Oña i Socio-Legal Se ies (ISSN: 2079-5971)
Oña i In e na ional Ins i u e o he Sociology o Law
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Public o de o ences: how easible is hei applicabili y o online
ha e?
OÑATI SOCIO-LEGAL SERIES VOLUME 14 ISSUE 6 (2024), 1598–1622: THE INFLUENCE OF NEW
TECHNOLOGIES ON LAW
DOI LINK: HTTPS://DOI.ORG/10.35295/OSLS.IISL.1905
RECEIVED 23 OCTOBER 2023, ACCEPTED 18 DECEMBER 2023, FIRST-ONLINE PUBLISHED 7 FEBRUARY
2024, VERSION OF RECORD PUBLISHED 1 DECEMBER 2024
I
ÑIGO
G
ORDON
B
ENITO∗
Abs ac
As an a ea o law in he UK, public o de o ences a e almos en i ely useless on
social media. This se o o ences (ss. 4, 4A and 5 o he Public O de Ac 1986) was aimed
o add ess any beha iou o exp essi e ac i i ies, ei he o al o w i en, ca ied ou in a
con ex o physical p oximi y o he ic im. In p inciple, he ounda ional base o public
o de o ences uns he isk o becoming blu ed i we ex end hei applicabili y o
ha e ul messages online and, he e o e, o any impe sonal way o ac ing. Consequen ly,
only 13% and 14% o he ha e c imes commi ed online in 2016/17 and 2017/18 in England
& Wales in ol ed public o de o ences. The e o e, he e is a ce ain esis ance based on
he adequacy o hese o ences o he online en i onmen wi hou equi ing he message
o be audible o isible o someone, as a ma e o immediacy/p oximi y. We will explain
how his glimme o hope has las ed o e ime amid ie ce opposi ion o b oaden he
scope o applica ion o public o de o ences beyond adi ional public o ums, such as
dis u bances igge ing in a ci y's main squa e.
Key wo ds
Public o de ; ha e c imes; ha e speech; public dis u bances; cybe space
Resumen
La u ilidad p ác ica de los deli os de o den público (public o de o ences), que
ep esen an odo un sec o legal en Reino Unido, esul a muy escasa en edes sociales.
Es e conjun o de deli os (a s. 4, 4A y 5 de la Public O de Ac 1986) p e endía ocupa se
de cualquie compo amien o o ac i idad exp esi a, sea de o ma o al o esc i a, lle ada
∗ Lec u e in C iminal law and pos doc o al esea che a he UNESCO Chai o Human Righ s and Public
Au ho i ies, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y (UPV/EHU). Cu en ly, pa o he Ha e C ime Resea ch
G oup wo king eam, unded by he Spanish Minis y o Science and Inno a ion, which uns om 1
Sep embe 2021 o 1 Sep embe 2025 (Ti le o he P ojec : Ha e c imes in Spain: pending challenges; Re e ence:
I+D+I PID2020-115320GB-100). Email: [email p o ec ed]
Public o de o ences…
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a cabo en un con ex o de p oximidad ísica con la íc ima. En p incipio, la azón de se
de los deli os de o den público pod ía desdibuja se si ex endié amos su aplicabilidad a
los mensajes de odio online y, po an o, a cualquie o ma impe sonal de ac ua . En
consecuencia, solo el 13% y el 14% de los deli os de odio come idos online en 2016/17 y
2017/18 en Ingla e a y Gales implica on deli os de o den público. Po an o, se obse a
cie a esis encia basada en la adecuación de es os deli os al en o no online sin exigi que
el mensaje sea audible o isible pa a alguien, poniendo en cues ión las no as de
inmedia ez/p oximidad. T a a emos de explica cómo es e ayo de espe anza ha
pe du ado en el iempo en medio de una e oz oposición a amplia el ámbi o de
aplicación de los deli os de o den público más allá de los o os públicos adicionales,
como se ía el caso de los dis u bios desencadenados en la plaza mayo de una ciudad.
Palab as cla e
O den público; deli os de odio; discu so de odio; dis u bios; cibe espacio
Go don Beni o
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Table o con en s
1. In oduc ion ...................................................................................................................... 1601
2. Public o de o ences: a socio-his o ical backg ound .................................................. 1602
2.1. A look almos a cen u y back o unde s and he oublesome p esen .......... 1603
2.2. Media e olu ion as he ca alys o legal change? ............................................ 1605
3. The cu en se o o ences o sa egua d ci il libe ies: ss. 4, 4A and 5 o he Public
O de Ac 1986 ...................................................................................................................... 1605
3.1. An o e iew o he o ences conce ned in England & Wales .......................... 1606
3.2. The s a e o play in Sco land and No he n I eland .......................................... 1607
3.3. A well-se led a ea o law o coping wi h online ha e? Mo e doub s han
ce ain ies ........................................................................................................................ 1610
3.4. Rele an case law conce ning issues su ounding public o de o ences and
hei sui abili y o he cybe ne ic en i onmen ......................................................... 1613
4. Conclusions ....................................................................................................................... 1616
Re e ences .............................................................................................................................. 1617
Case law .......................................................................................................................... 1621
Public o de o ences…
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1. In oduc ion
The codi ied law o pa liamen -made law ha seeks o p ese e public o de in England
and Wales, he Public O de Ac 1986 (POA 1986), has ound in c iminal law an ally and,
a he same ime, a ema kably con o e sial mechanism o limi ing ci izens' eedoms
i hei beha iou de ia es om expec ed s anda ds. Mainly, he e a e h ee highly
hough -p o oking o ences unde cons an sc u iny, as hey usually gene a e
pa icula ly unce ain s anda ds o beha iou . These o ences, as a kind o ladde o
se iousness om mos o less se ious, a e ela ed o:
i. using h ea ening, abusi e o insul ing conduc wi h he in en ion o ei he
causing a pe son o ea ha iolence will be used agains hem o o p o oking
a pe son o use iolence [in ended ou come conce ning iolence, i espec i e o
ac ual achie emen ; s. 4 o he POA 1986]
ii. using h ea ening, abusi e o insul ing conduc causing ha assmen , ala m, o
dis ess wi h in en o cause i [in ended and caused ou come conce ning
ha assmen , ala m, o dis ess; s. 4A o he POA 1986]; and
iii. using h ea ening o abusi e conduc ha is likely o cause ha assmen , ala m,
o dis ess [c ea ion o isk wi hou any in en ion o cause he ou come conce ning
ha assmen , ala m, o dis ess; ha is, likelihood o causa ion i espec i e o
whe he he pe son a isk was o no he one in ended o each he eby; s. 5 o
he POA 1986].
Racially/ eligiously agg a a ed public o de o ences unde s. 31 o he C ime and
Diso de Ac 1998 (CDA) c ea ed acially/ eligiously agg a a ed coun e pa o ences
o hose al eady ensh ined in public o de law (ss. 4, 4A and 5 o he POA 1986). Since
he CDA was passed, hal o all p osecu ions conce ning agg a a ed o ences on hos ili y
g ounds yea a e yea had o do wi h his se o o ences (Iganski 2008, 124). Howe e ,
in con as wi h hese p omising s a is ics, he e ha e been e y ew success ul
p osecu ions conce ning online ha e. This c iminal ac i i y, o en e e ed o as
cybe ha e, can be de ined as he use o ne wo ks (e.g. compu e o mobile elephone
ne wo ks) and elec onic communica ion se ices (e.g. email o messaging se ices) o
web-hos ed con en se ices (digi al p ess) –i.e. con en ha is mo e o less s a ic and
no , in p inciple, aimed a sa is ying communica i e in e ac ion– o making decla a o y
mani es a ions o human hough ha a e o a biased o p ejudiced na u e owa ds a
collec i e iden i y ha is legally ecognised as such, on he g ounds o ace o eligion in
he case o he conc e e o ences conce ned in he CDA.
Ac ually, up o now, i appea s as hough only s. 4A o he POA has been e e applied
o online exp ession.1 The e o e, in 2016/17 and 2017/18, acco ding o he police c i e ia
o se ing c ime ca ego ies, only 13% (O’Neill 2017, 21) and 14% (Home O ice 2018, 30–
32) o he ha e c imes commi ed online in ol ed public o de o ences. This ca ego y
also includes s i ing up ha ed o ences [Pa III (ss. 18–23) and 3A (ss. 29B–29G) o he
POA 1986)].2 The h ea o public peace mus be di ec ly in lic ed o ac i a e ss. 4, 4A and
5 o he POA 1986, whe eas he s i ing up ha ed o ences mus indi ec ly in lic ha
1 I emains o be seen whe he ss. 4 and 5 o he POA 1986 could ha e i ed in he same pa h, and i no ,
why no .
2 Apa om wha will be explained he eupon, his sel - uling a ea o public o de law (s i ing up ha ed
o ences) will no ecei e u he a en ion he e. Fo a de ailed explana ion, see: Go don Beni o 2023b.
Go don Beni o
1602
public o de menace. On a scale o se iousness, he o ences o s i ing up ha ed a e a
a second le el closing he chances o inc imina ing massi e bu weake speech ac s ha ,
in u n, a e conside ably mo e doub ully connec ed o public diso de (Wol e 1987, 85–
87). They a e no conce ned wi h inapp op ia e ha e ul speech/beha iou o he
in ended audience o anyone who wi nesses, as would happen wi h ss. 4, 4A and 5 o
he POA 1986. They mainly se e he pu pose o con on ing ha e ul speech/beha iou
ha migh p omp o he s o ac (Nelle 2023, 11–13). Mo eo e , he e can also be
di e ences in e ms o online implemen a ion. The Law Commission o England &
Wales has aised doub s abou he alidi y o implemen ing ss. 4, 4A and 5 o he POA
1986 online, qui e he opposi e o wha would happen wi h s i ing up ha ed o ences:
“[W]he eas o he public o de o ences a e p ima ily conce ned wi h physical, public
spaces [ss. 4, 4A and 5 o he POA 1986], he s i ing up ha ed o ences can equally be
commi ed in an online con ex , and in his espec a e o an app eciably di e en
cha ac e ” (Law Commission 2020, pa . 9.22). Thus, one ask o his esea ch s udy will
be o alida e o e u e his obse a ion. In sho , o shed ligh on he unce ain y o no
knowing he ac ual applicabili y o ss. 4, 4A and 5 o he POA 1986 wi hin he online
en i onmen .
Has he d a sman been exclusi ely conce ned wi h exp essions ha migh p o oke
ou b eaks o diso de on he s ee han wi h he sp ead o ha ed pe se? Richa d Ca d
and Richa d Wa d made an in e es ing hough on his issue. In hei iew, i membe s
o he mos ulne able g oups in socie y (e.g. Blacks, A abs, e c.) ea being iden i ied by
he c iminal jus ice sys em due o possible ep isals, hen s. 4A was no di ec ly amed
o hem. Racis messages (e.g. acis g a i i) a e o en ep esen ed in abs ac o m, no
o anyone in pa icula bu o he communi y a la ge. A he e y leas , i was a isk o
be iden i ied as he pe son who had el alluded o by such acis and ague claims (Ca d
and Wa d 1994, pa . 4.86). E en mo e, he ic im may belong o a p edominan social
g oup. An example will su ice. Tha would be he case o a whi e man hea ing acial
abuse owa ds blacks (e.g. “ ucking nigge ” o “ ucking coon bi ch”) and making him
ecall his lo ed one. In ha case, he ic im would be he whi e hea e man i he abusi e
language, o ins ance, caused him o be in dis ess (s. 31(1)(c) o he CDA, in connec ion
wi h he coun e pa o ence se led in he s. 5 o he POA 1986) (see Taylo DPP (2006),
pa . 18).
These e lec ions ins an ly aise ano he in e es ing ques ion o a end: i he o ence
unde he s. 4A o he POA 1986 has been he only one o be implemen ed online, and i
i was no designed o p o ec ulne able ic ims o ha e c imes, do public o de law ail
o ake ca e o hese so o ic ims?
In ac , wha amoun s o public diso de online? When an online ac i i y poses isks o
o line o de ? Wha abou he de e en e ec o law? This esea ch in ends o p o ide
aluable in o ma ion, add essing hose and many mo e ela ed ques ions ha may come
o ou minds.
2. Public o de o ences: a socio-his o ical backg ound
Ra he han me ely dwelling on he cu en deba es, we mus look b ie ly a he pas
now o gain a p ope legal s andpoin . Exis ing con o e sies will no be unde s ood
Public o de o ences…
1603
su icien ly i we igno e he socio-his o ical genesis and he ole played by hese –o by
he his o ically compa able– o ences.
2.1. A look almos a cen u y back o unde s and he oublesome p esen
Du ing he 1930s, s. 5 o he Public O de Ac 1936 (POA 1936) was passed o comba he
ise o B i ish ascism, pa icula ly he ci il diso de s a mosphe e c ea ed by he B i ish
Union o Fascis s (Thu low 1998, 61–87). As is well known, eeding he communi y by
sowing suspicion o ea among indi iduals o g oups o indi iduals migh be enough
o public dis u bances o occu a any momen . The go e nmen al esponse3 hus
ensu ed ha he legisla i e machine y would be able o p omp ly eac o o ensi e
conduc ha may os e b eaches o he peace. In pa icula , i was s a ed ha “any
pe son who in any public place o a any public mee ing uses h ea ening, abusi e o
insul ing wo ds o beha iou wi h in en o p o oke a b each o he peace o whe eby a
b each o he peace is likely o be occasioned, shall be guil y o an o ence” (s. 5 o he
POA 1936).4 Howe e , he unc ional u ili y o s. 5 o he POA 1936 esul ed in being
con o e sial. Al hough some ascis speake s we e success ully p osecu ed o acial
de ama ion o acialis p opaganda, hus being ega ded as a qui e e ec i e o ence
(Dickey 1968a, 316–317; 1968b, 15–16; Les e and Bindman 1972, 350–353; Leopold 1977,
392–393), i is also ue ha hese cases o en wen o appeal, and magis a es h ew some
ou (Thu low 1996, 127). Cou decisions we e no consis en and c ea ed legal
unce ain y (La e ick and Joyce 2019, 35). In ac , in o de o ci cum en he law, “ ascis
speake s de eloped he echnique o c i icising he Jews as an e hnic g oup a he han
as indi iduals”, which o en made i di icul o police o ice s “ o dis inguish be ween
badinage and abuse” (Thu low 1996, 127). Fascis p opaganda ce ainly became less
p o oca i e (C oss 1961, 177).
In sho , we had be e say ha he e we e honou able excep ions o a inal and binding
judgmen o c iminal ac i i y unde he o ence p o ided o by law. In addi ion, as a
as ou s udy is conce ned, wha is mos in e es ing is ha he law made a b oad
unde s anding o public space o public mee ings o eseen in s. 5 o he POA 1936. So b oad
was he in e p e a ion gi en o hose e ms ha he law admi ed ha a public mee ing
could ake place in a public space o on p i a e p emises (s. 9(1) o he POA 1936).
The Race Rela ions Ac 1965 (RRA 1965)5 inally ex end he s. 5 o he POA 1936 o
w i en ma e , no limi ing i s scope o wo ds u e ed by he o ende . I included om
3 No e ha he POA 1936 was applicable in England and Wales and Sco land, bu was no ex ended o
No he n I eland (s. 10(2) o he POA 1936). Fo No he n I eland, a compa able p o ision would be enac ed
by s. 3 o he Public O de Ac (NI) 1951.
4 The maximum punishmen was h ee-mon hs’ imp isonmen o a ine o £50.
5 The RRA 1965 was passed in unique and unp eceden ed ci cums ances un il he 1950s. Tha was he
massi e mig a ion o wa es o people o colou o p edominan ly whi e B i ish socie y. I was hough ha
he in eg a ion p ocess o immig an s would help eac i a e he p oblem o colou p ejudice al eady la en
in socie y. The p oblem o colou p ejudice in B i ain was “(…) e y ecen , a ising om wha was a ickle
o colou ed Commonweal h immig an s coming o se le in he coun y in he ea ly 1950’s, which became a
ush in he mid-1950’s and a lood by he ime he Commonweal h Immig an s Ac was passed in 1962”
(Dickey 1968b, 10). No e ha he Ac was no ex ended o No he n I eland (s. 8(3) o he RRA 1965), which
s ill had he Public O de Ac (NI) 1951 and i s compa able o ence se led in s. 3. The p oblem seemed o lie
a he wi h s. 6 o he RRA 1965, which c ea ed he o ence o inci emen o acial ha ed (o s i ing up acial
ha ed) o he i s ime in G ea B i ain. No he n I eland demanded i s dis inc i e ea u es o be
Go don Beni o
1604
hen on “any w i ing, sign o isible ep esen a ion” which is h ea ening, abusi e o
insul ing (s. 7 o he RRA 1965). A ha ime, many doub s we e aised as o whe he
isible ep esen a ion wi hin he clause could co e ele ision b oadcas o no (Dickey
1973, 6–8).
The Race Rela ions Ac 1976 (RRA 1976) epealed he s. 7 o he RRA 1965 (RRA 1976).
Wha is mo e, i was s a ed ha he old s. 5 o he POA 1936 will con inue o ha e e ec
as subs i u ed by s. 7 o he RRA 1965 (s. 79(6) o he RRA 1976). The Public O de Ac
1986 (POA 1986) will inally epeal s. 5 o he POA 1936 (s. 40(3) and Sch. 3) and assume
legal con ol o e he co esponding subjec ha has las ed o he p esen day. E en so,
i is wo h b ie ly explaining he u bulen con ex ha led o his legal change a he
ime. The UK expe ienced some iolen episodes be o e passing he POA, like he Red
Lion Squa e (15 June 1974), Sou hall (23 Ap il 1979), New C oss Fi e (18 Janua y 1981) o
B ix on (10–12 Ap il 1981) diso de s. Massi e picke ing, hooliganism o owdy c owds
we e also a ma e o g ea conce n. Many o hese se ies o e en s in ol ed he mos
disad an aged e hnic communi ies on hem, whe he eac ing o p o oca ions o a a -
igh pa y, acial dispa i ies o police’s s op and sea ch powe s, o acciden al discha ges
o police’s i ea ms. A e he no o ious 1981 B ix on io ing, o example, new sou ces
o social dis up ion occu ed ha same yea in o he ci ies ac oss he coun y. In all o
hem, he acial componen played an impo an ole.6 Se e al inqui ies, wi h hei
subsequen epo s, we e commissioned and ully unde aken du ing hose oubled
imes (Sca man 1975, 1981, Home O ice 1980, 1985, Law Commission 1983).
The iolen ac s igge ed by social uphea als boos ed he law e o m. The POA 1936
did no s and he es o ime.7 No p og ess was made in i y yea s, so a enewed
successo in he a e ma h o he abo e e en s was mo e han welcome. The ollowing
quo a ion is ex ac ed om he s a emen o M . Douglas Hu d as Sec e a y o S a e on
Janua y 1986: “The h ea o public o de comes in di e en shapes a di e en imes.
Tha means ha he measu es needed o sa egua d public o de and p o ec he public
mus be e-examined om ime o ime. I is hal a cen u y since Pa liamen se i sel o
ha ask, and socie y and i s habi s ha e changed adically. I is no un easonable ha
he POA 1936 should be ollowed by a POA 1986”.8 Was M Hu d e e ing o he new
adequa ely conside ed, as i was a egion whe e ai h-based disc imina ion was ampan . E en i inci emen
o eligious p ejudice could ha e been inco po a ed in o B i ain’s RRA 1965, he S o mon Go e nmen
simply did no wan o emb ace a uni ied legisla i e image. G ea B i ain also chose no o include he
inci emen on eligious g ounds, since i conside ed odd and inapp op ia e o do so i No he n I ish law,
whe e he o ence was eally needed, was enouncing o do so (Dickey 1972, 134-135).
6 In 1981, he Home O ice published he i s s a e epo wi h measu es agains he eme gence o acial
iolence ou b eaks and he ci cums ances a ou ing hem o appea (Home O ice 1981). E en i i was
o icially conside ed a se ious p oblem be o e, since he ea ly 1960s, he s a e used o apply a ba e y o
esponses (e.g. measu es o mig a ion con ol and es ic ions) ha pu he ic ims a he o e on . I was
all abou blaming mig an s o hei massi e and inc easing p esence in he coun y. Hence, Rob Wi e e e s
o his posi ioning as an “excluding ecogni ion” o acis iolence by he s a e. In he 1970s, he p oblem o
acially mo i a ed iolence began o be inc easingly no iceable o pa o B i ish socie y. The 1981 epo
inally depic ed a ansi ion poin . Ne e be o e was un ese edly ecognised he sys ema ic na u e o acis
iolence, no was a oad map gi en o oo ou e il in his sense. Acco ding o Rob Wi e, i was he s a o
he “including ecogni ion” o acis iolence by he s a e (Wi e 1996, 24-79).
7 Fo a be e unde s anding o he social backg ound and he exis ing ou da ed legisla ion ha e en ually
led o law e o m p oposals, see: Smi h 1987, pa s. 1.11-1.13.
8 HC Deba e, Vol. 89, Col. 792 (Janua y 13, 1986).
Public o de o ences…
1605
ole communica ions ook in sp eading he news among socie y? Could ha be behind
he legal change? The ollowing sec ion will shed ligh on his issue.
2.2. Media e olu ion as he ca alys o legal change?
Appa en ly, he media e olu ion was mo e p obably han no pa o he ci cums ances
p essing o upda ing he exis ing law. Acco ding o Lo d Bea e b ook, plu al
iewpoin s ha a ec social o de may be in e ed om many pe sons assembling o
massed oge he . Mo eo e , o ha o be so, dialogue and publica ion we e o be
conside ed necessa y ca ie s o public ou c y. While he 1930s was a decade when
newspape s we e he p e ailing news media, i would ne e be like his again. Hal a
cen u y la e , ele ision, elephone and o he elec onic media we e making news
co e age o be mo e eely b oadcas han e e . In e es ingly, Lo d Bea e b ook
concludes his delibe a ion by assu ing ha “(...) news o b eaches o public o de , e en
on a local scale, now each he people o his coun y as e and mo e i idly. This ends
o cause e ible conce n o many people o e ela i ely mino and pe haps sho -li ed
e en s, so ine i ably inc easing he call by public opinion o a e iew o public o de
laws. (...) Today he media a e o en unwi ingly used as an ins umen o he p omo ion
o some imes dubious causes”.9 In ou iew, wha was s essed is ha he media had
de eloped qui e a lo and, a ha ime, could make any single beha iou esound loude
o endange public sa e y.
As we can imagine, public o de o ences encompass many si ua ions ha easily exceed
wha is o in e es he e. Howe e , a c ucial se o o ences was newly added o Pa I o
he POA co e ing diso de ly conduc o beha iou , mos ly ollowing closely an English
Law Commission’s epo (Law Commission 1983). In he wo ds o Lo d I ine o Lai g,
diso de ly beha iou means “physical dis u bance o dis up ion” [See: HL Deba e, Vol.
555, Col. 1866 (June 16, 1994)]. Fo his esea ch s udy, i s use will no be limi ed o
unlaw ul iolence, whe he indi idually o in andem, bu also o any beha iou
amoun ing o o ensi e conduc likely o cause iolence, ha assmen , ala m o dis ess.
Fo some p ominen schola s, he p oblem lies he e, as he e y concep o diso de ly
beha iou is emendously lexible so ha people who ac di e en ly a he han
dange ously can cause ala m o dis ess (Smi h 1987, pa . 7.05; Robe son 1993, 90), as is
eques ed by some o ences o he POA 1986 ha we a e abou o in oduce now.
No wi hs anding, be o e going one s ep u he , i is wo h men ioning ha he
successo s o s. 5 o he POA 1936 a e ss. 4 and 4A o he POA 1986. They esul om a
e-enac men comple ely ein en ing ha aged o ence o he POA 1936. Unlike ss. 4 and
4A o he POA 1978, s. 5 o he e y same Ac is conside ed a comple ely new o ence.10
3. The cu en se o o ences o sa egua d ci il libe ies: ss. 4, 4A and 5 o he
Public O de Ac 1986
E en i he p ima y ocus o his esea ch wo k will no be on hem, Pa I o he POA
1986 (ss. 1–10) also con ains a e isi ed s a u o y ecogni ion o he abolished io , ou ,
unlaw ul assembly, and a ay common-law o ences (s. 9(1) o he POA 1986). These a e
9 HL Deba e, Vol. 476, Cols. 530-531 (June 13, 1986).
10 Apa om wha is o be de eloped sho ly ega ding his o ence, o ind ou mo e abou he no -so-
dis an o igins o s. 5 o he POA 1986, see: Smi h 1987, pa . 7.02.
Go don Beni o
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now io (s. 1), iolen diso de (s. 2) and a ay (s. 3) s a u o y o ences. Despi e
di e ences wi h ss. 4, 4A and 5 o he POA 1986, i is impo an o assume om now on
ha hey all a e pa o he same se iousness scale se led in Pa I o he POA 1986 by
he d a sman. While ss. 1–3 a e a he uppe hal , he ss. 4–5 a e a he lowe hal . A om
She ega ded his en i e legal amewo k as a igh ening g ada ion. They all ha e in
common he easibili y o causing ea o ala m o o he s o hei pe sonal –o o he ’s
pe sonal– sa e y (She 1989, 85–105). Richa d Ca d p e e s o allude o he ss. 1–3
o ences as iolen o ences, whe eas hose in ss. 4, 4A and 5 a e non- iolen (Ca d 2000,
pa . 4.87). We now u n o he o ences ha will ecei e u he a en ion hence o h: ss.
4, 4A and 5 o he POA 1986.
3.1. An o e iew o he o ences conce ned in England & Wales
Sec ion 4 o he POA 1986 makes i an o ence (a) o use owa ds ano he pe son
h ea ening, abusi e o insul ing wo ds o beha iou , o (b) o dis ibu e o display o
ano he pe son any w i ing, sign o o he isible ep esen a ion ha is h ea ening,
abusi e o insul ing. In any case, engaging in hese ac i i ies shall be done wi h in en o
cause ha pe son o belie e ha immedia e unlaw ul iolence will be used agains him
o ano he by any pe son, o o p o oke he immedia e use o unlaw ul iolence by ha
pe son o ano he , o whe eby ha pe son is likely o belie e ha such iolence will be
used o i is likely ha such iolence will be p o oked. The e is also a acially/ eligiously
agg a a ed coun e pa o ence (s. 31(1)(a) o he CDA).11
Sec ion 4A o he POA 1986 makes i an o ence (a) o use h ea ening, abusi e o
insul ing wo ds o beha iou – including diso de ly beha iou –, o (b) o display any
w i ing, sign o o he isible ep esen a ion ha is h ea ening, abusi e o insul ing. In
any case, engaging in hese ac i i ies shall be done by causing ha o ano he pe son
ha assmen , ala m o dis ess. The e is also a acially/ eligiously agg a a ed coun e pa
o ence (s. 31(1)(b) o he CDA).12
Sec ion 5 o he POA 1986 makes i an o ence (a) o use h ea ening o abusi e wo ds o
beha iou –including diso de ly beha iou –, o (b) o display any w i ing, sign o o he
isible ep esen a ion ha is h ea ening o abusi e. In any case, engaging in hese
ac i i ies shall always be done wi hin he hea ing o sigh o a pe son likely o be caused
11 The maximum penal y o he s. 4 o he POA 1986 is, on summa y con ic ion, 6-mon hs’ imp isonmen
and/o an unlimi ed ine. In he case o he acially o eligiously agg a a ed ea o p o oca ion o iolence,
he maximum penal y o he s. 31(1)(a) o he CDA is, on con ic ion on indic men , 2-yea s’ imp isonmen
and/o an unlimi ed ine, and on summa y con ic ion, 6-mon hs’ imp isonmen and/o an unlimi ed ine.
See: s. 4(4) o he POA 1986, s. 31(4) o he CDA, s. 37 o he C iminal Jus ice Ac 1982, and s. 85 o he Legal
Aid, Sen encing and Punishmen o O ende s Ac 2012. Fo he Magis a es' Cou Sen encing Guidelines
(MCSG) on s. 4 o he POA 1986 and s. 31(1)(a) o he CDA, see: Sen encing Council 2020c.
12 The maximum penal y o he s. 4A o he POA 1986 is, on summa y con ic ion, 6-mon hs’ imp isonmen
and/o an unlimi ed ine. In he case o he acially o eligiously agg a a ed in en ional ha assmen , ala m
o dis ess, he maximum penal y o he s. 31(1)(b) o he CDA is, on con ic ion on indic men , 2-yea s’
imp isonmen and/o an unlimi ed ine, and on summa y con ic ion, 6-mon hs’ imp isonmen and/o an
unlimi ed ine. See: s. 4A(5) o he POA 1986, s. 31(4) o he CDA, s. 37 o he C iminal Jus ice Ac 1982, and
s. 85 o he Legal Aid, Sen encing and Punishmen o O ende s Ac 2012. Fo he MCSG on s. 4A o he POA
1986 and s. 31(1)(b) o he CDA, see: Sen encing Council 2020b.
Public o de o ences…
1613
emaining public o de o ences shall also be conside ed, i only o he po en ial o
eaching he online a ena.
3.4. Rele an case law conce ning issues su ounding public o de o ences and hei
sui abili y o he cybe ne ic en i onmen
Unlike o ences unde ss. 4 and 5 o he POA 1986, s. 4A is an excellen example o a
esul c ime (Law Commission 2018, pa . 8.113). Maybe ha is why he e a e s iking
esemblances be ween he o ence unde s. 4A o he POA 1986 and he
ha assmen /s alking o ences unde he P o ec ion om Ha assmen Ac 1997 (ss. 2–2A
and 4–4A o he PHA),32 o such a deg ee ha he o me adds no hing mo e han
duplici y and unce ain y. Fo some, he solu ion is jus o epeal s. 4A,33 and i s closely
ela ed s. 5 o he POA 1986. Ac ually, he s. 5 ope a es as a less se ious o ence
compa ing o he one sanc ioned in s. 4A o he POA 1986. Thus, many o he conce ns
hey aise a e sha ed.
Fo example, one-o inciden s (e.g. losing you empe when yping on compu e ) a e
pe ec ly p osecu able unde hese o ences. Mo eo e , i a single ac would be enough,
ano he p oblem is iskily added he e: “dis ess” is a slippe y slope owa ds an in ini e
numbe o exp essi e ac s34 whose punishmen will o en be coun e p oduc i e. As an
example, Geo ey Robe son wa ned o ce ain o ms o exp ession ha a e commonly
used o seek a dis ess ul ou come o hose causing, o who a e pe cei ed o be causing
–o , plainly, hose who a e indi e en o– injus ice, po e y o opp ession (Robe son
1993, 90–91). This would be he case o ap songs as a ehicle o he pa icula ly in ense
claims. Howe e , o some wo ds o be clea ly “insul ing” he e mus be well
dis inguished om c i ical, annoying o i i a ing wo ds. And, o ha o be so, common
sense and con empo a y s anda ds ough o play a decisi e ole (Williams 1963, 426)35.
Apa om causing (s. 4A o he POA 1986) o likely causing (s. 5 o he POA 1986)
ha assmen , ala m o dis ess, bo h he s. 4A and 5 o he POA 1986 ha e he e y same
elemen s o he ac us eus, excep ha he wo d “insul ing” was emo ed om s. 5 o
he POA 1986 no so long ago. Ce ainly, he di e ences be ween ss. 4A and 5 o he POA
1986 a e mo e no able as a as he mens ea is conce ned.
In s. 5 o he POA 1986, he c iminal liabili y ba ie mo es away om he one p oposed
by he s. 4A o he POA. The main cause o ha o happen has o do wi h he men al
elemen o each o ence: he “in en ion” o cause and “ac ually causing” a pe son
32 Fo a de ailed explana ion o hese o ences, see: Go don Beni o 2023a.
33 No o no hing, he PHA o ences we e said o be passed o sol ing he al eady ailed s. 4A o he POA
1986 (Geach and Ha alambous 2009, 256).
34 Among he di e en e ms (ha assmen , ala m o dis ess) ha he law equi es o be caused (s. 4A o he
POA 1986) o likely o be caused (s. 5 o he POA 1986), dis ess is he mos subjec i e one. Thus, i se s an
unce ain con ic ion s anda d (Ca d 2000. Pa . 4.30).
35 The “ h ea ening, abusi e o insul ing” na u e o wo ds, beha iou , o ac s o displaying any w i ing, sign
o o he isible ep esen a ion, o diso de ly beha iou , o m pa o he ac us eus o he o ence and
ep esen a ma e o ac o he ibunal. These concep s ha e been pa and pa cel o hese o ences since
hey we e also included in he s. 5 o he POA 1936. In ac , when has been discussed he meaning ha hese
e ms should ha e had in ha old sec ion, i was es ablished ha hey be e main ain hei o dina y sense.
They a e easily ecognisable wi hou he need o making any non-desi able e o o ying o de ine hem,
and hey ough o be judged weighing hei impac on easonable membe s o he public, e en i he e is
some u h on he abusi e o insul ing language employed.
Go don Beni o
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ha assmen , ala m o dis ess a e wo addi ional elemen s ha s. 4A has inco po a ed
since i came in o being in 1995. I di e s om he in en ion (a pe son who “in end o
be” h ea ening o abusi e) plus, al e na i ely, subjec i e awa eness (a pe son who is
“awa e ha his o he way o beha ing migh be” h ea ening o abusi e) o mula se led
o he s. 5 (s. 6(4) o he POA 1986).36 Simila ly, ha assmen , ala m o dis ess ha e no
o be simply “likely o be caused” in s. 4A o he POA 1986, bu ac ually caused.
Mo eo e , in s. 4A o he POA 1986, he causal link be ween he ac i i y o he o ende
and he e ec upon he ic im can be deduced om he o ende ’s in en ion. In u n, he
in en ion migh be in e ed om he ci cums ances su ounding he case, o some imes
e en om he e y wo ds used (Tho n on 2010, 46–47). Mo eo e , elying on he CPS
legal guidance, he in en ion may also be in e ed om he me e ac o a ge ing a
ulne able ic im (CPS 2022). Appa en ly, hough, he in en ion is subo dina ed o
causali y when he e a e disc epancies on who is he eal ic im o he o ence. Tha is,
le us imagine ha a Twi e use ies o cause g ea emo ional dis ess o a co-wo ke
who is mixed- ace. Also suppose ha o whom eally ends up causing such emo ional
dis ess is o he da k-skinned mo he o him ha , by chance, was su ing he In e ne a
ha ime. Acco ding o he Cou o Appeal (C iminal Di ision) ha was esol ing a
simila issue aised in R Valen ine (2017), he ic im in espec o he s. 4A o he POA
1986 would be he one o which he in ended e ec was ac ually caused.37 Now, i we
ocus on cases in ol ing o ences unde he s. 4A o he POA 1986 commi ed online, he
S DPP (2008) and R S acey (2012) ha e a oused so much in e es ha is impossible o
us o igno e.
In S DPP (2008), he High Cou judges deal wi h a case in which S, he appellan , was
con ic ed o causing in en ional ha assmen , ala m o dis ess by displaying a
pho og aph o he ic im on a websi e. He was also cha ged wi h a acially agg a a ed
o ence unde he s. 31(1)(b) o he CDA ha was unsuccess ul in e ms o con ic ion.
Du ing a demons a ion held in Leeds, S ook a pho og aph o Nigel Sa e y, an in-
se ice secu i y gua d in Co ance Labo a o y, pa o an animal es ing company. I ha
happened on 12 h Oc obe 2005, S e ouched he pho o38 one day la e and hen uploaded
i o a campaign webpage agains he company he ic im wo ked o . He also
in oduced a ex implica ing M Sa e y in alse con ic ions o iolence and iolen
eac ions agains demons a o s. The pho o would no e en ake wo days since i was
b ough o inally ca ch he a en ion and in e es o he No h Yo kshi e Police. E en i
M Sa e y did no see he pho og aph, he became awa e o i sho ly a e he inciden
by one o his colleagues. I was no un il 8 h Ma ch 2006 ha he police showed up o
him. A his momen , ha assmen , ala m o dis ess was caused o M Sa e y due o
becoming awa e o he ime elapsed wi h such a pho og aph openly displayed on he
36 In de ail, on he complexi ies su ounding he men al elemen o s. 5 o he POA 1986 since he e y
beginning, see: Smi h 1987, pa . 7.09.
37 Mo eo e , i he ic im o he s. 4A o he POA 1986 is he pe son o whom he ha assmen , ala m o
dis ess is caused, in he acially agg a a ed in en ional ha assmen , ala m o dis ess con a y o he s.
31(1)(b) o he CDA would s ill be so (see R. Valen ine (2017)).
38 I was p o ed ha he appellan “(…) used his image o cons uc a u he image on his compu e
showing he pho og aph wi h a ‘speech bubble’ om he complainan ’s mou h added, wi h he wo ds
‘C’mon I’d lo e o ea you! We’ e he Co ance Cannibals’” (see: S CPS (2008), pa . 3).
Public o de o ences…
1615
ne . Rega ding he in en ional elemen ,39 Mau ice Kay LJ deal wi h i quickly by saying
ha i was in e able om he e idence on he newly-made pho omon age, he ex
accompanying i and he pos ing al oge he on he campaign’s websi e (S CPS (2008),
pa . 8). Rega ding causa ion, Mau ice Kay LJ s a ed ha wi h an in ended pos ing o
such an image on he e e ed websi e, S ook he chance o he ha assmen , ala m, o
dis ess o be caused o M Sa e y. Submi ing o deba e when was i s shown he
image o he ic im and who inally did i has no in e es he e. Then, M Jus ice Walke
no ed ha , as he e is no need o an ac o occu wi hin he hea ing o sigh o he pe son
in s. 4A o he POA, passing he ime un il causing ha assmen ala m o dis ess would
no pose any p oblem. He wen e en u he when s a ing ha i a ic im is me ely
in o med, like he way M Sa e y was, no showing him he image, he e would s ill be
a legal basis o a con ic ion unde he s. 4A i he in en ion and causa ion elemen s
emain in ac (S CPS (2008), pa s. 13 and 15).
In R S acey (2012), as i is an un epo ed case, we will u n a en ion o he de ails
a ailable in he no e o he appeal judgemen 40 ins ead. On 17 h Ma ch 2012, Liam S acey,
a 21-yea -old uni e si y s uden , was wa ching he Bol on Wande e s-To enham
Ho spu oo ball ma ch on TV. A e ible o ui ous e en was abou o happen and
shake he oo ball communi y and socie y as a whole p o oundly. Du ing ha FA Cup
ma ch, Fab ice Muamba, Bol on’s Congolese mid ielde , los consciousness and su e ed
a ca diac a es . Abou one hou and a hal la e , M . S acey wee ed wha ollows: “LOL.
Fuck Muamba. He’s dead!!! #haha”. Many Twi e use s c i icised him o his a i ude,
bu he con inued o use highly o ensi e and acis messages41 in esponse. Jus wo days
a e hese e en s, M S acey admi ed be o e a Magis a es’ cou he use o acially
agg a a ed h ea ening, abusi e o insul ing wo ds wi h in en o cause ha assmen ,
ala m o dis ess (s. 31(1)(b) o he CDA). He was inally sen enced o 56 days’
imp isonmen and appealed o such a con ic ion. In e es ingly, acco ding o he
magis a es ha would dismiss he appeal, e en i we accep ha he wee s exp essing
acial con en we e no aimed di ec ly a he oo balle , we canno de ach hem om he
con ex in which hey ha e hei aison d’ê e.
The ea o p o oca ion o iolence (s. 4 o he POA 1986) is he emaining o ence o
a end. As we ha e no ed ea lie , s. 4 o he POA 1986 calls o immedia e unlaw ul iolence,
whe he in he sense o in ending someone o belie e i would be used42 o o p o oke i
o appea 43 (speci ic in en s), o making someone likely belie e ha will be used o
39 I appea s o be a pu posi e in en ion, as i is speci ically di ec ed o cause ha assmen , ala m o dis ess. I
has no hing o do wi h he likely isk ha he o ende pe cei es o such causa ion o occu (Newman 2008,
484).
40 A ailable a : h ps://www.judicia y.uk/wp-con en /uploads/JCO/Documen s/Judgmen s/appeal-
judgmen - - -s acey.pd
41 The subsequen acis messages ead as ollows: “I am no you iend, you wog cun , go pick some
co on”, “You a e a silly cun you mo he ’s a wog and you dad is a apis , bonjou you sc u no he n
cun ” and “Go suck a nigge dick you ucking aids- idden cun ”.
42 The Law Commission sugges ed an example o g asp how his could happen i commi ed online: “B ian
is among he c owd a a es i al. He spo s Anna in he c owd and sends he a ex saying he can see he , and
is going o a ack he ” (Law Commission 2018, pa . 7.48).
43 The Law Commission sugges ed an example o g asp how his could happen i commi ed online: “Anna
and C aig a e pa o a Wha sApp g oup. Anna sends C aig a message sugges ing hey a ack B ian. B ian
is wi h C aig a he ime and sees he message appea on C aig’s phone” (Law Commission 2018, pa . 7.48).
Go don Beni o
1616
p o oked i o appea 44 (objec i e awa eness).45 Howe e , e en i he e is no need o a
speci ic in en ion, as awa eness should su ice, his is no enough o ge an o ence unde
s 4 o he POA 1986. The e is one mo e in en ion (gene al in en ) o awa eness (gene al
awa eness) ha mus be added o one o hose men ioned ea lie (speci ic in en o
objec i e awa eness). In ac , ollowing he s. 6(3) o he POA 1986, i is equi ed ha he
o ende in ends his wo ds o beha iou , o he w i ing, sign o o he isible
ep esen a ion, o be h ea ening, abusi e o insul ing (gene al in en ), o o be awa e
ha i may be h ea ening, abusi e o insul ing (gene al awa eness).46
Hence, hese con igu ing elemen s play a b idging ole be ween he mens ea (in en ion
and awa eness) and he ac us eus ( h ea ening, abusing o insul ing wo ds o
beha iou ) o he o ence. As a esul , i is pe ec ly possible no o encoun e any
in en ional elemen on an o ence unde he s. 4 o he POA 1986 (speci ic objec i e
awa eness plus gene al objec i e awa eness) o , a he o he end, o encoun e mo e han
one (speci ic in en plus gene al in en ). Hence, in e ms o causa ion, i is no eally abou
p o ing ac ual iolence; he an icipa o y ea o i will be enough (Tho n on 2010, 33–35;
Law Commission 2018, pa s. 7.48–7.49).
4. Conclusions
In b oad e ms, ss. 4 and 4A o he POA 1986 encompass a di e en ype o speech han
ha co e ed by s. 5 o he POA 1986. Suppose he o me in ol es a speech di ec ly
spoken o an indi idually iden i iable ic im. In ha case, he la e conce ns ague
speech no necessa ily di ec ed o an audience in pa icula (e.g. o ensi e pos e s likely
o cause dis ess o any people walking a ound) (Nelle 2023, 11–13). Howe e , we shall
no igno e he supe sa u a ion o o ences o deal wi h online ha e in he UK (Go don
Beni o 2023b, 5–8). The e has long been an o e lapping conce n in his ield. Fo ins ance,
among many o he s, we ha e al eady poin ed ou he s iking esemblances be ween
ha assmen /s alking o ences unde he P o ec ion om Ha assmen Ac 1997 (ss. 2–2A
and 4–4A o he PHA) and he public o de o ences o he POA 1986.
In addi ion, as we ha e seen, he deba e o e public o de o ences has mainly ocused
on whe he o no he equi emen o immediacy allows he o ences o ope a e online.
Indeed, i seems complica ed o each a consensus on his issue. In any case, o making
a speech/beha iou c iminal (e.g. acis insul s unde s. 31 o he CDA), exis ing o ences
(ss. 4, 4A and 5 o he POA 1986) appea o be jus i ied by likely causing o ac ually
causing –mainly wi h he in en ional elemen in ol ed– psychological ha ms o o he s (e.g.
ha assmen , ala m, o dis ess). One migh hink his is insu icien due o he
44 The Law Commission sugges ed an example o g asp how his could happen i commi ed online: “Anna
knows ha B ian has ecen ly been ied o a child sex o ence and was ound no guil y, she belie es on a
‘ echnicali y’. She pos s a message on he Facebook page o a known iolen ‘paedophile hun e ’ g oup,
elling he g oup abou B ian and sugges ing ha he dese es o be ’so ed ou ’” (Law Commission 2018,
pa . 7.48).
45 To make someone “likely belie e” means o make someone belie e i is p obable o happen and no jus
possible. Howe e , wha is likely belie able o no mus be assessed objec i ely, conside ing he impac o
he wo ds o beha iou on an o dina y o easonable pe son’s iew. Addi ionally, such an o dina y pe son
would ake he ci cums ances su ounding he case as hey a e, which includes aking in o conside a ion
he eac ions o o whom was di ec ed he wo ds o beha iou (Ca d 2000, pa . 4.16).
46 The p oo o his addi ional in en ion o awa eness will be commonly in e ed om he na u e o he
exac h ea ening, insul ing o abusi e wo ds o beha iou in he case a hand (Ca d 2000, pa . 4.11).
Public o de o ences…
1617
unaccep able p essu e hese o ences place on he igh o eedom o exp ession.
Howe e , good easons ha e also been pu o wa d o suppo he con enience o
c iminalising acis insul s h ough public o de law, ega dless o he abo e- e e ed
consequen ial ha m. In ac , we may poin o ha e ul insul s' ap i ude o be c iminalised
exclusi ely in a gi en con ex in which he ulne able g oups o whom he
speech/beha iou is di ec ed may ind hem physically h ea ening o , a leas ,
“ h ea ening o a secu e sense o hei membe ships o he poli y” (Du 2007, 134). Thus,
a he e y leas , ha e ul speech/beha iou migh be punishable inso a as i equa es o
“bla an and de oga o y denial o hei ic ims’ s a us as membe s o he poli y” (Du
2007, 134). I seeks o unde mine he bases o ha monious coexis ence in a democ a ic
socie y. Howe e , is he same ue o ha e ul speech/beha iou online? A acis wee
does no only conce n he indi idual he message add esses. O he In e ne use s may
also ead and su e emo ely acis insul s, whe he hey a e d a ed in ague o mo e
pe sonal e ms. A acis wee may dis u b, c ea e insecu i y and e ac a pa icula
g oup o indi iduals o he poin ha hey do no exe cise hei ci il libe ies (e.g. going
ou o a walk la e a nigh ).
I would be qui e ano he ques ion o ask ou sel es whe he a wee can be isky o
public o de o line. Online c iminali y can ein o ce o line c iminali y, o ice e sa.
Tha said, i is simply no possible o plainly asse ha online ha e and o line iolen
ac ion main ain a causal link. A leas , he e idence om he s udies conduc ed un il
now e lec s ha some co espondence exis s be ween bo h eali ies, which does no
seem o be casual. Indeed, i is in e es ing o men ion ha he online-o line ela ionship
is mo e in ense he close we ge o eal humani a ian ca as ophes (e.g. p e-wa o p e-
genocide a mosphe e) o scena ios pu ing a e y ex eme social o emo ional s ain on
ci izens (e.g. e o is a acks). The u he we mo e away om hose scena ios, he mo e
uns able he co ela ion becomes. Howe e , in he speci ic case o e o is a acks, i has
been a gued ha he ole ha he new echnologies play is no only impo an bu also
decisi e o he change in a i ude owa ds ce ain mino i ies (Hanes and Machin 2014).
Ha e messages online p o oke o he s o ac . Thus, i is e iden ha he new echnologies
ope a e as ea ly wa ning sys ems o o line beha iou (Williams and Bu nap 2016).
Finally, ha e online can be simply he consequence o ce ain o line igge e en s, such
as a e o is a ack. The e o is a ack will be ollowed by an agg a a ion o in e -g oup
ensions online. This, in u n, can gi e ee ein o simila ac s o con inue o ake place
o line (Wiedli zka e al. 2023). The online-o line wo lds complemen and ein o ce each
o he in a kind o spi al o ha e. The bounda ies be ween he wo wo lds a e becoming
inc easingly blu ed. The la e canno and should no be o e looked by c iminal law.
B ie ly, he legi imacy and online implemen a ion o he o ences included in ss. 4, 4A
and 5 o he POA 1986 can be de ended. Howe e , as we ha e seen h oughou he s udy,
i is s ill possible o a gue he opposi e. Away om quick answe s o complex ques ions,
looking a he p oblem om all angles possible is mo e necessa y han e e in he digi al
public ago a. The ield o discussion is wide open, up- o-da e and li ely.
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Taylo (Selena) DPP [2006] EWHC 1202 (Admin).
