ec bo h u ban and u al biodi e si y [
3
]. Thei ypologies a e mul iple (u ban g een
a eas, pe i-u ban g een a eas, ecological co ido s, and na u al a eas o special p o ec ion)
and so a e hei unc ionali ies [4].
GI con ibu es o main aining he in eg i y o habi a s and suppo s b oade ecological
ne wo ks [
5
]. By inc easing ege a ion co e (na u al, semi-na u al, and a i icial), GI
p omo es biodi e si y and mo e sus ainable landscapes [
6
]. I also expands he a ailabili y
o na u al esou ces, aids in p e en ing na u al disas e s, and imp o es wa e managemen ,
among o he bene i s [
7
,
8
]. GI inc eases he esilience o u ban a eas o clima e change by
imp o ing lood managemen , educing hea s ess, a o ing g ea e coas al p o ec ion,
imp o ing wa e managemen , a o ing ca bon seques a ion and s o age, educing ene gy
use, o p o iding enewable ene gy, among o he ac o s [
9
,
10
]. GI also yields economic
and social ad an ages [
5
,
8
,
10
,
11
]. I can boos in es men s, e alue nea by eal es a e,
gene a e employmen , and p omo e economic ac i i ies ela ed o leisu e and ou ism [8].
Land 2023,12, 1534. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/land12081534 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/land
Land 2023,12, 1534 2 o 30
Access o g een spaces has also been linked o a o able public heal h ou comes [
12
].
S udies ha e ound signi ican associa ions be ween g een space exposu e and a ious
heal h indica o s, including co isol le els, hea a e, blood p essu e, choles e ol, hea a e
a iabili y, diabe es, mo ali y a es, and p egnancy ou comes. GI p o ides a wide ange
o ecosys em se ices ha sus ain and p omo e public heal h, such as imp o ing wa e
quali y, suppo ing local ag icul u e, and p o iding adequa e spaces o g ea e physical
ac i i y and social in e ac ion, wi h a posi i e impac on physical and men al heal h [
5
,
11
].
GI also b ings bene i s in e ms o popula ion well-being and c ime educ ion [
13
]. The
bene i s o g een space a e mo e p onounced among g oups wi h low socioeconomic s a us
and in dep i ed a eas [
12
]. S a egies and in e en ions should be de eloped o maximize
g een space ad an ages o hose mos in need.
Mechanisms explaining he posi i e impac s o g een spaces on li e expec ancy and
mo ali y include he inhe en quali ies o na u al en i onmen s, a salub ious se ing wi h
educed ai pollu an s, empe a u e and noise, oppo uni ies o physical ac i i y, and
enhanced social in e ac ions [
14
]. Bo h su ounding g eene y and access o g een a eas
con ibu e o hese e ec s. Mo eo e , planning ha maximizes accessible g een space
p omo es public heal h, especially gi en ha ex ensi e e idence sugges s ha exposu e o
na u al en i onmen s educes s ess and ch onic diseases [15].
In his ein, Lou [
16
] in oduced he concep o Na u e De ici Diso de , highligh ing
he ad e se impac s o educed ou doo ime o child en and linking i o beha io al
p oblems and heal h issues. This speaks o he conce ning disconnec ion om na u e in
mode n socie y, which con ibu es o global ecosys em deg ada ion. E o s mus p omo e
di ec expe iences in na u e o os e en i onmen al awa eness and e e se his end.
Howe e , some c i ique he emphasis on indi idual esponsibili y, a guing i dis ac s
om unde lying poli ical and economic d i e s o ecological decline [
17
]. A poli ical
ecology pe spec i e challenges he concep o na u e and explo es al e na i e ways o
unde s anding human–na u e ela ionships. As Dickinson [
18
] a gues, add essing oo
causes is c ucial, since a ibu ing child–na u e aliena ion o insu icien exposu e and
echnology o e looks deepe con ibu ing ac o s and dis ega ds indi idual na u e choices.
Accessible u ban g een in as uc u e is essen ial o equi able ci ies, p o iding heal h
and communi y bene i s ha should ex end o all esiden s [
19
]. Sha ed pa ks, ga dens, and
na u e spaces enable ec ea ion, elaxa ion, and social connec ion while p omo ing men al
and physical well-being. These nume ous bene i s highligh he need o ensu e equi y o
access o GI among he popula ion [
7
,
20
,
21
]. Howe e , inequi able access excludes and
isola es ulne able popula ions, deepening en i onmen al injus ice [
15
,
22
]. Ci ies mus
ensu e g een spaces a e easonably accessible in all neighbo hoods, ega dless o income
le el. Doing so enhances quali y o li e o all while enabling inclusi e de elopmen whe e
e e yone can access u ban ameni ies. Thus, i is impo an o p omo e and ul ima ely
p o ide g ea e GI accessibili y, especially o pedes ians, as walking is he mos inclusi e
and sus ainable anspo a ion mode.
Howe e , i is wo h ques ioning wha we conside accessibili y. Thus, accessibili y o
u ban g een spaces is o en measu ed by dis ance, wi h s anda ds ecommending access
wi hin a 5–15 min walk [
7
]. In he ield o u ban planning, wo concep s ad oca ing o
p oximi y and accessibili y o ameni ies ha e eme ged in ecen yea s: he 15 min ci y and
he 3-30-300 ule. The 15-min ci y concep , o iginally p oposed by Ca los Mo eno [
23
],
ad oca es o u ban a eas whe e esiden s can access daily necessi ies wi hin a 15 min walk
o bike ide. This model u ilizes he p inciples o ch ono-u banism and ch ono opia o
eimagine neighbo hood-le el u ban planning, aiming o o ganize in as uc u e and en i-
onmen s o g ea e accessibili y, p oximi y, and human-cen ic design. By maximizing
p oximi y, di e si y, densi y, and ubiqui y, i allows esiden s o p io i ize ime o social
ac i i ies a he han leng hy commu es while wea ing neighbo hoods in o a cohesi e
u ban ab ic. This app oach cons uc s li able and sus ainable communi ies whe e essen-
ials a e accessible h ough ac i e mobili y. Ad oca es p esen his adap able amewo k
as op imizing land use and balancing li abili y wi h ecology [
24
]. Howe e , c i ics like
Land 2023,12, 1534 3 o 30
Glaese [
25
] a gue i es ic s he di e si y o in e ac ions and exchanges wi hin ci ies,
hinde ing social mobili y and economic dynamism and con ining ad an ages mainly o
al eady p i ileged a eas.
To ensu e a ai and accessible dis ibu ion o ees and g een spaces, u ban planne s
a e inc easingly ad oca ing o he implemen a ion o he 3-30-300 ule, which was i s
p oposed in ea ly 2021 by Cecil Konijnendijk, a p o esso o u ban o es y a he Uni e si y
o B i ish Columbia [
26
]. Konijnendijk in oduced he ule as a simple, e idence-based
a ge o guide he planning and expansion o u ban o es s and g een spaces. Since i s
in oduc ion, he ule has gained suppo om ci ies and o ganiza ions as an impac ul,
e idence-based a ge o expand u ban o es s and g een in as uc u e [27].
This ule se s speci ic h esholds aimed a maximizing he bene i s o p oximi y o
na u e. I en ails ensu ing ha e e y home has a minimum o h ee ees wi hin iew, ha
a minimum ee canopy co e age o 30% is achie ed in each dis ic , and ha no esidence
is loca ed mo e han 300 m away om he nea es pa k o g een space. The p omo ion
o his ule aims o c ea e a mo e equi able en i onmen wi h enhanced access o na u e
o all esiden s [
28
,
29
]. E idence also shows ha adhe ence o he ule is associa ed wi h
imp o ed men al heal h, especially o women and young people [28,29].
Along wi h his, he 3-30-300 ule is, a he same ime and hanks o i s simplici y, a
powe ul communica ion ool and a s aigh o wa d ins umen ha local adminis a ions
can implemen and adap o each e i o ial con ex , b inging isibili y o he impo ance o
u ban g eening. Implemen a ion equi es adjus men s o con ex . The ule p o ides clea
g eening a ge s, enabling p og ess acking. I s memo able o ma gal anizes s akeholde
suppo . Bo h e idence-based and adap able, his s aigh o wa d guideline can d i e
s a egic u ban g eening o enhance well-being [29].
Howe e , g een space a ailabili y di e s geog aphically, wi h mo e access o highe
compa ed o lowe socioeconomic g oups. This cons i u es an en i onmen al jus ice
issue [7]
. Mo eo e , u ban g eening p ojec s in ended o inc ease access can pa adoxi-
cally lead o “g een gen i ica ion” by displacing lowe -income o iginal esiden s who lose
access. E alua ing and add essing hese accessibili y inequi ies is c ucial o ci ies o p o-
ide g een space bene i s o all. Resea ch mus examine how condi ions and ede elopmen
con ex s can p omo e o obs uc access o quali y g een spaces ega dless o housing o
income. Iden i ying he speci ic quali ies o g een spaces ha mee communi y needs is
key, as is unco e ing any exclusion o displacemen om new ameni ies. Analyses o how
di e se esiden s’ use and alue o u ban na u e is should in o m he planning o inclusi e,
esponsi e in as uc u e a ailable o all. The goal should be maximizing equi able access,
no enabling gen i ica ion [30].
Ou s udy aims o in es iga e whe he he design o he u ban layou , in luenced by he
ci y’s mo phology and he choice o a compac u ban model, can a ec accessibili y o g een
a eas. We will p opose a me hodology based on space syn ax o measu e accessibili y o
g een in as uc u e, selec ing Vi o ia-Gas eiz as ou case s udy due o i s cha ac e is ics as a
medium-sized ci y ha has ecen ly p io i ized he enhancemen o i s g een in as uc u e.
Mo eo e , o e he pas wo decades, he ci y has expe ienced signi ican expansion, gi ing
ise o new pe iphe al neighbo hoods ha adhe e o a less dense u ban de elopmen
model in con as o he adi ional compac u banism ha cha ac e ized i s his o ical
e olu ion. By applying his me hodology, we seek o unco e how he u ban model may
in luence accessibili y o g een spaces, po en ially leading o unequal access o he en i e
popula ion. The ci y o Vi o ia-Gas eiz, in Spain has s ood ou o i s ac ions in a o
o sus ainable de elopmen , which has ea ned i in e na ional ecogni ion o i s good
p ac ices (2012 Eu opean G een Capi al and 2019 Global G een Capi al). One o i s mos
emblema ic p ojec s is he so-called g een bel , in ended as he backbone o he ci y’s GI
ne wo k. I aims o connec wi h (a) mos o he g een a eas wi hin he ci y, (b) he so-
called yellow bel ha includes he ag icul u al lands a ound he ci y, and (c) he cu en ly
paused highlands bel p ojec , which would ha e linked mo e pe iphe al na u al spaces
Land 2023,12, 1534 4 o 30
ia ecological co ido s [
31
,
32
]. The highlands bel p ojec was hal ed due o insu icien
poli ical will o implemen a ion.
The aim o his in es iga ion is o analyze pedes ian accessibili y o he g een bel and
he mos ele an componen s o he u ban GI wi hin he whole ci y o Vi o ia-Gas eiz by
ocusing bo h on he spa ial con igu a ion o he walkable s ee and public space ne wo k
o iden i y di e ences in GI accessibili y ac oss he municipali y, wi h he u he aim o
examining po en ial dispa i ies in access among he popula ion. We add ess hose objec i es
om en i onmen al jus ice app oaches [
33
], conside ing ha he en i e popula ion has
he igh o li e in a eas wi h a su icien deg ee o accessibili y o GI gi en he bene i s i
b ings.
The pape is s uc u ed ollowing he In oduc ion, Me hods, Resul s, and Discussion
model (IMRaD model) wi h a u he conclusi e sec ion. A e he in oduc ion ha
includes he abo emen ioned esea ch objec i es, in he nex sec ion we desc ibe he case
s udy, he esea ch me hods and ools, as well as ou sou ces o in o ma ion. Nex , we
p esen he esul s de i ed om he analysis. In he Sec ion 4, we ho oughly discuss
he esul s and iden i y he main limi a ions o he esea ch. Las ly, in he Sec ion 5, we
syn hesize he key con ibu ions o he Space Syn ax me hodology and p opose u u e
esea ch di ec ions.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
2.1. Case S udy: The GI o Vi o ia-Gas eiz, a Eu opean and Global G een Capi al
Vi o ia-Gas eiz is he capi al o he Basque Coun y egion in Spain (Figu e 1). I has a
popula ion o 248,087 inhabi an s and a popula ion densi y o 898 inhabi an s/km
2
. I is a
high-income ci y wi h a G oss Domes ic P oduc pe capi a o EUR 36,268. Vi o ia-Gas eiz
has a dynamic se ice-based economy, hough manu ac u ing emains ele an , comp ising
27.3% o indus ial G oss Value Added. [34].
Land 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 o 32
paused highlands bel p ojec , which would ha e linked mo e pe iphe al na u al spaces
ia ecological co ido s [31,32]. The highlands bel p ojec was hal ed due o insu icien
poli ical will o implemen a ion.
The aim o his in es iga ion is o analyze pedes ian accessibili y o he g een bel
and he mos ele an componen s o he u ban GI wi hin he whole ci y o Vi o ia-Gas eiz
by ocusing bo h on he spa ial con igu a ion o he walkable s ee and public space ne -
wo k o iden i y di e ences in GI accessibili y ac oss he municipali y, wi h he u he
aim o examining po en ial dispa i ies in access among he popula ion. We add ess hose
objec i es om en i onmen al jus ice app oaches [33], conside ing ha he en i e popu-
la ion has he igh o li e in a eas wi h a su icien deg ee o accessibili y o GI gi en he
bene i s i b ings.
The pape is s uc u ed ollowing he In oduc ion, Me hods, Resul s, and Discussion
model (IMRaD model) wi h a u he conclusi e sec ion. A e he in oduc ion ha in-
cludes he abo emen ioned esea ch objec i es, in he nex sec ion we desc ibe he case
s udy, he esea ch me hods and ools, as well as ou sou ces o in o ma ion. Nex , we
p esen he esul s de i ed om he analysis. In he Sec ion 4, we ho oughly discuss he
esul s and iden i y he main limi a ions o he esea ch. Las ly, in he Sec ion 5, we syn-
hesize he key con ibu ions o he Space Syn ax me hodology and p opose u u e e-
sea ch di ec ions.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
2.1. Case S udy: The GI o Vi o ia-Gas eiz, a Eu opean and Global G een Capi al
Vi o ia-Gas eiz is he capi al o he Basque Coun y egion in Spain (Figu e 1). I has
a popula ion o 248,087 inhabi an s and a popula ion densi y o 898 inhabi an s/km2. I is
a high-income ci y wi h a G oss Domes ic P oduc pe capi a o EUR 36,268. Vi o ia-Gas-
eiz has a dynamic se ice-based economy, hough manu ac u ing emains ele an , com-
p ising 27.3% o indus ial G oss Value Added. [34].
Figu e 1. Loca ion o he municipali y o Vi o ia-Gas eiz ( igh ), capi al o he Basque Coun y, in
he A aba p o ince (middle), which is one o he smalle peninsula p o inces o Spain (le ).
The Basque capi al is in he cen e o a la ge plain, which is also he la ges egion in
he p o ince o Ala a. F amed by he Vi o ia-Gas eiz Sie a o he sou h and he Badaia
Sie a and A a o Sie a o he no hwes , he municipali y encompasses he cen al u ban
a ea and 63 local en i ies― e y small u al se lemen s wi hin he municipali y limi s ha
possess ull adminis a i e and managemen au onomy. Vi o ia-Gas eiz is su ounded by
a g een bel beyond which mos o he land is ag icul u al, excep o a la ge indus ial
s a e o he wes . This means ha 73.6% o i s o al su ace a ea (27,630 hec a es) co e-
sponds o unde eloped us ic land [35]. The Zado a Ri e c osses he ci y om no heas
o wes , bu nume ous s eams and b ooks also low h ough he municipali y, some o
hem unde g ound [36] (Figu e 2).
Figu e 1.
Loca ion o he municipali y o Vi o ia-Gas eiz (
igh
), capi al o he Basque Coun y, in he
A aba p o ince (middle), which is one o he smalle peninsula p o inces o Spain (le ).
The Basque capi al is in he cen e o a la ge plain, which is also he la ges egion in
he p o ince o Ala a. F amed by he Vi o ia-Gas eiz Sie a o he sou h and he Badaia
Sie a and A a o Sie a o he no hwes , he municipali y encompasses he cen al u ban
a ea and 63 local en i ies— e y small u al se lemen s wi hin he municipali y limi s ha
possess ull adminis a i e and managemen au onomy. Vi o ia-Gas eiz is su ounded by a
g een bel beyond which mos o he land is ag icul u al, excep o a la ge indus ial s a e
o he wes . This means ha 73.6% o i s o al su ace a ea (27,630 hec a es) co esponds
o unde eloped us ic land [
35
]. The Zado a Ri e c osses he ci y om no heas o
wes , bu nume ous s eams and b ooks also low h ough he municipali y, some o hem
unde g ound [36] (Figu e 2).
The Old Town dis ic (01) si s a op a hill as Vi o ia-Gas eiz’s co e. I has a dis inc i e
almond shape wi h a s ee ne wo k ha has i s main and longes s ee s in he no h–sou h
di ec ion, whe e he slope is gen le . They a e pe pendicula ly c ossed by na owe alleys
in he Ensanche dis ic (02). Vi o ia-Gas eiz did no expand beyond he Old Town dis ic
Land 2023,12, 1534 5 o 30
(01) un il he la e 18 h cen u y, when unplanned ex ensions began en a i ely. O e he nex
cen u y, mo e planned g ow h occu ed h ough a 19 h cen u y Ensanche common o many
Spanish p o incial capi als. In he ea ly 20 h cen u y, an uppe -middle class ga den subu b
was buil [
37
]. I was no un il he 1950s ha accele a ed indus ializa ion led o exponen ial
popula ion g ow h [
38
], spu ing new wo king-class dis ic s. The i s comp ehensi e ci y
plan was app o ed in 1956, and i quickly became obsole e in he ace o wha was he
g ea es ela i e popula ion g ow h in he whole coun y.
Land 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 o 32
Figu e 2. O hopho o o Vi o ia-Gas eiz wi h dis ic dis ibu ion and limi s (numbe ed om 01 o
30), as well as GI componen s. Co e elemen s a e labeled and main nodes and seconda y nodes
g ea e han 0.5 hec a es and open o public use a e numbe ed as 1.NN and 2.NN, espec i ely,
acco ding o hei GI code.
The Old Town dis ic (01) si s a op a hill as Vi o ia-Gas eiz’s co e. I has a dis inc i e
almond shape wi h a s ee ne wo k ha has i s main and longes s ee s in he no h–
sou h di ec ion, whe e he slope is gen le . They a e pe pendicula ly c ossed by na owe
alleys in he Ensanche dis ic (02). Vi o ia-Gas eiz did no expand beyond he Old Town
dis ic (01) un il he la e 18 h cen u y, when unplanned ex ensions began en a i ely.
O e he nex cen u y, mo e planned g ow h occu ed h ough a 19 h cen u y Ensanche
common o many Spanish p o incial capi als. In he ea ly 20 h cen u y, an uppe -middle
class ga den subu b was buil [37]. I was no un il he 1950s ha accele a ed
Figu e 2.
O hopho o o Vi o ia-Gas eiz wi h dis ic dis ibu ion and limi s (numbe ed om 01 o 30),
as well as GI componen s. Co e elemen s a e labeled and main nodes and seconda y nodes g ea e
han 0.5 hec a es and open o public use a e numbe ed as 1.NN and 2.NN, espec i ely, acco ding o
hei GI code.
Land 2023,12, 1534 6 o 30
Besides he ga den subu b, Vi o ia-Gas eiz’s expansions emained ela i ely compac
un il he cons uc ion o he A iaga-Lakua dis ic (24) in he 1970s. I was no un il
he 21s cen u y eal es a e boom ha he ci y sp awled a a much lowe densi y and
occupied a disp opo iona e amoun o land due o he cons uc ion o he new subu bs
o Zabalgana (29), Salbu ua (30), and Goikola a (31). These ex ensions well su passed
popula ion g ow h. Due o his sp awl, e en he ci y’s acclaimed sus ainabili y policies o
he 2010s, including sus ainable mobili y and GI policies, ha e come in o ques ion.
The ci y, howe e , con inues o s and ou o i s abundan u ban g een a eas, cycle-
o ien ed mobili y, and sus ainabili y leade ship om agencies like he Cen e o En i-
onmen al S udies. The g een bel emains he ci y’s lagship g een in as uc u e p ojec ,
which was o iginally p oposed in he 1986 ci y plan. This pionee ing plan aimed o com-
ple e he u ban g een space sys em by inco po a ing nea ly 300 hec a es o bo de ing o es s
and na u al ese es [31].
The g een bel comp ises ou pa ks (A men ia, Ola izu, Salbu ua, and Zabalgana),
wo linea pa ks along he Aleg ía Ri e and Zado a Ri e (di isible in o ou sec ions by
leng h), and he Las Ne e as hills (Figu e 2). This pe ime al g een s ip emains incomple e.
Since i s o maliza ion in 1992, speci ic ac ions in each pa k ha e imp o ed na u al alues
and public usage sui abili y, es o ing deg aded a eas close o he ci y and de eloping
en i onmen al educa ion ac i i ies. Designed o encou age ecological connec i i y and
ecosys em se ices, e o s ha e ocused on adap ing he Zado a Ri e ’s passage h ough
he ci y o mi iga e ecu en looding in he indus ial no heas dis ic (26).
O e he yea s, i expanded o include he la e 1990s es o a ion o he Salbu ua
we lands and he subsequen inco po a ion o he Zado a Ri e Linea Pa k, along wi h
hyd aulic adjus men s o mi iga e equen looding (Figu e 3). Connec ions be ween
pa ks we e also es ablished. The p ojec p ima ily ocuses on conse ing and es o ing
pe i-u ban spaces, in eg a ing hem in o he u ban landscape, and linking hem o he
na u al en i onmen . I encompasses ecological, social, and economic objec i es, including
p omo ing public use o he spaces o imp o e en i onmen al awa eness and educa ion
among esiden s [
31
,
39
]. Recen addi ions include he Ola izu Bo anical Ga den and he
Basaldea ecological ag icul u e p ojec . Cu en ly, he p ojec has nea ly comple ed i s
o iginal p oposal, co e ing o e 830 hec a es and a pe ime e o 35 km.
Despi e he p ojec ’s achie emen s, challenges emain, pa icula ly ega ding ongoing
p essu e o u baniza ion in he sou he n egion, which h ea ens aluable land wi hin
he p ojec a ea. Howe e , i s success s ems om an inno a i e socio-ecological planning
app oach, aiming o p ese e and es o e na u al spaces while c ea ing new unc ions
bene i ing he ci y and inhabi an s. This includes es o ing ecological connec i i y, man-
aging u ban g ow h, and p omo ing compac ness. The p ojec is concei ed as a complex
socio-ecological sys em anscending adi ional u ban planning ha ad oca es o new
app oaches, mechanisms, and amewo ks ha acili a e ci y–na u e in eg a ion and ensu e
ha monious coexis ence and sus ainabili y [33].
O e he pas decades, accessibili y o he G een Bel has ma kedly imp o ed hanks o
he ongoing inco po a ion o new spaces and expanded in e connec ions be ween i s co e
elemen s. Municipal policies p omo ing sus ainable mobili y ha e played a pi o al ole
in his p og ess. Ini ia i es like expanding he bicycle lane ne wo k, os e ing pedes ian
ou es, and implemen ing measu es o pedes ianiza ion and a ic calming ac oss he
ci y ha e helped enhance access o he G een Bel . These e o s ha e cul i a ed a mo e
sus ainable and accessible en i onmen o esiden s and isi o s alike. Howe e , he ci y’s
GI encompasses mo e han jus he g een bel . The se o g een a eas, pa ks and ga dens,
ee co e age, u ban o cha ds, and o he semi-na u al a eas now accoun o 33% o he
u ban a ea, which has allowed o a a io o 45 m
2
o g een spaces pe inhabi an o be
achie ed [40].
Land 2023,12, 1534 7 o 30
Land 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 o 32
o he u ban a ea, which has allowed o a a io o 45 m2 o g een spaces pe inhabi an o
be achie ed [40].
Figu e 3. Some examples o he e olu ion o he g een bel : (a) Ola izu Pa k in 1991; (b) Ola izu Pa k
in 2022 wi h he bo anical ga den and a bo e um buil ; (c) Salbu ua Pa k in 1991; (d) Salbu ua Pa k
Figu e 3.
Some examples o he e olu ion o he g een bel : (
a
) Ola izu Pa k in 1991; (
b
) Ola izu Pa k
in 2022 wi h he bo anical ga den and a bo e um buil ; (
c
) Salbu ua Pa k in 1991; (
d
) Salbu ua Pa k
in 2022 wi h he we land es o ed; (
e
) Zabalgana Pa k in 1991; (
) Zabalgana Pa k in 2022 wi h he
g a el pi s es o ed; (
g
) Zado a Ri e Linea Pa k in 1991; (
h
) Zado a Ri e Linea Pa k in 2022
wi h hyd aulic adap a ion o he Zado a Ri e .
Land 2023,12, 1534 8 o 30
The ecei ed unding has also been an impo an aspec in he de elopmen and ongo-
ing expansion o he g een in as uc u e in he ci y. O e he yea s, he p ojec has been
able o ake ad an age o di e en unding oppo uni ies. One o he i s ac ions, he 1998
es o a ion o he A cau e pond in Salbu ua Pa k, was made possible hanks o Eu opean
Union inancing. In 2002, unding was ob ained om he Eb o Ri e Basin Au ho i y o
he execu ion o he i s phase o he Hyd aulic Adap a ion and En i onmen al Res o a ion
P ojec o he Zado a Ri e as i passes h ough Vi o ia-Gas eiz. The Biodi e si y Founda-
ion o he Go e nmen o Spain inanced he INBIOS p ojec o inc ease biodi e si y in he
Salbu ua we lands.
In 2006, h ough he IZARTU p og am o he Basque go e nmen , a p og am dedica ed
o inancing u ban ehabili a ion p ojec s, he expansion o an ecological o cha d acili y
was inanced in he Zado a Ri e Linea Pa k [
41
]. The Eu opean Commission, h ough
he LIFE p og amme 2014–2019, inanced a p ojec o he conse a ion o Eu opean mink.
Mos ecen ly, unds ha e been ecei ed om he Basque go e nmen , as well as om he
Reco e y, T ans o ma ion, and Resilience Plan, o ca y ou a ious ac ions in he g een
ing wi hin he amewo k o he Tou ism Sus ainabili y Plan in Vi o ia-Gas eiz.
Vi o ia-Gas eiz’s GI sys em and de elopmen s a egy [
40
] is di ided in o h ee ypes
o elemen s: co es, nodes, and connec o s (Figu es 3and 4). The g een bel pa ks comp ise
he co e elemen s. Nodes a e in e io open spaces wi h signi ican ege a ion, like dis ic
pa ks, smalle g een a eas, acan plo s, and o he acili ies se ing GI unc ions, such
as ceme e ies, school ya ds, spo s acili ies, o pa king lo s. Nodes ha e h ee ypes:
main, seconda y, and di use (discon inuous). Connec o s a e linea elemen s p o iding
ecological connec i i y (ei he lu ial o non- lu ial) o aling 100 km. O all he elemen s,
we will in es iga e he mos ele an ones, namely publicly accessible co es and main and
seconda y nodes o e 0.5 hec a es which hus mee he minimum size ecommended by
he WHO Regional O ice [42].
Table 1lis s and p o ides basic cha ac e is ics o hese elemen s o he GI sys em. A
coding sys em iden i ies he a ious elemen s comp ising Vi o ia-Gas eiz’s g een in as-
uc u e ne wo k. Elemen s s a ing wi h 0 designa e co e componen s o he g een bel .
Elemen s s a ing wi h 1 indica e main nodes, he key public g een spaces. Elemen s s a -
ing wi h 2 a e seconda y nodes, addi ional accessible g een spaces. This coding ca ego izes
he g een bel pa ks, p ima y u ban g een spaces, and supplemen a y u ban g een spaces
ha make up he o e all g een in as uc u e sys em.
2.2. Space Syn ax, Spa ial Accessibili y, and Residen s’ P oximi y o G een A eas
Space syn ax is a se o heo ies and ools, c ea ed by Hillie and Hanson in he 1970s,
ha seeks o analyze he in luence o he con igu a ion o space in he c ea ion o highe
quali y, be e connec ed, and mo e u ilized a chi ec u al and u ban spaces, hus seeking
o unde s and he ela ionship be ween he buil en i onmen and he social ac i i y in
i [
43
]. I can be applied a di e en scales, om a building space o he u ban- e i o ial
scale [
44
]. The s a ing poin is ha socie ies use he en i onmen as an essen ial and
necessa y esou ce o hei o ganiza ion, bu ha he ela ionship be ween he wo is
dynamic as one changes and es uc u es he o he [
45
,
46
]. Thus, he con igu a ion o
space is di ec ly ela ed o how people pe cei e and use i [
47
]. This, in u n, can p o ide
insigh in o he e ec s ha spa ial con igu a ion p esen s on a ious social a iables [
46
,
48
].
Howe e , i can be applied o any en i onmen as i is no in luenced by he social, poli ical,
o cul u al con ex , ins ead only in luenced by he spa ial con igu a ion.
The analysis u ilizes a g aphic model ep esen ing s ee s and he public space ne wo k
a ailable o pedes ians ( wo igu es a e Figu e 5). The model consis s o s aigh
lines deno ing po en ial pedes ian mo emen pa hs. They all cons i u e a ne wo k o
spa ial elemen s ha can be analyzed quan i a i ely. Thus, he ole o each space in
he con igu a ion o he sys em can be de e mined ei he h ough global analysis ha
examines he whole sys em o h ough local analysis ha s udies each componen in
ela ion o segmen s wi hin a gi en dis ance [
47
,
49
]. A key concep in space syn ax analysis
Land 2023,12, 1534 9 o 30
is in eg a ion, which is a measu emen o he deg ee o spa ial accessibili y o a gi en space
in he whole o pa o he ne wo k. This con igu a ional analysis allows us o iden i y he
spa ial accessibili y o each space in ela ion o mo emen pa e ns [50].
Table 1. Mos ele an elemen s o Vi o ia-Gas eiz’s GI sys em.
GI Code GI Name GI Type G een A ea (ha)
0.01 Zabalgana Co e (G een Bel ) 71.6
0.02 A men ia Co e (G een Bel ) 157.8
0.03 Ola izu Co e (G een Bel ) 124.1
0.04 Las Ne e as Co e (G een Bel ) 29.3
0.05 E ekaleo Co e (G een Bel ) 17.7
0.06 Salbu ua Co e (G een Bel ) 218.8
0.07 Aleg ía Co e (G een Bel ) 11.8
0.08 Zado a Eas Co e (G een Bel ) 39.1
0.09 Zado a No heas Co e (G een Bel ) 87.4
0.10 Zado a No hwes Co e (G een Bel ) 38.5
0.11 Zado a Wes Co e (G een Bel ) 23.9
1.01 Salinillas de Bu adon Main Node 14.5
1.02 Bo inbizka a Main Node 6.1
1.03 Lakuabizka a Main Node 8.1
1.04 Lakua Ibaiondo Main Node 1.6
1.05 A men ia Fields Main Node 1.8
1.06 Mendizabala Main Node 11.2
1.07 El P ado Main Node 3.6
1.08 San Ma ín Main Node 8.1
1.09 A iaga Main Node 17.7
1.11 La Flo ida & Ca hed al Main Node 5.4
1.12 Ma ía de Maez u Main Node 3.3
1.13 Mau ice Ra el Ga dens Main Node 3.5
1.14 Molinue o Main Node 4.5
1.16 Judimendi Main Node 2.5
1.17 A anbizka a Main Node 6.7
1.18 A ana Main Node 4.3
1.19 San a Lucía Main Node 6.2
1.20 Eas Main Node 3.9
1.21 Gama a Main Node 19.4
1.23 Michelín Main Node 14.1
2.01 Ma i u i Seconda y Node 3.5
2.04 E xeza a Seconda y Node 2.7
2.05 Los Go os Seconda y Node 3.5
2.07
Donan es de Sang e Squa e
Seconda y Node 2.6
2.08 Txago i xu Seconda y Node 3.2
2.09 Gazalbide Seconda y Node 3.1
2.10 Conse a o io Seconda y Node 2.6
2.11 Cons i ución Seconda y Node 1.1
2.12 Ca alunya Squa e Seconda y Node 1.5
2.14 Ge a do A mes o Seconda y Node 0.5
2.15 Bule a Abendaño Seconda y Node 0.8
2.24 Simón Bolí a Seconda y Node 1.2
2.25 Llodio Squa e Seconda y Node 2.4
2.26 Za amaga Seconda y Node 2.7
2.30 Ae opue o Viejo Seconda y Node 2.1
Land 2023,12, 1534 16 o 30
blocks aligned and sepa a ed by small open spaces. I also ea u es a cen al squa e and a
mino g een a ea and bo de s a small sou he n boule a d. Due o i s con igu a ion and
mo phology, E ekaleo has poo global in eg a ion.
Land 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 o 32
Spain’s la ges squa ed dis ic , comp ised o elonga ed, na ow, h ee-s o y ees anding
blocks aligned and sepa a ed by small open spaces. I also ea u es a cen al squa e and a
mino g een a ea and bo de s a small sou he n boule a d. Due o i s con igu a ion and
mo phology, E ekaleo has poo global in eg a ion.
Figu e 8. Global in eg a ion (IG) o he segmen s o he pedes ian ne wo k o Vi o ia-Gas eiz and
he mos ele an elemen s o he GI sys em (co es, main nodes o public use, and seconda y nodes
o public use ha a e g ea e han 0.5 hec a es), wi h dis ic limi s and u ban and us ic land also
shown. Low, mid-low, medium, mid-high, and high classi ica ions o global in eg a ion alues a e
included acco ding o quin iles.
3.2. Local In eg a ion o he Pedes ian Ne wo k
Figu e 8.
Global in eg a ion (I
G
) o he segmen s o he pedes ian ne wo k o Vi o ia-Gas eiz and
he mos ele an elemen s o he GI sys em (co es, main nodes o public use, and seconda y nodes
o public use ha a e g ea e han 0.5 hec a es), wi h dis ic limi s and u ban and us ic land also
shown. Low, mid-low, medium, mid-high, and high classi ica ions o global in eg a ion alues a e
included acco ding o quin iles.
3.2. Local In eg a ion o he Pedes ian Ne wo k
The analysis o local in eg a ion (which includes he elemen s wi hin 1 km o each
elemen o he ne wo k, as desc ibed in he Sec ion 2) shows, in gene al, ha he eas e n
Land 2023,12, 1534 17 o 30
pa o he ci y is mo e in eg a ed han he wes e n pa (Figu e 9). The wes e n dis ic s
(e.g., Desampa adas (15), El Anglo (10), Judimendi (16), San iago (12), A ana (14), and
San a Lucía (17)) a e compa a i ely mo e compac , which allows o a g ea e numbe o
s ee in e sec ions and a mo e accessible con igu a ion. In con as , he mo e pe iphe al
a eas and, especially, he indus ial pa ks, which showed low global in eg a ion, also show
low le els o local accessibili y. In con as , he esiden ial a eas o he new dis ic s (also
pe iphe al) a e mo e accessible a he local le el. This is especially isible in he Zabalgana
dis ic (29), whe e he e a e a eas wi h e y low global in eg a ion bu e y high local
in eg a ion. Some hing simila occu s in Salbu ua and A iaga-Lakua (24), whe e se e al
a eas wi h high local in eg a ion a e iden i ied.
The analysis o local in eg a ion in A iaga-Lakua (24) highligh s he con as s be ween
i s eas e n and wes e n pa s. The eas e n pa , cha ac e ized by olde cons uc ions, a
highe densi y o houses, and alle a ionalis blocks, di e s om he wes e n pa , which
was buil mo e ecen ly and ea u es a g ea e abundance o open spaces and houses
a anged in blocks.
No ably, he E ekaleo sec o s ands ou due o a signi ican dispa i y be ween local
and global in eg a ion, wi h local in eg a ion su passing global in eg a ion. As p e iously
men ioned, his disc epancy can be a ibu ed o he aligned a angemen o housing blocks
and he layou o s ee s and in e io open spaces, which acili a es he a ainmen o hese
ele a ed le els o local in eg a ion.
A ound he Old Town, he wes e n s ee s p esen a low local o accessibili y, while
he eas e n ones show g ea e in eg a ion. The hea o he Old Town, which p esen s
low global in eg a ion, also u ns ou o be ba ely accessible om a local pe spec i e. In
he wes e n pa o he Ensanche, a housing s a e known as Las Conchas (1.08) a he end
o he San Ma ín dis ic (21) also shows a lowe le el o local accessibili y han global
accessibili y. This a ea o he ci y has a a he unique con igu a ion, wi h a se o open
blocks ha o m a semici cle in he San Ma ín Pa k.
O he a eas, such as E ekaleo , Abe xuko, he San P udencio housing g oup in
A men ia, and he IMOSA wo ke s colony in Ali-Gobeo (a local en i y ha has been
abso bed by he Zabalgana dis ic (29)), which eme ged as ma ginal encla es on he
ou ski s o Vi o ia-Gas eiz in he 1950s and 1960s [
52
], ha e e y low global and local
accessibili y. These u ban de elopmen s we e loca ed in poo ly connec ed and dis an
a eas om he ci y, wi h planne s seeking cheap land p ices o enable he cons uc ion o
a o dable housing o he new immig an wo ke s a i ing in he ci y. E en oday, hey all
s ill sha e his poo in eg a ion despi e he no able di e ences in hei u ban ab ic, which
anges om ga den subu bs domina ed by semi-de ached houses o mode nis esiden ial
dis ic s whe e blocks p e ail.
In his case, he Abe xuko dis ic (25), which eme ged in he 1960s on he o he side
o he Zado a Ri e wi h he in en ion o accommoda ing he immig an s welcomed by
he ci y, demons a es ela i ely be e local in eg a ion compa ed o global in eg a ion.
Speci ically, El C is o S ee , one o he wides s ee s in he dis ic and he ou e aken by
he am, plays a signi ican ole in achie ing a high le el o local in eg a ion.
Aside om his excep ion, he analysis o local in eg a ion shows ha he con igu a-
ions o he s ee and pedes ian ne wo ks a e in e connec ed in e ms o he ypes and
o ms o he buildings and blocks; hus, he e is a ela ionship be ween he la e and he
spa ial accessibili y o di e en u ban pa e ns. In gene al, he a eas wi h g ea e in eg a ion
show enclosed ci y blocks and highe buildings, while in he a eas wi h lowe local in e-
g a ion, single- amily dwellings and building blocks o less han i e loo s p edomina e.
The indus ial a eas on he pe iphe y, i.e., dis ic s 18, 22, 23, and 24, ha e wo se local
accessibili y han he esiden ial a eas in he same dis ic s, mainly due o he highe densi y
o s ee s and pedes ian pa hways in he esiden ial a eas.
In sum, conside ing he esul s o he in eg a ion analysis bo h a a global and local
le el, he mos in eg a ed a eas a e he dis ic s ha occupy cen al loca ions, especially
hose o he eas . These dis ic s ha e g adually g own om hei mo e cen al pa owa ds
Land 2023,12, 1534 18 o 30
he pe iphe y du ing he second hal o he 20 h cen u y. They a e domina ed by closed
blocks o mid- ise buildings, al hough he e a e also highe mode nis blocks in hose
dis ic s ha we e buil in he 1980s.
Land 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 o 32
The analysis o local in eg a ion (which includes he elemen s wi hin 1 km o each
elemen o he ne wo k, as desc ibed in he Sec ion 2) shows, in gene al, ha he eas e n
pa o he ci y is mo e in eg a ed han he wes e n pa (Figu e 9). The wes e n dis ic s
(e.g., Desampa adas (15), El Anglo (10), Judimendi (16), San iago (12), A ana (14), and
San a Lucía (17)) a e compa a i ely mo e compac , which allows o a g ea e numbe o
s ee in e sec ions and a mo e accessible con igu a ion. In con as , he mo e pe iphe al
a eas and, especially, he indus ial pa ks, which showed low global in eg a ion, also
show low le els o local accessibili y. In con as , he esiden ial a eas o he new dis ic s
(also pe iphe al) a e mo e accessible a he local le el. This is especially isible in he Za-
balgana dis ic (29), whe e he e a e a eas wi h e y low global in eg a ion bu e y high
local in eg a ion. Some hing simila occu s in Salbu ua and A iaga-Lakua (24), whe e
se e al a eas wi h high local in eg a ion a e iden i ied.
Figu e 9.
Local in eg a ion o 1 km adius (I
1.0
) segmen s o he pedes ian ne wo k o Vi o ia-Gas eiz
and he mos ele an elemen s o he GI sys em (co es, main nodes o public use, and seconda y
nodes o public use ha a e g ea e han 0.5 hec a es), wi h dis ic limi s and u ban and us ic land
also shown. Low, mid-low, medium, mid-high, and high classi ica ions o local in eg a ion alues a e
included acco ding o quin iles.
In con as , he leas in eg a ed a eas, locally and globally, a e he mos ecen subu bs
and hose se lemen s wi h lowe housing densi y. Many o hese a eas ha e abundan
public housing, such as in Sansomendi (23) and Zabalgana (29), whe e a signi ican numbe
Land 2023,12, 1534 19 o 30
o social housing uni s a e concen a ed in he a hes and adjacen ends o bo h neigh-
bo hoods. Howe e , he bo de s be ween Zabalgana and Sansomendi and he ou e edges
o he ci y in hose neighbo hoods ha e he lowes in eg a ion. The ga den subu b o
A men ia in he Mendizo o za dis ic (20), home o he uppe classes, is a signi ican
excep ion.
Land 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 o 32
Figu e 10. Local in eg a ion in e ms o a 300 m adius (I0.3) o he pedes ian ne wo k o Vi o ia-
Gas eiz and he mos ele an elemen s o he GI sys em (co es, main nodes o public use, and
seconda y nodes o public use ha a e g ea e han 0.5 hec a es), wi h dis ic limi s and u ban and
us ic land also shown. Low, mid-low, medium, mid-high, and high classi ica ions o local in eg a-
ion alues a e included acco ding o quin iles.
3.3. Spa ial Accessibili y o he Co es, Main Nodes,, and Seconda y Nodes o Vi o ia-Gas eiz’s GI
Table 2 p o ides he dimensions o he 300 m a eas o in luence a ound each consid-
e ed elemen o he u ban GI sys em o Vi o ia-Gas eiz, as well as hei global and local
( o 1 km and 300 m adii) spa ial accessibili y. Da a analysis shows ha he main nodes
and seconda y nodes ha e highe in eg a ion coe icien s compa ed o he co e elemen s.
This inding sugges s ha hese nodes a e mo e ex ensi ely connec ed and in eg a ed
wi hin he ne wo k.
Figu e 10.
Local in eg a ion in e ms o a 300 m adius (I
0.3
) o he pedes ian ne wo k o Vi o ia-
Gas eiz and he mos ele an elemen s o he GI sys em (co es, main nodes o public use, and
seconda y nodes o public use ha a e g ea e han 0.5 hec a es), wi h dis ic limi s and u ban and
us ic land also shown. Low, mid-low, medium, mid-high, and high classi ica ions o local in eg a ion
alues a e included acco ding o quin iles.
Land 2023,12, 1534 20 o 30
When we analyze local in eg a ion wi h a 300 m adius (Figu e 10), he impo ance
o he densi y and connec i i y o he pedes ian ne wo k in enhancing con igu a ional
accessibili y shows i s ele ance. This is pa icula ly no able in he densely popula ed inne
a eas. In his sense, dis ic s like he Old Town (01) yield lowe local in eg a ion wi h a
300 m adius han wi h a 1 km adius. Con e sely, dis ic s like A iaga-Lakua (24) and
Sansomendi (23), si ua ed in he no he n pa o he ci y, show be e esul s wi h a
300 m
adius han wi h a 1 km adius. Howe e , in gene al, he e is a dec ease in in eg a ion
when conside ing he 300 m adius. In addi ion, a mo e de ailed analysis can be conduc ed
unde he 300 m c i e ion, e ealing ha di e en sec ions o he same s ee can exhibi
a ying le els o in eg a ion.
3.3. Spa ial Accessibili y o he Co es, Main Nodes„ and Seconda y Nodes o Vi o ia-Gas eiz’s GI
Table 2p o ides he dimensions o he 300 m a eas o in luence a ound each conside ed
elemen o he u ban GI sys em o Vi o ia-Gas eiz, as well as hei global and local ( o
1 km
and 300 m adii) spa ial accessibili y. Da a analysis shows ha he main nodes and
seconda y nodes ha e highe in eg a ion coe icien s compa ed o he co e elemen s. This
inding sugges s ha hese nodes a e mo e ex ensi ely connec ed and in eg a ed wi hin
he ne wo k.
Table 2.
GI elemen s, 300 m a eas o in luence, and in eg a ion coe icien s: global, i
G
; local i
1.0
(
=1km
); and local i
0.3
( = 300 m). Colo -coded classi ica ion indica es
high
, mid-high, medium,
mid-low, and low alues acco ding o quin iles.
GI Code GI Name A ea o In luence (ha) In eg a ion Coe icien
Global iGLocal i1.0 ( = 1 km) Local i0.3 ( = 300 m)
0.01 Zabalgana 169.3 0.43 0.67 0.86
0.02 A men ia 41.8 1.02 1.19 1.72
0.03 Ola izu 279.2 0.83 1.25 1.47
0.04 Las Ne e as 117.7 0.54 0.77 1.14
0.05 E ekaleo Ri e 235.9 0.99 1.45 1.97
0.06 Salbu ua 277.8 0.75 1.13 1.41
0.07 Aleg ia 48.2 0.51 0.98 1.08
0.08 Zado a Eas 176.1 0.46 0.80 0.90
0.09 Zado a No heas 139.0 0.99 1.58 2.05
0.10 Zado a No hwes 112.6 0.85 1.38 1.83
0.11 Zado a Wes 14.7 0.71 1.31 1.22
1.01 Salinillas de Bu adon 66.2 1.47 2.53 3.02
1.02 Bo inbizka a 61.1 1.57 2.04 2.69
1.03 Lakuabizka a 62.3 1.29 1.87 2.45
1.04 Lakua Ibaiondo 29.8 1.46 2.44 3.03
1.05 A men ia Fields 33.7 1.33 1.47 2.11
1.06 Mendizabala 53.5 1.19 1.49 1.98
1.07 El P ado 46.4 2.19 2.85 3.14
1.08 San Ma in 37.8 1.95 2.33 3.18
1.09 A iaga 83.2 1.77 2.41 3.09
1.11 La Flo ida and Ca hed al 59.0 2.12 2.66 2.92
1.12 Ma ia de Maez u 43.5 1.87 2.63 2.87
1.13 Mau ice Ra el 44.5 2.40 3.63 3.76
1.14 Molinue o 52.9 2.05 2.45 2.93
1.16 Judimendi 43.5 2.31 3.15 3.57
1.17 A anbizka a 46.1 2.76 3.65 4.46
1.18 A ana 48.8 1.99 2.84 3.23
1.19 San a Lucia 86.5 2.24 3.08 3.53
1.20 Es e 45.6 1.96 3.07 3.82
1.21 Gama a 63.0 0.42 0.72 0.87
1.23 Michelin 58.2 0.97 1.39 1.81
Land 2023,12, 1534 21 o 30
Table 2. Con .
GI Code GI Name A ea o In luence (ha) In eg a ion Coe icien
Global iGLocal i1.0 ( = 1 km) Local i0.3 ( = 300 m)
2.01 Ma i u i 31.4 1.61 2.36 2.86
2.04 E xeza a 43.9 1.93 2.38 2.99
2.05 Los Go os 50.8 1.66 2.20 2.77
2.07 Donan es de Sang e 46.2 1.80 2.15 2.73
2.08 Txago i xu 40.7 1.61 1.99 2.69
2.09 Gazalbide 40.6 1.96 2.23 3.15
2.10 Conse a o io 40.4 2.09 2.30 3.12
2.11 Cons i ución 31.7 2.11 2.24 2.88
2.12 Ca alunya 29.1 1.56 2.42 3.21
2.14 Ge a do A mes o 27.0 2.07 2.63 2.95
2.15 Bule a Abendanho 37.6 1.99 2.56 2.94
2.24 Simón Boli a 32.0 2.22 3.05 3.55
2.25 Llodio 32.3 2.17 2.51 3.32
2.26 Za amaga 51.9 1.91 2.34 3.06
2.30 Ae opue o Viejo 47.6 1.96 3.09 3.60
O e all, he da a sugges a ying le els o in eg a ion o he di e en g een a eas,
wi h some a eas exhibi ing highe in eg a ion a bo h local scales (1 km and 300 m). The
compa ison be ween main nodes and co e elemen s e eals ha he o me , which include
pa ks and p ima y g een a eas wi hin he u ban ab ic, exhibi highe le els o in eg a ion
compa ed o he la e , which a e he mos ele an pa ks and g een a eas ha cons i u e
he g een bel . This highe in eg a ion is obse ed a bo h a global and local scale. The
mean global and local in eg a ion alues o he co es (i
G
= 0.73; i
1.0
= 1.13; i
0.3
= 1.42) a e
conside ably lowe han hose o he main nodes (iG= 1.77; i1.0 = 2.43; i0.3 = 2.92).
Howe e , A men ia Pa k (i
G
= 1.02; i
1.0
= 1.19; i
0.3
= 1.72) and he cen al sec ions o
he Zado a Ri e Linea Pa k (Zado a NE: i
G
= 0.99; i
1.0
= 1.58; i
0.3
= 2.05 and Zado a NW:
i
G
= 0.85; i
1.0
= 1.38; i
0.3
= 1.83) demons a e a no able le el o in eg a ion bo h globally and
locally. In con as , Zabalgana Pa k (i
G
= 0.43; i
1.0
= 0.67; i
0.3
= 0.86) exhibi s he weakes
in eg a ion a bo h he global and local le el. These indings a e a ibu ed o he limi ed
local in eg a ion o Zabalgana on a global scale, as well as he inadequa e in eg a ion o
he esiden ial a eas si ua ed wes o he Old Town in he analysis o local accessibili y.
Addi ionally, he less compac con igu a ion and o m o he Zabalgana dis ic (29) can
play an impo an ole in condi ioning i s accessibili y,
The main nodes consis en ly exhibi highe in eg a ion le els compa ed o he co e
elemen s. When examining he main nodes, A anbizka a (i
G
= 2.76), Mau ice Ra el
Ga dens (iG= 2.40), Judimendi Pa k (iG= 2.31), San a Lucía (iG= 2.24), and El P ado Pa k
(i
G
= 2.19) s and ou as he nodes wi h he highes global in eg a ion. Con e sely, Gama a
(i
G
= 0.42), Michelin (i
G
= 0.97), Mendizabala (i
G
= 1.19), Lakuabizka a (i
G
= 1.29), and
A men ia Fields (i
G
= 1.33) a e he main nodes wi h he lowes global accessibili y, wi h
hese a eas mainly loca ed in pe iphe al a eas.
The in eg a ion le els o he seconda y nodes eliably su pass hose o he co e ele-
men s. Thei global in eg a ion alues ange om 1.56 o 2.22, indica ing u he inc eased
in eg a ion in he local analysis measu es.
In sum, he analysis e eals ha pa ks and g een a eas si ua ed in he sou heas e n
and eas e n pa s o he ci y, along wi h hose in cen al loca ions, exhibi highe le els
o in eg a ion, bo h on a global and local scale. Addi ionally, he accessibili y o hese
elemen s is in luenced by hei con igu a ion. La ge su ace a eas in con ac wi h he u ban
ab ic esul in g ea e accessibili y. This is exempli ied by he Zado a Ri e Linea Pa k
(0.08–0.11), which bo de s he no he n pa o he ci y. Con e sely, elemen s wi h a smalle
con ac a ea demons a e lowe accessibili y, as obse ed o A men ia Fields (1.05) loca ed
in he sou hwes e n egion o he ci y.
Land 2023,12, 1534 22 o 30
3.4. Accessibili y o Vi o ia-Gas eiz GI
Based on he geog aphic and demog aphic da a in Figu e 7, Table 3p o ides com-
p ehensi e in o ma ion on GI elemen s, including de ails on g een a eas, 300 m a eas o
in luence, esiden s se ed, and esiden ial densi y. The da a a e ca ego ized based on
di e en g een a eas and a eas o in luence, o e ing insigh s in o he esiden ial land
wi hin each in luence a ea. The colo -coded classi ica ion u he aids in isualizing he
dis ibu ion o alues, classi ying hem in o high, mid-high, medium, mid-low, and low
ca ego ies based on quin iles.
Analysis o he da a e eals signi ican a ia ions in he cha ac e is ics o he GI
elemen s. The ange o g een a eas spans om 0.01 o 218.82 ha, displaying he di e si y
in size among he g een spaces. The 300 m a eas o in luence also exhibi conside able
a iabili y, anging om 14.7 o 277.8 ha, p o iding aluable insigh s in o he ex en
o impac su ounding each GI elemen . Mo eo e , he numbe o esiden s se ed by
he GI elemen s shows subs an ial a ia ion, wi h a ange o 0 o 14,510 indi iduals,
highligh ing he a ying le els o popula ion impac . The obse ed di e ences in esiden ial
densi y u he con ibu e o he o e all a ia ions, e lec ing dis inc alues o g een a eas,
in luence a eas, and esiden ial a eas, he eby indica ing he a ying concen a ion o
esiden s in ela ion o hese pa ame e s. These indings unde sco e he complexi y and
di e si y o he GI elemen s wi hin he s udied a ea, emphasizing he need o a nuanced
unde s anding o hei cha ac e is ics and implica ions.
Rega ding he seconda y nodes, Ge a do A mes o Pa k (2.14) s ands ou as he one
wi h he highes esiden ial densi y in a ious ca ego ies. No ably, i exhibi s he highes
esiden ial densi y by g een a ea, wi h a subs an ial alue o 14,484. Fu he mo e, i also
a ains he highes esiden ial densi y by in luence a ea, eco ding a no able alue o 280.
Mo eo e , in e ms o esiden ial densi y by esiden ial a ea, Simón Boli a Squa e (2.24)
eme ges as he on unne , boas ing a signi ican alue o 299. These indings shed ligh
on he concen a ed popula ion and he p esence o high esiden ial densi y wi hin hese
speci ic seconda y nodes.
Finally, when conside ing he in luence a eas o he co es and main nodes (Figu e 11), i
becomes appa en ha mos o he ci y enjoys accessibili y wi hin a i een-minu e dis ance.
Upon close examina ion o he in luence a eas o a ious GI elemen s, i is e iden ha
a 1 km adius, adhe ing o he p inciples o he 15 min ci y, would ensu e ex ensi e
co e age and accessibili y o he key ea u es o he g een bel h oughou mos o he
ci y. Ne e heless, he e a e speci ic a eas ha lie beyond his co e age. These include a
small po ion o he A kaia e sec o loca ed on he ou ski s o he Salbu ua dis ic (30), a
signi ican segmen o he ecen ly de eloped Goikola a dis ic (31), and a mino sec ion
o he Abe xuko dis ic (25).
When conside ing a close le el o accessibili y, speci ically wi hin a 300 m adius, he
co e age signi ican ly dec eases, highligh ing he impo ance o seconda y and p ima y
nodes in ensu ing p oximi y o GI wi hin he ci y. These nodes play a c i ical ole in p o id-
ing esiden s wi h access o g een spaces wi hin a sho e dis ance, he eby con ibu ing o
a mo e sus ainable and li able u ban en i onmen .
In his case, a subs an ial po ion o he A iznaba a (21) and Zabalgana (29) dis ic s,
as well as sec ions o he Old Town (01) and Ensanche (02), lack con enien access o nea by
g een spaces. Fu he mo e, speci ic a eas wi hin he Co onación (04), A iaga-Lakua (24),
and Sansomendi (23) dis ic s exhibi below-a e age le els o accessibili y o g een a eas.
Table 4p o ides aluable insigh s in o he le el o in eg a ion wi hin he Vi o ia-
Gas eiz u ban a ea by examining he p oximi y o esiden s o di e en ypes o GI nodes.
I p o ides he a eas and he amoun o he popula ion ha a e no wi hin 300 m and 1 km
om he mos ele an elemen s o he GI, bo h in absolu e numbe s and in he pe cen age
hey ep esen o e he o al u ban a ea and o al popula ion, espec i ely.
Land 2023,12, 1534 23 o 30
Table 3.
GI elemen s, g een a eas, 300 m a eas o in luence, esiden s se ed, and esiden ial densi y
by g een a ea, a ea o in luence, and esiden ial land wi hin each in luence a ea acco ding o Figu e 7.
Colo -coded classi ica ions indica e
high
, mid-high, medium, mid-low, and
low
alues acco ding o
quin iles.
GI Code G een A ea (ha) 300 m A ea o
In luence (ha)
Residen s
wi hin 300 m
Residen ial Densi y by
G een A ea In luence A ea Residen ial A ea
0.01 71.57 169.3 1657 23 10 112
0.02 157.76 41.8 88 1 2 15
0.03 124.11 279.2 5434 44 19 143
0.04 29.34 117.7 1162 40 10 74
0.05 17.68 235.9 6450 365 27 115
0.06 218.82 277.8 4917 22 18 94
0.07 11.84 48.2 0 0 0 0
0.08 39.10 176.1 185 5 1 28
0.09 87.36 139.0 4566 52 33 83
0.10 38.47 112.6 2799 73 25 77
0.11 23.94 14.7 1 0 0 11
1.01 14.46 66.2 5880 407 89 135
1.02 6.15 61.1 5095 829 83 135
1.03 8.12 62.3 5449 671 87 186
1.04 1.61 29.8 4250 2643 143 149
1.05 1.82 33.7 180 99 5 17
1.06 11.16 53.5 1109 99 21 74
1.07 3.55 46.4 5384 1515 116 129
1.08 8.14 37.8 5255 646 139 162
1.09 17.66 83.2 13,431 760 161 221
1.11 5.40 59.0 9221 1707 156 174
1.12 3.33 43.5 3104 931 71 119
1.13 3.47 44.5 8748 2521 197 216
1.14 4.51 52.9 14,510 3217 274 281
1.16 2.47 43.5 11,640 4704 268 271
1.17 6.69 46.1 10,020 1499 217 244
1.18 4.27 48.8 5068 1188 104 153
1.19 6.18 86.5 14,415 2334 167 210
1.20 3.88 45.6 5954 1534 131 160
1.21 19.37 63.0 112 6 2 37
1.23 14.12 58.2 950 67 16 52
2.01 3.53 31.4 3013 854 96 126
2.04 2.72 43.9 4085 1504 93 130
2.05 3.45 50.8 5988 1734 118 188
2.07 2.64 46.2 4663 1765 101 166
2.08 3.16 40.7 2520 797 62 114
2.09 3.10 40.6 3834 1238 94 137
2.10 2.60 40.4 6437 2474 159 189
2.11 1.08 31.7 8272 7694 261 266
2.12 1.46 29.1 4851 3314 167 173
2.14 0.52 27.0 7553 14,484 280 280
2.15 0.75 37.6 10,003 13,260 266 276
2.24 1.24 32.0 9427 7607 294 299
2.25 2.42 32.3 6192 2562 192 201
2.26 2.69 51.9 7447 2764 143 209
2.30 2.12 47.6 4533 2138 95 124
Rega ding popula ion, he analysis e ealed ha 89.2% o he popula ion li es mo e
han 300 m away om a co e elemen , indica ing limi ed p oximi y o he g een bel pa ks
o mos esiden s. Con e sely, almos hal o he people (47.6%) li e close o a GI main
node, making hem one o he mos accessible GI elemen s. The seconda y nodes, which
a e wi hin close each o only 28.5% o he esiden s, do complemen he main nodes qui e
Land 2023,12, 1534 24 o 30
well, as only one hi d o he popula ion (33.7%) does no li e wi hin 300 m o any o hem.
The co e elemen s do no wo k as e ec i ely in combina ion wi h he main nodes, as almos
hal o he people (44.8%) a e no close enough o any o hem. Ac ually, he pe iphe al
condi ion o he g een bel means ha when added o he main and seconda y nodes, he
popula ion ha is no close enough o a g een a ea is no signi ican ly diminished, being
educed om 33.7% o 27.7%, i.e., only i e pe cen age poin s.
These s a is ics se e as a aluable ool o e alua e he ac ual p oximi y o esiden s
o he di e en elemen s o he GI (co es, main nodes, and seconda y nodes), he eby
indica ing hei e ec i eness in se ing he people. I is ele an o compa e he pe cen age
o he popula ion wi hou access o g een in as uc u e wi hin a dis ance o less han 300 m
o 1 km, and he pe cen age o a eas loca ed a a dis ance g ea e han 300 m o 1 km om
g een in as uc u e. The disc epancies a e signi ican in mos cases, showing di e ences
anging om 15 o 27 pe cen age poin s. Con e sely, bo h he a eas and he amoun o he
popula ion ha a e no wi hin 300 m o a GI co e/main node (42.2% and 44.8%, espec i ely)
and he a eas and popula ion no wi hin 300 m om a GI co e/main/seconda y node (33.6%
and 27.7%, espec i ely) show ela i ely simila pe cen ages. Howe e , hese gene ally
signi ican di e ences be ween he pe cen ages o unde se ed a eas and he unde se ed
popula ion s ess he impo ance o conside ing he dis ibu ion o esiden s o e alua e
hei ac ual accessibili y o g een a eas.
The gene a ion o maps such as he one shown in Figu e 11 is e y use ul o o ien a e
u u e planning and de elopmen o he GI. I no only iden i ies he u ban a eas ha a e
no wi hin 300 m om a ele an GI elemen , bu also, hanks o he esiden ial densi ies
displayed, allows planne s and decision make s o an icipa e whe e would be mo e ele an
o in oduce new g een a eas o expand o in ensi y al eady exis ing ones, such as cen al
and densely popula ed dis ic s like he Old Town (01), Ensanche (02), Co onación (04),
and Desampa adas (15).
Table 4.
A eas and esiden s no wi hin 1 km o GI main nodes and 300 m om GI co es/main
nodes/seconda y nodes in he Vi o ia-Gas eiz u ban a ea.
A ea (ha) % Popula ion %
Vi o ia-Gas eiz u ban a ea 3238 100.0% 238,422 100.0%
No wi hin 1 km om a GI main node 662 20.4% 5003 2.1%
No wi hin 300 m om a GI co e (g een bel ) 2138 66.0% 212,774 89.2%
No wi hin 300 m om a GI main node 2287 70.6% 124,940 52.4%
No wi hin 300 m om a GI seconda y node 2805 86.6% 170,582 71.5%
No wi hin 300 m om a GI main/seconda y node 1968 60.8% 80,348 33.7%
No wi hin 300 m om a GI co e/main node 1365 42.2% 106,714 44.8%
No wi hin 300 m om a GI co e/main/seconda y node 1089 33.6% 65,969 27.7%
Land 2023,12, 1534 25 o 30
Land 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 26 o 32
Figu e 11. A eas o in luence a ound he mos ele an elemen s o Vi o ia-Gas eiz GI: 300 m a ound
co es, main nodes wi h public access, and seconda y nodes wi h public access ha a e g ea e han
0.5 ha and 1 km a ound main modes wi h public access. A pedes ian ne wo k model (black lines)
wi h dis ic limi s (whi e lines), esiden ial densi y, and u ban and us ic land is also included.
Rega ding popula ion, he analysis e ealed ha 89.2% o he popula ion li es mo e
han 300 me e s away om a co e elemen , indica ing limi ed p oximi y o he g een bel
pa ks o mos esiden s. Con e sely, almos hal o he people (47.6%) li e close o a GI
main node, making hem one o he mos accessible GI elemen s. The seconda y nodes,
which a e wi hin close each o only 28.5% o he esiden s, do complemen he main
nodes qui e well, as only one hi d o he popula ion (33.7%) does no li e wi hin 300 m
o any o hem. The co e elemen s do no wo k as e ec i ely in combina ion wi h he main
nodes, as almos hal o he people (44.8%) a e no close enough o any o hem. Ac ually,
Figu e 11.
A eas o in luence a ound he mos ele an elemen s o Vi o ia-Gas eiz GI: 300 m a ound
co es, main nodes wi h public access, and seconda y nodes wi h public access ha a e g ea e han
0.5 ha and 1 km a ound main modes wi h public access. A pedes ian ne wo k model (black lines)
wi h dis ic limi s (whi e lines), esiden ial densi y, and u ban and us ic land is also included.
4. Discussion
The p ima y objec i e o his s udy was o examine he accessibili y o Vi o ia-Gas eiz’s
GI ne wo k by ocusing on i s key elemen s, such as co es and main nodes. By employing
quan i a i e and ca og aphic analysis based on he pedes ian mobili y ne wo k, he s udy
in es iga ed con igu a ional accessibili y a bo h global and local scales, as well as dis ance-
based accessibili y. The iden i ica ion o g een a ea accessibili y in di e en pa s o he
ci y, along wi h a ia ions in he le el o accessibili y, p o ides aluable insigh s o u u e
ci y planning. Gi en he di ec impac o access o g een spaces on ci izens’ quali y o li e,
