Bedload esponse o dam emo al: Resul s om a 6-yea pa icle acking
su ey in he Lei za an Ri e (Basque Coun y)
A. Ibisa e
a,*
, H. Ga cía
b,c,d
, D. V´
azquez-Ta ío
e
, I. S´
anchez-Pin o
a
, X. He e o
a
,
A. S´
aenz de Olazagoi ia
a
, A. Olle o
a
Depa men o Geog aphy, P ehis o y and A chaeology, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y (UPV/EHU), Vi o ia-Gas eiz, Spain
b
Depa men o Geog aphy, Uni e si y o San iago de Compos ela, San iago de Compos ela, Spain
c
AMBIOSOL Resea ch G oup
d
CISPAC – In e uni e si y Resea ch Cen e o A lan ic Cul u al Landscapes, Spain
e
Depa men o Geo-Haza ds & Clima e Change, IGME, CSIC, Mad id, Spain
Depa men o Geog aphy and Land Managemen , Uni e si y o Za agoza, Za agoza, Spain
ARTICLE INFO
Keywo ds:
Bedload anspo
Sedimen connec i i y
RFID acking
Ri e es o a ion
G a el-bed i e
ABSTRACT
Dams, wei s and ans e se ba ie s o i e s in e up sedimen con inui y and educe sedimen supply down-
s eam. In his ega d, dam emo al is an inc easingly used i e es o a ion measu e o eco e longi udinal
connec i i y o sedimen , among many o he i e p ocesses. In his wo k we p esen a 6-yea ( om 2016 o
2022) moni o ing o bedload anspo be o e, du ing and a e he emo al o he 7-me e s high Olloki dam in
he Lei za an Ri e (Basque Coun y). The emo al p ocess s a ed in 2018 wi h he uppe 3 m and was
comple ed in 2019 wi h he emaining 4 m o he dam. To moni o bedload anspo , we seeded RFID- agged
s ones in h ee eaches: a con ol each una ec ed by he dam, a each immedia ely ups eam o he dam,
and a each downs eam o he dam. We deployed 300 agged s ones each yea (100 by each), i.e., 1800 in o al.
We measu ed impo an mobiliza ion and displacemen o ace s ones (wi h maximum a el dis ances o ~8.8
km o ace s seeded ups eam he Olloki dam) du ing an ac i e hyd ological yea ollowing he comple e
emo al o he dam, wi h some agged pa icles e en a elling ac oss a downs eam wei . We also epo ed
changes in he p og ession o agged s ones in he dam-a ec ed eaches (ups eam and downs eam) wi h he
emo al, wi h u he and as e dispe sal o sedimen s once he dam was emo ed. In addi ion, in hese eaches
we es ima ed la ge olumes o mobilized bedload in he h ee yea s ollowing emo al han in he p e ious
yea s, especially in he ups eam each. In his ega d, he ela ionship be ween bedload and cumula ed ene gy
sugges s ha less ene gy was expended in he ups eam each o mobilizing bedload once he emo al o he
dam was comple ed. Con e sely, in he con ol each no majo changes we e obse ed be o e and a e he
emo al o he dam; his each showed only an inc ease in sedimen mobiliza ion du ing he las hyd ological
yea , which was he mos hyd ologically ac i e o he whole moni o ing pe iod. In summa y, ou ace obse -
a ions documen ha a el dis ances and mobiliza ion olumes a e conside ably inc eased wi h dam emo al,
especially once he dam was comple ely emo ed.
1. In oduc ion
The geomo phic dynamics o i e s depends on complex in e ac ions
be ween wa e low, sedimen luxes and alley con igu a ion, among
o he con ols. In his ega d, human ac i i ies can al e wa e and
sedimen lows and limi he space a ailable o he i e o eely low
du ing loods; hus ep esen ing a majo dis u bance o he geomo phic
unc ioning o i e s in he “An h opocene” (Ga cía e al., 2021). The
20 h cen u y has seen a wide a ie y o human impac s on i e s
wo ldwide, bu dams may ha e had he mos signi ican impac in e ms
o he geomo phic dynamics o i e s. In ac , hese human in-
as uc u es cons i u e a ba ie in e up ing he longi udinal con inu-
i y o sedimen luxes (mainly in he case o he coa se bedload) and a
modi ica ion o he low egime. This is pa icula ly no iceable o la ge
ese oi s (B and , 2000; G a , 2005; Rolle e al., 2014; Majo e al.,
2017), bu also applies o wei s depending on hei heigh and he
* Co esponding au ho .
E-mail add ess: [email p o ec ed] (A. Ibisa e).
Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec
Geomo phology
jou nal homepage: www.jou nals.else ie .com/geomo phology
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.geomo ph.2024.109542
Recei ed 28 Ma ch 2024; Recei ed in e ised o m 24 No embe 2024; Accep ed 29 No embe 2024
Geomo phology 470 (2025) 109542
A ailable online 2 Decembe 2024
0169-555X/© 2024 The Au ho s. Published by Else ie B.V. This is an open access a icle unde he CC BY-NC-ND license (
h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/ ).
speci ic geomo phic se ing (Sindela e al., 2017; Pee e s e al., 2020).
Mo e han 53 % o he global land- o-ocean sedimen lux is po en-
ially apped in ese oi s, wi h an es ima ed 4–5 M . apped in abou
28 % o he wo ld’s ca chmen s (V¨
o ¨
osma y e al., 2003; Sy i ski e al.,
2022). This apping o sedimen in ese oi s means a loss o s o age
capaci y, unc ionali y and a educ ion o li e-span o hese in-
as uc u es (Randle e al., 2021), bu abo e all a dep i a ion o sedi-
men necessa y o a na u al geomo phic and ecological unc ioning o
he i e downs eam o he dam. This has consequences such as plan-
o m and bed o m changes (B and , 2000), na owing (Kondol and
Wolman, 1993; Kondol , 1997; Downs and Pi´
egay, 2019) o loss o
habi a s o some species (Walling, 2006). Sedimen s a a ion and
‘hung y wa e s’ below dams (sensu Kondol , 1997) can also igge bed
incision downs eam, which has become he main ‘disease’ in many
i e s eaches a ound he wo ld, causing imbalances ha endange he
in as uc u e loca ed in he channel and he land uses on he loodplain
(due o he lowe ing o he wa e able). Incisions o up o 10 m ha e
been epo ed in some eaches o he Be nesga, G´
allego, Ce o o Sec-
chia i e s (Fe e -Boix e al., 2023), o ins ance. Sedimen apped in
ese oi s can he e o e be conside ed ‘misplaced esou ces’ (in he
wo ds o Kondol e al., 2014), as hese same sedimen s a e un o u-
na ely needed downs eam o ese oi s o main ain i e mo phology
and ecology and o eplenish c i ical sho eline land.
In his con ex , he e is an inc easing socie al awa eness and demand
o ehabili a e o imp o e bedload dynamics below dams o imp o e
hyd aulic condi ions, i e mo phology, habi a complexi y o spawning
a eas. In Eu ope, o example, he Wa e F amewo k Di ec i e om
2000, calls o i e es o a ion as a s a egy o imp o e i e unc-
ioning, explici ly men ioning he need o main ain i e wa e , sedi-
men and species con inui y. In addi ion, he EU a ge is o es o e
25,000 km o ee- lowing i e s by 2030 (Eu opean Commission, 2020;
Belle i e al., 2020), and he global F eshwa e Challenge is o es o e
300,000 km o deg aded i e s by 2030 as pa o he UN Decade o
Ecosys ems Res o a ion. Spanish na ional i e s a egy is also aligned
wi h his pu pose.
Se e al p ac ices ha e been implemen ed aiming a inc easing
sedimen a ailabili y below ese oi s, such as g a el augmen a ion
(P´
e ez e al., 2015; A naud e al., 2017; B ousse e al., 2019; B ousse
e al., 2021; Cha don e al., 2021; Van Looy and Ku s jens, 2022;
V´
azquez-Ta ío e al., 2023), sedimen elease om ese oi s (Wohl
and Cende elli, 2000; Kondol e al., 2014), o wei o dam emo al
(G a , 2003; Wilcox, 2014; Ibisa e e al., 2016; Ri chie e al., 2018). In
he las yea s many dam emo als p ac ices ha e been done wo ldwide.
Acco ding o Dam Remo al In o ma ion Po al, 1796 dams ha e been
emo ed in US by 2023 (h ps://da a.usgs.go /d ip-dashboa d/) and
o he 6223 dams disman led in Eu ope as pe Dam Remo al Eu ope (h
ps://dam emo al.eu/). Mos o he emo ed dams a e low-heigh ba -
ie s (Habel e al., 2020), and ew o hem highe han 30 m as is he case
o dams emo ed in he i e s S´
elune (Vezins dam), Elwha (Elwha and
Glines Canyon dams), Whi e Salmon (Condi dam) and Ca mel i e (San
Clemen e dam), wi h ele an moni o ing p og ams (Wilcox e al., 2014;
Eas e al., 2015; Randle e al., 2015; Wa ick e al., 2015; Majo e al.,
2017; Fo e e al., 2023; Eas e al., 2023).
O e all, expe iences wi h dam emo al ha e demons a ed hei
po en ial o imp o e geomo phic condi ions (in e ms o eac i a ing
sedimen anspo downs eam dam, mi iga ing i e incision,
inc easing channel’s mo phological di e si y…) i implemen ed
hough ully and in conjunc ion wi h comp ehensi e i e managemen
s a egies. Howe e , ca e ully conside ing o si e-speci ic ac o s (Foley
e al., 2017a) and po en ial en i onmen al impac s is c ucial o ensu e
he success and sus ainabili y o such p ojec s. This equi es ambi ious
and sus ained moni o ing p og ams o assess he e ec s and/o success
o he ehabili a ion/ es o a ion ac ions. In his ega d, ield moni o ing
o he geomo phic and sedimen - anspo esponse o dam emo al
p o ides p ecious and indispensable da a o o he complemen a y
analysis on he opic such as lume expe imen s (Lisle e al., 1997, 2001;
Cui e al., 2003; Fe e -Boix e al., 2014, 2015) and nume ical s udies
(Can elli e al., 2004, 2007; Cui and Wilcox, 2008; Woodwa d e al.,
2008; Downs e al., 2009; Cui e al., 2019). Field moni o ing o i e
esponse o dam emo al is ypically based on opog aphic su eys,
geomo phic change de ec ion o pa icle acking (Majo e al., 2012;
Olle o e al., 2014; Eas e al., 2015; Magi l e al., 2015; Ri chie e al.,
2018; Gile e al., 2021; Fo e e al., 2023; M¨
o l e al., 2023).
Acco ding o Pizzu o (2002) and G a (2005), ime scales o i e
esponse o dam emo al a e unce ain, bu hey migh be on he o de
o decades. Howe e , mos o he moni o ing s udies a e much sho e
and many do no ha e in o ma ion on p e- emo al condi ions (Bellmo e
e al., 2017; Foley e al., 2017b), limi ing ou abili y o comple ely un-
de s and i e adjus men s due o dam emo al. Majo e al. (2017)
ecommended ha a success ul moni o ing p og am o dam emo al
should collec in o ma ion o p e- emo al condi ions, ese oi sedi-
men olume and cha ac e is ics, backg ound sedimen lux, ese oi
e osion a es, downs eam sedimen anspo , downs eam channel
mo phological changes and long- e m geomo phic adjus men . In
addi ion o imp o ing knowledge o geomo phological adjus men s and
sedimen budge s, hese measu emen s can p o ide da a o nume ical
models designed o p edic geomo phic esponses o dam emo al
(Majo e al., 2017).
Among he a ious echniques a ailable o measu ing sedimen
anspo , pe haps one o he mos po en ially applicable in he con ex
o dam emo al is pa icle acking, i.e., he use o agged s ones o ace
he displacemen s o indi idual sedimen pa icles o e ime. This
echnique has been la gely used in lu ial geomo phology o unde s and
links be ween sedimen anspo and channel mo phology (e.g. Hassan
and B adley, 2017; V´
azquez-Ta ío e al., 2019). This p ocedu e allows
acking he displacemen and dispe sion o a sedimen plume o e ime,
which makes i pa icula ly sui able o acking he emobiliza ion o
he sedimen pile s ocked in a ese oi ollowing dam emo al. The e
a e se e al expe iences o g a el mobili y acking using agged s ones
as ace s o assess g a el augmen a ion esponse (A naud e al., 2017;
Cha don e al., 2021; V´
azquez-Ta ío e al., 2023; Liebaul e al., 2024)
o dam emo al (Gile e al., 2021), bu da a a e s ill sca ce and he e a e
no many long- e m ace s udies a ailable wi hin he ame o assessing
how g a el-bed i e s eac o dam emo al.
Following his a gumen , we p esen he esul s o a 6-yea ield
su ey (2016–2022) o he moni o ing o he Olloki dam emo al using
pa icle acking in he Lei za an g a el-bed i e . This sedimen
anspo moni o ing is pa o a b oade geomo phic moni o ing o wo
dam emo als in he Lei za an Ri e (Basque Coun y, Spain) and
accomplished be ween 2013 and 2022. Ou s udy p o ides da a abou
he e ec on sedimen anspo a e he emo al o he Olloki dam, and
da a o a long pa icle acking su ey (co e ing ups eam, impounded
and downs eam eaches) and be o e, du ing and a e dam emo al,
ha helps o unde s and sedimen dynamics du ing se e al yea s a e
he se ing o a new base le el. We de ec ed a change in hyd aulic
esponse and sedimen dispe sal a e dam emo al, wi h di e en
sedimen anspo esponses in di e en eaches.
2. S udy a ea
The Olloki dam is loca ed on he Lei za an Ri e (Basque Coun y), a
42 km- ibu a y o O ia Ri e ha d ains a 124 km
2
basin and lows in o
Can ab ian Sea in he no he n Ibe ian Peninsula. The i e in he s udy
a ea lows ac oss a na ow alley ca ed in o Paleozoic ou c ops. The
channel is s eep wi h a meande ing pa e n, and he bed mo phology
al e na es be ween s aigh , plane-bed eaches and sequences o i les
and pools wi h al e na e la e al and poin ba s. The a ea is o es ed wi h
deciduous bu also o es plan a ions wi h clea ings p ac ices (Fig. 1).
The mean discha ge o he Lei za an Ri e a he s udy si e is 4.73 m
3
/s,
i s mean uni s eam powe 19.7 W/m
2
, bank ull discha ge 67.8 m
3
/s
and i s 2-y , 5-y and 10-y e u n pe iod discha ges a e 85.0, 126 and
153 m
3
/s, espec i ely. I s bed ma e ial is mainly cobble and he median
A. Ibisa e e al.
Geomo phology 470 (2025) 109542
2
bed g ain size has e ol ed o e he s udied pe iod, anging be ween 64
and 126 mm.
Two dams ha e al eady been emo ed in he amewo k o wo
Eu opean p ojec s, a Eu opean Regional De elopmen Fund (ERDF)
p ojec and a LIFE p ojec ha seek he eco e y o longi udinal con-
nec i i y o imp o e A lan ic salmon habi a s oge he wi h i e geo-
mo phology. These dams a e: In u ia dam (12.5 m high), emo ed
be ween 2013 and 2016 (Ibisa e e al., 2016) and O i a (T uchas E eka)
(5 m high) in 2015, bo h downs eam o Olloki dam. In u ia dam was
cons uc ed in 1913 o wa e egula ion o a hyd oelec ical s a ion
loca ed downs eam aimed o p o ide elec ici y o he amway o San
Sebas i´
an ci y. T uchas E eka was ini ially aimed o hyd oelec ical
p oduc ion ( om 1913 o 1977), and since 1977 i was used o sup-
plying a ish a m. Ne e heless, he e emain some ans e se ba ie s
(wei s) in he Lei za an i e , ou ups eam o Olloki dam and ou
o he s downs eam o Olloki: Be xin wei , o 5.8 m-high , Olabe ia
wei , o 5.5 m-high and wo mo e nea he con luence wi h he O ia
Ri e . Be xin wei is illed wi h sedimen (Ibisa e e al., 2016).
The Lei za an Ri e has had since 1994 a gauging s a ion ha mea-
su es discha ge e e y 10 min, loca ed in he lowe pa o he i e , nea
i s con luence wi h he mains eam O ia Ri e ( he gauge s a ion co e s
110.01 km
2
o d ainage a ea). Addi ionally, he e is a wei ups eam o
he s udy a ea ha de i es wa e o a hyd oelec ic s a ion loca ed a he
ail o he ese oi o Olabe ia wei , loca ed downs eam (Fig. 1). This
bypass has a maximum o only 3 m
3
/s, which is no enough o a ec he
sedimen anspo capaci y, less alone du ing lood e en s when sedi-
men anspo is expec ed o occu .
In his wo k, we ocus on Olloki dam emo al. This 7 m-heigh dam
was buil in 1762 o a o ge and he de ini i e heigh o he dam was
a ained in 1929, when he Olloki hyd opowe plan was buil (Cabez´
on,
2023). The e o e, he dam has almos a cen u y o impoundmen wi h i s
las heigh , bu e en 150 yea s mo e wi h a lowe one. The ese oi
ups eam o he dam was 600 m long, ~25 m wide and illed (Fig. 2)
wi h app oxima ely 90,000 m
3
o sedimen , mainly cobbles co e ed by a
couple o me e s o sand wi h ew sil s and clay (Ike lu ., 2015). The dam
comple ely in e up ed bedload anspo , and only ine sedimen s
a el ac oss he dam du ing loods, which we e he sedimen s ha illed
In u ia ese oi (Ibisa e e al., 2016). Olloki dam was emo ed in wo
s ages, by emo ing ho izon al sla s co e ing hal wid h o he dam, as i
can be seen in Fig. 2. The i s 3 m sla was emo ed in Sep embe 2018
Fig. 1. Loca ion o he s udied a ea in Lei za an Ri e .
A. Ibisa e e al.
Geomo phology 470 (2025) 109542
3
and he second 4 m sla in Sep embe 2019 (Fig. 2).
3. Me hodology
3.1. Expe imen al design
To unde s and how he Lei za an i e would eac o he emo al o
he Olloki dam, we decided o se up a ‘Be o e-A e -Con ol-Impac ’
(BACI) expe imen al design and we moni o ed wo impac eaches
(ups eam and downs eam o he Olloki dam) and one con ol each
(ups eam o he dam), bo h be o e and a e dam emo al. This kind o
expe imen al designs a e commonly applied in ecological moni o ing
s udies o he quan i ica ion o en i onmen al impac s (Unde wood and
Benne , 1992; Roni e al., 2013; Smoko owski and Randall, 2017) and
a e becoming inc easingly used in lu ial geomo phology (e.g., Ma eau
e al., 2022). A e an ini ial ield campaign in 2016 o cha ac e ize he
s udy eaches and deploy he i s ace s in he seeding si es, ield
moni o ing ex ended om 2017 o 2022 and consis ed in six ieldwo k
campaigns (one pe yea ): wo campaigns be o e s a ing he emo al
(summe 2017 and 2018); one in be ween he wo emo al phases
(summe 2019); and h ee mo e once he emo al was comple ed
(summe 2020, 2021 and 2022).
We deployed RFID- agged s ones a h ee seeding si es, one in an
una ec ed each o he i e (by he dam) and he o he wo ups eam
and downs eam o he dam (Fig. 3). The h ee seeding si es exhibi ed
di e ences in bed slope and a e age g ain size a he beginning o his
esea ch (Table 1). Con ol seeding si e p esen ed a gene ally na u al
hyd ogeomo phological condi ion, wi hou ele an al e a ions, so i
could be unde op imal condi ions in e ms o mo pho-sedimen a y
dynamics. Con e sely, ups eam seeding si e co esponds o he ail o
he ese oi , and he downs eam seeding si e is loca ed downs eam o
he dam, so geomo phic condi ions in bo h eaches a e a ec ed by he
dam.
F om one seeding si e o he nex downs eam, we de ined a ‘s udy
each’. We he e o e de ined h ee s udy eaches, he ea e e e ed o as
‘con ol’, ‘ups eam’ and ‘downs eam’, acco ding o hei loca ion in
ela ion o he Olloki dam (Fig. 3). Tha is being said, he ‘con ol’ each
s a s in he mos ups eam seeding si e and ex ends un il he ail o he
ese oi , whe e he ups eam-dam seeding si e was loca ed. Then, he
‘ups eam’ each ex ends om he ups eam-dam o he downs eam-
dam seeding si e and includes he whole ese oi o he o me dam.
Finally, he ‘downs eam’ each s a s a he downs eam-dam seeding
si e and inishes in he Olabe ia wei , whe e we ound he lowe mos
a elling agged s ones.
The con ol each is loca ed ~2 km ups eam he Olloki dam. I is a
na ow (49-m-wide) i le-pool each, wi h a 0.0084 m/m bed slope. The
ups eam-impac each is a 1.5-km leng h each, loca ed 450 m up-
s eam he dam, bu in he a ea in luenced by backwa e e ec s o he
dam. I is a 41-m wid h each wi h a ~ 0.08 % bed slope. The
downs eam-impac each is loca ed ~600 m downs eam o he dam. I
is a 30-m wid h i le-pool each, wi h a mean bed slope a ound 0.077
m/m. Table 1 summa izes he main cha ac e is ics o he h ee eaches.
A pa icle acking ield campaign was done on he h ee eaches
using RFID echnology and PIT- ags o 7 hyd ological yea s, om he
summe o 2016 ( i s seeding) o he summe o 2022 (las sea ch o
ace s).
Fig. 2. Images showing he Olloki dam (pho os aken om downs eam o ups eam) and he i e immedia ely ups eam (pho os aken om ups eam o down-
s eam) and downs eam he dam, be o e he emo al (July 2017), pa ial emo ed (Sep embe 2018) and comple ely emo ed (July 2020) (pho os aken om
downs eam o ups eam).
A. Ibisa e e al.
Geomo phology 470 (2025) 109542
4
3.2. G ain-size and opog aphic measu emen s
We cha ac e ized he g ain size dis ibu ion o each each using he
Wolman pebble coun me hod (Wolman, 1954) and an aluminum em-
pla e (a e Hey and Tho ne, 1983) o measu e pa icle diame e . Each
yea om 2016 o 2021, one Wolman sample (180 coun ed g ains) was
collec ed along “ o ced” sedimen ba s in each simple poin .
The wid h, dep h and he a e age bed slope o he c oss-sec ion
whe e ace s ones we e seeded a each o he h ee s udy eaches
we e measu ed using Leica TS02 and Leica TC-307 o al s a ions. These
measu emen s we e epea ed each yea o e he s udy pe iod aiming a
iden i ying possible geomo phic changes du ing he moni o ing pe iod.
3.3. Pa icle acking
Each yea , 100 clas s pe each we e collec ed and d illed. Then, 23-
mm RFID ags we e inse ed, and he hole was sealed wi h esin. We
measu ed he h ee axes (a, b and c) o each pa icle, and we no ed each
ag iden i ying code. Finally, we pain ed he clas s wi h di e en colo s
o each si e and yea o acili a e hei sea ch in he ield (A naud e al.,
2017; Liebaul e al., 2024). This wo k low was epea ed o he h ee
selec ed eaches and o each s udy yea om 2016 o 2021, i.e., 1800
agged s ones we e seeded in o al, 600 o each each, ha is, 100 pe
yea and each.
T ace sizes we e selec ed based on he median size o he bed
sedimen measu ed ha yea a each si e. Then, ace s ones we e
selec ed o belong o he size class co esponding o he semi-phi in e al
including he median size, ollowing he Wen wo h scale, (Wen wo h,
1922), and in he semi-phi size class abo e he median (Table 2). Due o
he small size o he in e al below he D50 (45.3 ≥Ø <64) in he
con ol and ups eam eaches (compa ed o he PIT- ag size, 23 mm) we
decided o disca d hese in e als, as well as he lowe in e al o
downs eam each, o be consis en and ollow he same condi ions in
he h ee s udy eaches.
Fig. 3. S udied i e eaches and seeding si es (1: Con ol, 2: Ups eam, 3: Downs eam).
Table 1
Cha ac e is ics o he s udied eaches. Dis ance o he dam om seeding si e, 0 ep esen s he dam, nega i e dis ances co espond o ups eam dis ance o he dam,
whe eas posi i e dis ances ep esen downs eam dis ances o he dam.
Reaches Leng h be ween seeding
si es (m)
Cumula ed leng hs
(m)
Bank ull wid h
(m)
Dis ance o he dam om each
seeding si e (m)
Median g ain size
(mm)
Slope (m/
m)
D ainage basin
(km
2
)
Con ol 1938 1938 49 −2224 64 ≥Ø <90.5 0.0084 80.19
Ups eam 1044 2980 41 −452 64 ≥Ø <90.5 0.0008 81.91
Downs eam 8020 11,002 30 595 90.5 ≥Ø <128 0.077 91.23
Table 2
G ain size in e als o each sample poin . In black, he g ain size in e als used
o agged s ones in each i e each; in g ey, hose disca ded.
ID Wen wo h in e al
Below D50 D50 Abo e D50
Con ol 45.3 ≥Ø <64 64 ≥Ø <90.5 90.5 ≥Ø <128
Ups eam 45.3 ≥Ø <64 64 ≥Ø <90.5 90.5 ≥Ø <128
Downs eam 64 ≥Ø <90.5 90.5 ≥Ø <128 128 ≥Ø <256
A. Ibisa e e al.
Geomo phology 470 (2025) 109542
5
T ace s we e deployed in each s udy each o ming a squa e o e he
su ace o g a el ba s and close o he ba -wa e bounda y. E e y yea
ace s we e seeded in he same place (Fig. 4) a he beginning o each
hyd ological yea ( wo b oke and we e los when loca ing hem on he
seeding si e). The ace seeding posi ion was geoloca ed wi h a GPS.
E e y summe , s a ing in 2017 and inishing in 2022, we sea ched and
geoloca ed he ound ace s helped wi h an O egon RFID and Bioma k
ag eade s. Two o h ee ope a o s pa icipa ed in each su ey and he
p ospec ed a ea co e ed a channel su ace de ined by he con ol each
as ups eam poin , down o a lowe mos bounda y 500 m downs eam o
he las ace ound in each campaign. This su eying s a egy was
ollowed in all su eys excep in he i s one (2017), whe e he p o-
spec ion was poo e due o limi ed ime a ailable o ieldwo k and he
su eyed a ea was up o ~250 m om he downs eam seeding si e.
Du ing he ield wo k, he exac loca ion o each o he ace s ound
was measu ed wi h a ekking GPS du ing he h ee i s yea s, and a -
e wa ds wi h he GPS in eg a ed in he Bioma k ag eade . La e , da a
we e analyzed using GIS o ob ain he spa ial dis ibu ion o ace s
along he i e a e each ield campaign. Ou GPS had planime ic e -
o s close o 40 m a some poin s, due o he dense, all ee co e and he
s eepness o he alley. We conside ed ~50 m as he p ecision o he
ace posi ion o apply a pallia i e and conse a i e measu e. The e-
o e, ace posi ions we e assigned o 50 m bins along he longi udinal
channel p o ile. Fo his pu pose, GIS so wa e was used o d aw a bu e
polygon zone om he cen al axis o he Lei za an i e bed, allowing a
dis ance o 40 m on ei he side (i.e. a bu e o 80 m wide and 50 m long).
Then, indi idual a el dis ances we e compu ed wi h an e o o ±25
m. The cen al axis o he channel in he s udy sec ion was d awn a a
scale o 1/1000 om he la es a ailable o hoimage y.
3.4. Me ics o analyzing ace da a
Two di e en me ics we e used o cha ac e ize he displacemen o
each single i- ace : i. he dis ance a elled be ween wo consecu i e
su eys (d
j
); and ii. he cumula i e dis ance a elled om he ini ial
seeding loca ion (L
j
). Then, o each ace su ey, we es ima ed he
mean alue o hese wo me ics: <d>and <L>:
〈d〉Sj=∑
i=n
i=1
Xi,Sj−Xi,Sj−1
n
〈L〉Sj=∑
i=nin
i=1
Li,Sj
nin
whe e S
j
and S
j-1
e e o wo successi e ield su eys; n
is he numbe o
ace s ound in bo h su eys, and n
in
is he numbe o ace s o which
i s posi ion is known (o is in e ed) o a gi en su ey; X
i,Sj
-X
i, Sj-1
is he
di e ence in longi udinal ace posi ions be ween S
j
and S
j-1
along he
channel cen e line; and L
i
is he a el dis ance measu ed om ini ial
ace seeding posi ion.
The i s me ic p o ides in o ma ion o each ace ound in bo h
wo successi e su eys and gi es an idea o he a e age displacemen s o
sedimen pa icles du ing he su ey pe iod, while <L >in o ms o all
ace s ound in each su ey and p o ides insigh on he p og ession o
he cen oid o he ace plume (A naud e al., 2017). Fo he es ima ion
o Li and <L>, ollowing he ecommenda ions o MacVica and
Papangelakis (2022), we included ‘in e ed’ ace s in o he analysis o
ou da a, i.e., ace s ones missing in a su ey bu e- ound close o hei
Fig. 4. On he le shows seeding si es con ol, ups eam, and downs eam. On he igh shows a ace sea ching and a boulde and bed ock di icul o ack each
downs eam Be xin wei .
A. Ibisa e e al.
Geomo phology 470 (2025) 109542
6
p e ious posi ion in a la e p ospec ion, so we could in e ha hey we e
immobile.
To cha ac e ize he hyd aulic o cing, we used he cumula i e excess
ene gy o ime-in eg a ed excess (speci ic) s eam powe , based on
p e ious li e a u e documen ing ha mean a el dis ances o coa se
sedimen a e well co ela ed wi h his pa ame e (Haschenbu ge , 2013;
Papangelakis and Hassan, 2016; Papangelakis e al., 2022). Time-
in eg a ed excess (speci ic) s eam powe was calcula ed as:
∫(
ω
−
ω
c)d =
ρ
gS
w∫
0
(Q −Qc)d
whe e
ρ
(kg/m
3
in SI uni s) is he densi y o wa e , g (m/s
2
in SI uni s) is
he accele a ion o g a i y, S (m/m in SI uni s) is he bed slope a he
beginning o each hyd ological yea , Q
(m
3
/s in SI uni s) is he wa e
discha ge a an ins an , Q
c
(m
3
/s in SI uni s) is he c i ical discha ge, w
is he bank ull channel wid h a he beginning o each hyd ological yea
(m in SI uni s), and
0
and
a e he s a and end o he mobilizing e en .
To u he assess he links be ween hyd aulic o cing and ace
displacemen s, we also es ima ed he ‘Ene gy Expendi u e Index’ (EEI)
p oposed by V´
azquez-Ta ío e al. (2019) and V´
azquez-Ta ío and
Ba alla (2019):
EEI =∫(
ω
−
ω
c)d
〈d〉
whe e
ω
is he speci ic s eam powe and
ω
c
is he c i ical alue o
ω
o
incipien sedimen mo ion.
This pa ame e is somehow ela ed o he ‘ anspo e iciency’
concep o Bagnold and is in some way a p oxy o he amoun o ene gy
needed o displace ace s pe uni leng h (i.e., 1 m), which in a way
quan i ies he c oss-sec ional a e age ene gy equi ed o displace he
ace s.
3.5. Es ima es o bulk bedload olumes
Se e al app oaches ha e been p oposed o es ima e bedload olumes
om pa icle acking da a (e.g., Haschenbu ge and Chu ch, 1998;
Li´
ebaul and La onne, 2008; Mao e al., 2017). He e, bulk bedload
olumes we e es ima ed om he esul s o ace expe imen s using he
ollowing exp ession p oposed by Haschenbu ge and Chu ch (1998):
ib=
〈d〉
/ ⋅w⋅h⋅(1−p)⋅
ρ
• m
whe e <d>is he mean a el dis ance o ace s, he ime du a ion o
he compe en low, w is he p e- emo al bank ull wid h a he begin-
ning o he hyd ological yea , h is he dep h o he ac i e laye (mobile
sedimen ), p is he sedimen po osi y,
ρ
he mine al g ain densi y (he e
assumed o be 2650 kg m
−3
) and
m
is he mobile ac ion o bed
sedimen .
The dep h o he ac i e laye was de ined depending on he gene al
bed mobili y condi ions o each yea . When bedload anspo was
domina ed by pa ial mobili y (pe cen o mobile ace s <90 %), we
ook he D
50
as mean dep h o he ac i e laye . Fo hose pe iods whe e
ull mobili y condi ions we e achie ed (pe cen o mobile ace s >90
%), we es ima ed he dep h o he ac i e laye based on he equa ion o
he scou dep h p oposed by Recking e al. (2023):
h=1.4wS
Conce ning he ime du a ion o he compe en low, we conside he
cumula ed ime abo e c i ical low discha ge o each s udy pe iod. In
his ega d, du ing Decembe 2017, 2017–2018 hyd ological yea , we
obse ed in he ield some e y small mo emen s, ±1 m o 1.5 m, and
ea angemen s o he ace s gi en be ween Oc obe and Decembe
2017 in he con ol each. Then, he peak discha ge p eceding his
obse a ion (~25–30 m
3
/s) was assumed in his wo k as he c i ical
discha ge. Finally, he mobile ac ion o bed sedimen was es ima ed
om ace da a as he a io n
mob
/n
ec
, whe e n
ec
is he numbe o he
eco e ed ace s and n
mob
a e he numbe o mo ed ace s.
This bedload olume es ima ion was done o each yea based only
on he e ie ed ace s ha we e in oduced he yea immedia ely
be o e.
4. Resul s
4.1. Hyd ology o he s udy pe iod
F om 2016 o 2022 he e ha e been 22 loods whose peak discha ges
we e abo e he c i ical low a e (Fig. 5). The maximum eco ded peak
was 143.9 m
3
/s and occu ed be ween he 25 h o No embe and 12 h o
Decembe o 2021 (Table 3). The o al numbe o days du ing which
c i ical discha ge has been exceeded a leas once was 35 om 2016 o
2022.
The su ey 2021/22 was he mos ‘ac i e’ yea om a hyd ological
poin o iew, wi h he highes eco ded loods (99.7 m
3
/s maximum
mean daily low and 143.8 m
3
/s peak low – 7.9 y e u n pe iod–)
du ing he whole moni o ing pe iod and mo e days abo e he c i ical
low (Table 3). Con e sely, yea 2020/21 was he ‘quie es ’, wi h he
lowes eco ded peak discha ge (39.1 m
3
/s) and only 2 days wi h dis-
cha ges abo e he c i ical h eshold.
4.2. G ain size da a
Table 4 shows he esul s o annual g ain size measu emen s in he
eaches. We obse e a p og essi e ining o he g ain size in he h ee
eaches du ing he six yea s o he s udy. This ining was g ea e in he
downs eam each. In gene al, downs eam each had he highes g ain
size alues, while he ups eam had he lowes alues du ing all he
campaigns, excep o he las one, once he dam was comple ely
emo ed, when he con ol each had he highes alues.
4.3. T ace su eys: aw da a
We eco e ed a ema kable numbe o he seeded ace s, bu e-
co e ies we e a iable depending on he yea . Ou o a o al o 1798
ace s in oduced in he h ee s udy eaches, we eco e ed 474 in 2022
a he end o he 6 yea s o ield su ey (Table 5). Many o he agged
s ones we e eco e ed se e al imes du ing he di e en ield
campaigns.
The da a p esen ed in Table 5 documen a iable eco e y a es,
anging om a ela i ely high eco e y a io o 51.3 % in 2018 o lowe
eco e ies (26.4 %) in 2022. I we conside only he ace s ha we e
ound among hose ha we e in oduced in he p e ious yea , he e-
co e y a ios a e highe in all ield campaigns (Table 5). This may be
because ace s did no ha e enough ime o become bu ied and well-
mixed in he i e bed, o o a el u he down o he p ospec ed
a ea. Reco e y a ios in gene al dec eased as ield campaigns p o-
g essed. The las su ey pe iod is he one in which we epo a g ea e
dec ease in he numbe o ace s eco e ed (26.4 % o he o al in o-
duced). Wi h all he su eyed yea s conside ed, he eco e y in con ol
each was o 989 ace s, 363 in ups eam each and 977 in downs eam
each (Table 5). The highes eco e y a es we e in con ol each,
conside ing ha 8 ace s ound in ups eam each we e seeded in
con ol each and 328 o hose ace s eco e ed in downs eam each
mig a ed om ups eam each, and e en 3 o he ace s mig a ed om
con ol each. Some o he ace s we e ound in eaches o he han he
ones whe e hey we e seeded. The lowes eco e y a es we e in gene al
in he ups eam each. Besides ha , we ne e ound 545 o he o al
seeded ace s. The pain ing o he pa icles was los in many o he
cases, so ew o hem we e iden i ied by hei colo .
The eco e y a e o ace s in summe 2017 was e y low compa ed
o he o he yea s (32 %). In addi ion, he measu ed displacemen s ha
yea a e limi ed o a e y sho each and close o each seeding si e
A. Ibisa e e al.
Geomo phology 470 (2025) 109542
7
(Fig. 6). This is p obably a bias esul ing om he su ey s a egy ol-
lowed du ing he ace sea ch, so he p ospec ed a ea was p obably
sho e han he a el dis ance co e ed by he eal mo emen o ace s.
This could likely in oduce noise in he in e p e a ion and analysis o he
da a, so da a om his i s su ey we e he e o e excluded om u he
analyses p esen ed in his manusc ip .
Fig. 6 shows he loca ions whe e ace s we e e ie ed du ing he
di e en ield campaigns. These loca ions al eady sugges an impo an
mobiliza ion o sedimen du ing he 2017–2022 moni o ing pe iod. The
dis ances and loca ions o he ace s e idence ha some o hem c ossed
wei s, as some pa icles appea ed downs eam o Be xin in 2021 and
2022. In 2021 only one was iden i ied downs eam Be xin wei , 5625 m
downs eam o he ups eam seeding si e whe e i was seeded in 2016. In
2022, we de ec ed 5 ace s downs eam Be xin wei : a 8525 m
downs eam om i s seeding si e (seeded in 2019 in ups eam si e), a
7675 m (seeded in 2021-ups eam), a 7425 m (seeded in 2016 in up-
s eam si e), a 4675 m (seeded in 2016 downs eam) and a 5475 m
(seeded in 2016 ups eam) each o hem. Th ee mo e a i ed e en o he
ese oi o Olabe ia (2 seeded in ups eam each in 2018–8925 m
downs eam he seeding si e- and he hi d loca ed a 8825 m om he
ups eam each whe e i was seeded in 2021).
4.4. Analysis o ace displacemen s
Globally, o he whole s udy each, he analysis o he mean ace
displacemen s (d
i
) shows: i. a p og essi e inc ease in he mean ace
displacemen s om he su ey yea 2017/2018 (be o e dam emo al) o
2018/2019 (1s pa ial dam emo al); ii. la ge ace displacemen s
we e eco ded once he dam was emo ed (su ey yea 2019/2020); iii.
mean ace displacemen s (298.6 m) a e mode a e du ing he yea
2020/2021; and i . la ge mean ace displacemen s (1055.9 m) a e
eco ded du ing he las moni o ing yea (2021/2022).
Focusing on he beha io o he ace s in oduced in each each, he
downs eam each eco ds he longes displacemen s in all moni o ing
yea s, as well as he highes displacemen s in he mos hyd ologically
ac i e yea s (Table 6). The sho es displacemen s a e epo ed in ei he
he con ol o in ups eam each, depending on he yea . In 2017/2018,
be o e he s a o dam emo al, he ups eam each had he lowes
displacemen s, bu a e he 1s dam emo al and a e i s comple ion,
la ge displacemen s we e ound in he ups eam each, highe han in
he con ol each. The las moni o ed yea , 2021/2022 (3 yea s a e
dam emo al was comple ed), eco ded he la ges displacemen s in he
ups eam and downs eam eaches, while 2017/2018 was he yea wi h
he la ges mean a el dis ances in he con ol each.
We ha e also analyzed he po en ial in luence o g ain size on a el
Fig. 5. Mean daily low hyd og aph o he whole moni o ing pe iod. G ey columns indica e he ace acking pe iods each yea and he e ical do ed lines he
beginning o each hyd ological yea (1-Oc o 30-Sep). Pa ial (3 m emo al) and comple e dam emo al (4 m emo al) momen s a e indica ed.
Table 3
Hyd ology da a: days abo e c i ical low and peak lows o each hyd ological
yea .
Hyd ological
yea
Days abo e
c i ical
discha ge
Hou s abo e
c i ical
discha ge
Q max
(m
3
/s)
Dam emo al
phase
2016/17 4 120.9 110.2 Be o e
emo al
2017/18 7 267.5 109.9 Be o e
emo al
Fi s sla emo al (3 m). Pa ial emo al
2018/19 7 251.3 70.6 3 m pa ial
emo al
Second sla emo al (4 m). Comple e emo al
2019/20 3 101 69.9 Comple e
emo al
2020/21 2 85.2 39.1 Comple e
emo al
2021/22 12 404.3 143.9 Comple e
emo al
Table 4
G ain size cha ac e is ics o each each in each ieldwo k campaign, in mm.
Reach Decile 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Con ol D16 27 45 33 22 24 17
D50 82 92 63 74 58 54
D84 180 180 110 190 120 110
Ups eam D16 36 49 20 28 12 19
D50 68 79 39 58 34 44
D84 110 120 71 110 99 80
Downs eam D16 48 47 35 27 21 26
D50 97 110 70 86 43 49
D84 210 210 160 180 82 85
A. Ibisa e e al.
Geomo phology 470 (2025) 109542
8
dis ances. Fo his pu pose, i is no su icien o plo dis ances agains
pa icle size, as his ype o plo will be co- ounded by he hyd aulic
e ec s associa ed wi h di e ences in hyd aulic o cing in he da a se .
The e o e, i is i s necessa y o isola e he pu e size e ec s om hose
due o di e en hyd aulic condi ions. In his espec , Chu ch and Hassan
(1992) p oposed an app oach o analyze he e ec s o g ain size on
a el dis ance, isola ing hem om he e ec s o hyd aulics and pa icle
a angemen s. To do so, Chu ch and Hassan (1992) sugges ed ha
obse ed ace a el dis ances should be scaled wi h he mean a el
dis ance o he bed median g ain size (L* =L
J
/L
JD50
)) and plo ed
agains he a io o he ace size o e he bed median g ain size (D* =
D
j
/D
Jd50
). To es ima e L
J
D
50
, we only used ace s om he semi-phi
in e al o he bed median size. Addi ionally, Chu ch and Hassan
(1992) used he median o he subsu ace g ain size dis ibu ion o es-
ima e D*. He e he g ain size da a we e scaled by he su ace D50 a ea
ollowing Wilcock (1997) a he han he subsu ace, so o i he o ig-
inal o m o he ela ionship ound by Chu ch and Hassan, he g ain size
was mul iplied by a ac o o 2.2, which is an a e age alue o a mou
a io in g a el-bed i e s (V´
azquez-Ta ío e al., 2020). In Fig. 7, we
ha e accomplished his analysis wi h ou da a. We do no obse e any
clea end be ween pa icle a el dis ances and g ain size, no did we
obse e any di e ence be o e and a e dam emo al. Indeed, ou ace
popula ion was selec ed in a e y na ow ange o sizes and a ound he
D50, so p obably his is masking any po en ial end.
Table 5
Reco e y da a by each, iden i ying he seeding o igin o each ield campaign (in g ey he numbe
o ace s ound jus om hose in oduced he yea be o e).
Seeding
yea
Seeding
si e
Locaon
o ound
ace s
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2016
CONTROL
CONTROL
62
55
46
28
49
43
UP
1
2
DOWN
2
UP
UP
21
43
33
19
12
DOWN
15
32
13
DOWN
DOWN
13
40
61
19
20
16
2017
CONTROL
CONTROL
49
35
40
60
29
UP
1
1
2
2
UP
UP
54
20
6
5
DOWN
28
29
13
DOWN
DOWN
67
59
12
15
19
2018
CONTROL
CONTROL
49
46
62
44
UP
1
UP
UP
34
17
10
DOWN
29
27
21
DOWN
DOWN
60
27
29
23
2019
CONTROL
CONTROL
46
70
43
UP
2
DOWN
1
UP
UP
20
10
DOWN
38
40
13
DOWN
DOWN
20
26
22
2020
CONTROL
CONTROL
10
44
UP
1
UP
UP
40
5
DOWN
15
DOWN
DOWN
79
7
2021
CONTROL
CONTROL
65
UP
UP
1
DOWN
15
DOWN
DOWN
12
Reco e ed
96
308
398
412
627
474
% eco e ed
32.0
51.3
44.3
34.4
41.9
26.4
Reco e ed only om hose seeded
he yea be o e
96
170
143
124
129
93
%idem
32.0
56.7
47.8
41.3
43.1
31.0
Seeded
300
600
899
1199
1498
1798
A. Ibisa e e al.
Geomo phology 470 (2025) 109542
9
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