Ci a ion: Rosen, A.O.; Holmes, A.L.;
Ballue ka, N.; Hidalgo, M.D.;
Go os iaga, A.; Gómez-Beni o, J.;
Huedo-Medina, T.B. Is Social Media a
New Type o Social Suppo ? Social
Media Use in Spain du ing he
COVID-19 Pandemic: A Mixed
Me hods S udy. In . J. En i on. Res.
Public Heal h 2022,19, 3952. h ps://
doi.o g/10.3390/ije ph19073952
Academic Edi o : Michael
S elle son
Recei ed: 1 Ma ch 2022
Accep ed: 24 Ma ch 2022
Published: 26 Ma ch 2022
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In e na ional Jou nal o
En i onmen al Resea ch
and Public Heal h
A icle
Is Social Media a New Type o Social Suppo ? Social Media
Use in Spain du ing he COVID-19 Pandemic: A Mixed
Me hods S udy
A iana O. Rosen 1, Ashley L. Holmes 1, Nekane Ballue ka 2, Ma ia Dolo es Hidalgo 3, A an xa Go os iaga 2,
Juana Gómez-Beni o 4,5 and Tania B. Huedo-Medina 1,*
1Depa men o Allied Heal h Sciences, Uni e si y o Connec icu , S o s, CT 06269, USA;
[email p o ec ed] (A.O.R.); ashley[email p o ec ed] (A.L.H.)
2Depa men o Clinical and Heal h Psychology, and Resea ch Me hods, Facul y o Psychology, Uni e si y o
he Basque Coun y UPV/EHU, 20018 Donos ia, Spain; [email p o ec ed] (N.B.);
[email p o ec ed] (A.G.)
3Depa men o Basic Psychology and Me hodology, Facul y o Psychology, Uni e si y o Mu cia,
30100 Mu cia, Spain; [email p o ec ed]
4G oup on Measu emen In a iance and Analysis o Change (GEIMAC), Ins i u e o Neu oscience,
Uni e si y o Ba celona, 08035 Ba celona, Spain; [email p o ec ed]
5Depa men o Social Psychology and Quan i a i e Psychology, Facul y o Psychology,
Uni e si y o Ba celona, 08035 Ba celona, Spain
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac :
This s udy examines Spanish adul s’ social media use du ing he COVID-19 pandemic
using mixed-me hods o assess and unde s and equency, con ex , and changes in social media use
du ing wo c i ical ime poin s in Spain. We conduc ed semi-s uc u ed in e iews in Ap il 2020,
and wo wa es o su eys (Ap il 2020, Ap il 2021) among Spanish adul s. We coded and analyzed
quali a i e da a ela ed o social media use du ing he i s lockdown pe iod in Spain using Dedoose
so wa e; and an desc ip i e s a is ics and chi-squa e es s o assess changes in social media use o e
he wo su ey wa es ela ed o pe cei ed social suppo and loneliness. Pa icipan s anged in age
om 18–92 and we e ep esen a i e o he Spanish popula ion’s sociodemog aphics. In e iew da a
show ha Wha sApp was mos commonly used, and ha social media allowed o social suppo
and engaging in heal hy beha io s. Su ey da a show ha women and indi iduals aged 18–34 had
he g ea es inc eases in social media use. S a is ically signi ican associa ions we e ound be ween
social suppo and loneliness wi h social media use. Ou esul s show ha p omo ing social media
use as an emo ional esou ce o social suppo in imes o c isis o isola ion can minimize loneliness
and can be a bene icial ool o gene al wo ldwide c ises.
Keywo ds:
COVID-19 pandemic; social media; social suppo ; quali a i e esea ch; su ey esea ch;
heal h p omo ion; in e pe sonal communica ion
1. In oduc ion
Since he beginning o he COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, d ama ic inc eases in social
media use ha e been widely ci ed om coun ies ac oss he globe, wi h 4.2 billion use s o
social media almos a yea in o he pandemic in Janua y 2021, compa ed o 3.8 billion he
yea be o e [
1
–
7
]. As o Oc obe 2021, his numbe has inc eased o 4.55 billion social media
use s, exhibi ing a 9.9% g ow h [
8
]. Fu he , Wes e n Eu ope and No h Ame ica ha e he
highes social media sa u a ion a es in he wo ld, and Spain in pa icula has been ci ed as
seeing massi e inc eases in media consump ion o news, ins an messaging applica ions,
and social media pla o ms since he s a o he pandemic [6,9,10].
A he s a o he pandemic when he e we e so many unce ain ies abou SARS-CoV-2,
Spain was one o he ha des hi coun ies in Eu ope, wi h ex emely s ic go e nmen lock-
downs and es ic ions o social ga he ings, o cing i s popula ion in o social isola ion [
11
].
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2022,19, 3952. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/ije ph19073952 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/ije ph
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2022,19, 3952 2 o 20
Resea ch has ound ha since he s a o he pandemic, social dis ancing egula ions
con ibu ed o inc eases in social media consump ion, and ha many engaged in in ensi e
social media use o s ay in o med abou he un olding COVID-19 [
12
]. A ecen epo
ound ha he numbe o social media use s in Spain inc eased by 28% be ween 2020 and
2021 [
8
]. Ano he s udy ha examined he ela ionship be ween media consump ion and
psychological well-being among Spanish adul s ound ha he e was a signi ican inc ease
in mean minu es spen pe day on social media du ing lockdown compa ed o be o e [
6
].
In ac , mo e han hal o pa icipan s in his s udy epo ed equen use o social media
as an in o ma ion sou ce, and he inc eased social media use was signi ican ly posi i ely
ela ed o anxie y.
In addi ion o inc eased social media use in Spain, he digi al communica ion pla o m
Wha sApp has seen an 83% g ow h a e du ing he pandemic, making Spain he coun y
wi h he highes g ow h in he wo ld [
13
]. Wi hin his g ow h, Wha sApp has ansi ioned
om being a pe sonal messaging app, o mo e o a social media mechanism, wi h use as
a pla o m o sha e news, media, pho os and ideos, and communica e ia message and
ideo call wi h g oups and indi iduals [
14
]. As o Oc obe 2021, Wha sApp was announced
he hi d op used social media pla o m in he wo ld, behind YouTube and Facebook, and
was a ed he ‘ a o i e’ social media pla o m among in e ne use s aged 16–64 [8].
While he e is no doub ha social media use has inc eased du ing COVID-19, he li e -
a u e is mixed on whe he his has posi i ely o nega i ely a ec ed heal h ou comes. Gene -
ally, social media and sma phone use ha e been associa ed wi h nega i e e ec s on men al
heal h, physical heal h, heal h beha io s, social isola ion, happiness, and mood
[15–25]
.
O he esea ch on social media and heal h- ela ed social media in e en ions ha e ound
ha when used wi h p ope guidance, social media use can ha e g ea implica ions o
beha io change including inc eased in e ac ion wi h o he s and enhanced social and
emo ional suppo [
22
,
25
–
30
]. Du ing he COVID-19 pandemic, se e al s udies ha e ound
ha social media had nega i e e ec s on heal h and well-being. Fo example, a s udy o
social media use on men al heal h, quali y o li e, well-being, and loneliness ound ha
among adul s in he Uni ed S a es, Uni ed Kingdom, No way, and Aus alia, hose who
epo ed high equen use o social media in he i s weeks o he pandemic expe ienced
poo e men al and psychological heal h [
31
]. Ano he s udy among adul s in China ound
ha weekly social media use signi ican ly inc eased du ing he i s COVID-19 lockdown
pe iod compa ed o be o e, and emales epo ed g ea e inc eases [32].
Simila ly, esea ch among Spanish adul s du ing he lockdown in Ap il 2020 ound
ha hose who inc eased hei use o social ne wo king si es du ing he lockdown had a
nega i e co ela ion wi h hei le el o happiness [
6
]. Fu he , hose who epo ed g ea e
well-being also epo ed spending less ime on social ne wo king si es, and hose who
engaged in mo e use o hese si es we e less happy han hose who did so modes ly, and
had lowe gene al and social well-being [
6
]. Con a ily, a s udy o psychia ic ou pa ien s
in Spain ound ha hose who used social media mo e equen ly du ing he lockdown
pe iod engaged in mo e physical ac i i y [
33
], and ha hose who epo ed highe anxie y
symp oms we e mo e ac i e in social ne wo king apps (e.g., Facebook, Ins ag am, Twi e )
and less ac i e in communica ion apps (e.g., Wha sApp, eleg am) [34].
O he esea ch has ound ha i sma phone and social media use is a ibu ed o
seeking social suppo , i may help gua d agains he nega i e e ec s o he dep i a ion
o in-pe son con ac and o he pandemic- ela ed s ess [
33
]. One e iew s udying he
associa ion o social suppo and heal h wi h Facebook use ound ha when indi iduals
used Facebook o social suppo , hey expe ienced be e men al and physical heal h
ou comes [
35
]. These da a sugges ha i social media is used o engage in meaning ul
social connec ions, especially du ing a ime o o ced social isola ion and s ess, he social
ne wo king use can be bene icial o well-being [6,33,36].
While many s udies ha e ci ed inc eases in social media use du ing he
pandemic
[2–8,12–14]
, ew s udies ha e assessed he easons and con ex behind hese
inc eases, o changes in social media use o e ime du ing he pandemic, pa icula ly
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2022,19, 3952 3 o 20
among Spanish adul s du ing he changing COVID-19 clima e and egula ions. Wi h he
da a mixed on whe he his social media use is ha m ul o physical and men al heal h
and well-being may la gely depend on he mo i a ions and easons o an indi idual’s
use. The e o e, he pu pose o he p esen s udy is o p o ide insigh in o he d as ic
inc eases in social media use du ing he COVID-19 pandemic among Spanish adul s, using
mixed-me hods o assess and unde s and equency, con ex , and changes in social media
use du ing wo c i ical ime poin s o he pandemic in Spain. We conduc ed semi-s uc u ed
in e iews in Ap il 2020 du ing he ime ha Spain was one o he i s coun ies ou side o
Asia o be s ongly hi by he pandemic [
37
], and quan i a i e su eys in Ap il 2020 and
Ap il 2021 among Spanish adul s. Based on he e iewed li e a u e, we hypo hesized ha
social media use will inc ease h oughou he cou se o he pandemic, and ha social media
communica ion apps will be commonly used o social suppo and o educe loneliness
among pa icipan s.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
2.1. Quali a i e Me hods
Fo his p ojec , in o de o ho oughly ob ain he nuances, pe cep ions, and poin s o
iews om he na a i es o Spanish adul s du ing he i s COVID-19 lockdown pe iod,
we conduc ed semi-s uc u ed in-dep h in e iews. Following guidelines ou lined by Weiss
(1995) [
38
], we de eloped in e iew ques ions based on ou s udy goals and concep s
c i ical o he s udy and used p io li e a u e on epidemic and pandemic popula ion e ec s
o ensu e we included ques ions ha would add ess he necessa y aspec s. We de eloped
key ques ions o ask du ing he in e iews o guide he in e iewe on he p ima y a eas o
explo e bu u ilized a semi-s uc u ed o ma allowing he in e iewe o lexibly pu sue
any un o eseen concep s ha a ose in he in e iew [
39
]. We used an induc i e app oach o
da a coding o de elop codes and hemes ela ed o social media use om he da a, which
is mos o en iden i ied as an aspec o G ounded Theo y [40–42].
2.1.1. Rec ui men
In collabo a ion wi h esea che s om di e en Spanish uni e si ies, esea che s a he
Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y (Spain) led a mixed-me hods s udy on he psychological
e ec s o he pandemic and go e nmen -imposed lockdown on he Spanish adul popula-
ion. An ini ial epo o he da a has been published [
43
]. Rec ui men was execu ed by he
S a egic Ma ke Resea ch Solu ions (Soluciones Es a égicas de In es igación de Me cados;
SEIM) Company, a epu able esea ch and ec ui men o ganiza ion based in Mad id, Spain.
SEIM used a ie ed ec ui men sys em o con ac adul s 18 yea s and olde in Spain h ough
hei b oad ne wo k o eco ds. This ec ui men was based on heo e ically ele an c i e ia
o he pu pose o he s udy, including le el o ulne abili y o he SARS-CoV-2 i us (oc-
cupa ional, heal h, exposu e, age), geog aphical a ea ( ep esen ing he di e ence incidence
a es in he egions o Spain), and pe sonal li ing si ua ion (li ing wi h dependen s such
as child en, elde ly, o indi iduals wi h ch onic illness). In he i s ie o ec ui men ,
indi iduals who we e in a sensi i e o ulne able pandemic si ua ion (e.g., ulne able
due o como bidi ies, li e wi h ulne able indi iduals, consis en exposu es, li e wi h
exposed indi iduals) we e con ac ed as hey a e ypically he mos di icul o ec ui . In he
second and hi d ie s, lowe - isk indi iduals we e con ac ed. The indi iduals con ac ed
o ec ui men we e balanced in gende , age, geog aphic egions o Spain, occupa ional
si ua ions, amily and housing si ua ions, and ela ionships o COVID-19 (e.g., diagnosed,
no diagnosed, lo ed ones diagnosed). SEIM con ac ed indi iduals and in o med hem
o he s udy objec i es, cha ac e is ics, and con iden iali y ag eemen s wi h he Eu opean
Gene al Da a P o ec ion Regula ion and in o med hem abou he e hics app o al by he
Commi ee o Resea ch wi h Human Subjec s a he Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y. I
pa icipan s wished o con inue, a eam membe om SEIM con ac ed hem o in o m abou
s udy objec i es and he gene al con en o he in e iew. Pa icipan s we e no i ied ha
hei da a would be con iden ial, and hose who consen ed o pa icipa ion p o ided e bal
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2022,19, 3952 4 o 20
consen eco ded on audio. Once consen was ob ained, a da e and ime o conduc ing he
in e iew a he pa icipan ’s con enience was a anged.
2.1.2. In e iew Ques ion De elopmen
The scien i ic li e a u e on he e ec s o COVID-19 and p io pandemics and epidemics
was ho oughly sea ched o ind inspi a ion o e alua ing he pe sonal and psychological
consequences o he pandemic ha would in o m he semi-s uc u ed in e iew ques ions.
Addi ionally, se e al membe s o he esea ch eam a e expe s in he psychological impac s
o auma ic si ua ions (e.g., disas e s, loss, sudden illness o dea h, ex eme s ess) and
we e able o in o m ques ions ha may help add ess ou esea ch ques ions.
Each in e iew ques ion sough o elici de ails on Spanish adul s’ expe ience du ing
he lockdown in Spain ega ding psychological, cogni i e, beha io al, and emo ional e ec s
de i ed om he pandemic and lockdown egula ions. We also sough o desc ibe any
con ex ual a iables ha may ha e in luenced hese e ec s including housing, economics,
social suppo , COVID-19 exposu e o diagnosis; and be able o desc ibe any changes in
hese e ec s om be o e o du ing he pandemic. The in e iew ques ions we e so ed by
a ea in o nine subjec blocks including employmen , housing cha ac e is ics, pe cep ions o
COVID-19 egula ions, basic habi s du ing lockdown, emo ional impac , coping s a egies,
and mo e; ou lined in Table A1. Ques ions ha commonly elici ed esponses including
aspec s o social media o mass media include hose ela ed o basic habi s, e ec s o he
lockdown on amily and iend ela ionships, emo ional impac s, and coping s a egies.
2.1.3. Semi-S uc u ed In e iews
Semi-s uc u ed in e iews we e conduc ed by ou Spanish esea che s wi h doc o a e
deg ees in psychology and expe ise in conduc ing quali a i e in e iews. The in e iew-
e s we e ained on in e iew p o ocol, p obing echniques, and c isis o men al heal h
managemen in ins ances o de ec ing clinical indica o s o se e e o ha m ul dis ess in he
pa icipan . The in e iews we e conduc ed by phone h ough Wha sApp ideo calls in he
second week o Ap il 2020 ( he i h week o he i s lockdown in Spain) and we e eco ded
wi h he consen o he pa icipan s. In e iews we e conduc ed by con en ional phone call
in he e en o poo in e ne connec ion, o i pa icipan s did no eel com o able showing
hei ace on came a.
In e iews we e conduc ed un il sa u a ion was eached. Sa u a ion is he “gold
s anda d” o he poin a which i is accep able o discon inue da a collec ion in quali a i e
esea ch; when no addi ional da a a e being ound, and no new codes a e occu ing in he
da a [
40
,
44
,
45
]. Wi h his aim, he ou in e iewe s and he esea ch eam me daily o
e alua e he in e iews and examine he new codes ha eme ged un il no new hemes
eme ged. The in e iew eco dings and ansc ip ions we e s o ed anonymously on a
passwo d p o ec ed s o age d i e a he Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y, in compliance
wi h he e hics commi ee o Resea ch wi h Human Subjec s a he Uni e si y.
2.1.4. Da a Analysis
Using Dedoose so wa e [
46
], a esea che wi h quali a i e expe ience (A.O.R.) coded
he in e iew ansc ip s. As ou lined abo e, we used induc i e coding p ac ices o sea ch
o meaning in ecu ing concep s and hemes in he in e iews, wi hou applying p ede-
e mined heo e ical ames [
40
]. Wi h induc i e coding, we we e able o d aw om he
da a and allow non-p ede e mined ca ego ies o eme ge using Thema ic Analysis [
47
–
49
].
Coded da a included men ions o a ious social media pla o ms (e.g., Facebook, Twi e ,
Ins ag am) in addi ion o men ions o Wha sApp, YouTube, Skype, and Zoom when ela ed
o pe sonal li e. We coded men ions o ideo calls, al hough we did no code da a ega ding
s ic ly elephone calls o wo k- ela ed media use o mee ings. A o al o 41 in e iews
we e conduc ed, al hough due o echnological issues wi h he i ual call, one in e iew
was incomple e and hus emo ed om he da ase . Addi ionally, wo in e iews had no
men ion o any social o mass media use, and hus we e also emo ed om he da ase .
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2022,19, 3952 5 o 20
2.2. Quan i a i e Me hods
We collec ed da a in wo wa es du ing key momen s in he COVID-19 pandemic in
Spain. The i s , in Ap il 2020, Spain was he Eu opean coun y wi h he highes numbe o
con i med COVID-19 cases. The Spanish go e nmen had decla ed a S a e o Eme gency
wi h 202,990 cases o COVID-19, and 22,524 COVID-19- ela ed dea hs. The second, Ap il
2021, se e al au onomous communi ies in Spain we e coming ou o a second lockdown
and accines we e s a ing o be dis ibu ed.
2.2.1. Rec ui men
The company Ne ques ec ui ed a ep esen a i e sample o Spanish adul s o e
18 yea s old. Fo sampling, he key sociodemog aphic a iables o he popula ion we e con-
side ed as quo as, being ep esen a i e o gende , socioeconomic s a us, au onomous com-
muni y (i.e., egion) o Spain, and age. Ne ques sen ec ui men in i a ions o 16,205 indi-
iduals; 10,059 we e accep ed, wi h a 62% ec ui men a e. O he 10,059 pa icipan s ha
consen ed o pa icipa e, 271 we e excluded o a ious quali y il e s, 42 did no ollow-up
hus we e excluded, 45 we e excluded as he quo a o hei gi en au onomous communi y
had al eady been me , 2297 did no mee he su ey deadline, and 615 we e incomple e. In
Wa e 1 (Ap il 2020), a o al o 6789 pa icipan s comple ed he su ey. Fo Wa e 2, Ne ques
esu eyed 3500 o he same pa icipan s who had comple ed he Wa e 1 su ey.
2.2.2. Su ey Measu es
The su ey ques ionnai e o bo h wa es consis ed o COVID-19- ela ed ques ions
assessing changes in li es yle, men al heal h, psychological e ec s o COVID-19, li ing
si ua ion, COVID-19 isks and ulne abili ies, sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ics, among
o he s. Fo his p ojec , we ocused on he ques ions ela ed o social media use and
social suppo . In Wa e 1, social media use was assessed wi h he ques ion, ‘Compa ed o
you li e be o e he lockdown, how has you social media use changed du ing lockdown?’
wi h esponses anging om 1 (has dec eased a lo ) o 5 (has inc eased a lo ). Fo da a
p esen a ion pu poses, we combined Op ions 1 and 2 o ep esen a dec ease in social
media use, and 4 and 5 o ep esen an inc ease in social media use. To measu e social
suppo , we used pe cei ed le els o help and suppo as a p oxy o pe cei ed social
suppo . Pa icipan s we e asked o iden i y on a scale o 1 (no help) o 10 (a lo o help)
how much help hey belie ed hey would ha e i he ollowing si ua ions o need p esen ed
hemsel es: physical o medical p oblems, psychological p oblems, need o social suppo
(e.g., cha ing, sha ing eelings), need o buy ood o supplies, housing in as uc u e
p oblems (e.g., elec ic, wa e cu o ), and need o un e ands. We combined op ions
0–3 o ep esen li le o no help, 4–6 o some help, and 7–10 o a lo o help. Finally,
we measu ed eelings o loneliness by asking pa icipan s how hei eelings o loneliness
changed du ing lockdown compa ed o be o e he pandemic. Responses we e collec ed
and combined in he same manne as changes in social media use.
Wa e 2 used a simila social media measu e and scale, bu buil on Wa e 1
0
s ques ion,
and asked, ‘Since las summe , how has you social media use changed?’. The p oxy
o social suppo in Wa e 2 was simila ly ela ed o need o esou ces and whe he
pa icipan s had access o help by asking, ‘In he las 30 days, ha e you had di icul y
accessing impo an daily esou ces (e.g., sani a y p oduc s, ood, clo hes, wa e , house
supplies, medica ion)’ wi h answe choices o yes o no. Pa icipan s who answe ed yes
we e hen asked o e alua e how s ess ul hese di icul ies we e on a scale o 1 (no a all
s ess ul) o 5 (ex emely s ess ul). Responses we e eca ego ized o ep esen no e y
s ess ul, somewha s ess ul, and e y s ess ul. We hypo hesized ha pa icipan s who
had less di icul ies may ha e had mo e social suppo wi h help ge ing hese supplies,
and hose who did ha e di icul ies ob aining supplies would epo highe inc eases in
social media use i hey el mo e s ess, hus le e aging social media o communica e wi h
o he s o help.
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2022,19, 3952 6 o 20
2.2.3. S a is ical Analyses
IBM SPSS S a is ics Ve sion 27 was used o un all s a is ics [
50
]. Desc ip i e s a is ics
we e un o demog aphic a iables; and Chi-squa ed es s we e used o es possible asso-
cia ions be ween ca ego ical demog aphic a iables and he wo ime poin s (ca ego ical
o dinal a iables) [
51
]. We es ed he null hypo hesis o independence be ween he wo
wa es o da a collec ion and each o he ollowing a iables: social media use and pe cei ed
le els o help/social suppo (Wa e 1), loneliness (Wa e 1), age and gende (Wa e 1), and
social media use and p esence and le el o s ess accessing impo an daily esou ces (Wa e
2). Associa ions we e conside ed signi ican a p< 0.05.
3. Resul s
3.1. Quali a i e Resul s
The mean age o he 40 pa icipan s is 43.6 (SD = 14.1). Sligh ly mo e han hal a e
emale (n= 21, 52.5%), be ween he ages o 36–55 (n= 21, 52.5%), and hold a bachelo ’s
deg ee o highe (n= 32, 80%) (Table 1). The pa icipan s we e ep esen a i e o he 13
au onomous communi ies o Spain, and o hei employmen s a us, mos we e on paid
empo a y lea e om wo k (n= 11, 27.5%) o wo king om home (n= 8, 20%). Mos
pa icipan s (n= 16, 40%) li e wi h a pa ne , 9 (22.5%) li e wi h young child en, 6 (15%)
li e wi h olde people, 5 (12.5%) li e alone, 2 (5%) li e wi h iends, and he emainde
epo ed ha ing men al heal h o addic ion p oblems (n= 2, 5%). In e ms o pa icipan s’
ela ion o COVID-19, 22 (55%) pa icipan s epo ed no being a ec ed a all by he i us,
meaning ha hey we e no in ec ed o in close con ac o someone in ec ed, no we e any
o hei iends o amily. Se en (17.5%) pa icipan s had been in ec ed wi h COVID-19,
5 (12.5%) had a close iend o amily membe es posi i e, 6 (15%) li ed wi h indi iduals
who a e ulne able o a - isk o exposu e, and 5 (12.5%) epo ed ha ing been in close
p oximi y wi h someone who had es ed posi i e.
Table 1. Quali a i e Pa icipan Demog aphics (n= 40).
Va iable n(%)
Gende
Female 21 (52.5)
Age Ca ego y
18–35 13 (32.5)
36–55 21 (52.5)
>55 6 (15)
Employmen
Los job 5 (12.5)
No wo king 6 (15)
On ERTE * 11 (27.5)
Re i ed 6 (15)
S uden 4 (10)
Wo king om home 8 (20)
Educa ion
P ima y s udies 2 (5)
FP1 2 (5)
Bachelo ’s o FP2 10 (25)
Uni e si y ** 14 (35)
Pos g adua e 6 (15)
Doc o a e 2 (5)
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2022,19, 3952 7 o 20
Table 1. Con .
Va iable n(%)
Au onomous Communi y
Ca alonia 5 (12.5)
A agon 2 (5)
Balea es 1 (2.5)
Basque Coun y 3 (7.5)
Cas illa-La Mancha 2 (5)
Cas illa-Leon 2 (5)
Andalucía 3 (7.5)
Ex emadu a 4 (10)
Galicia 3 (7.5)
La Rioja 4 (10)
Mad id 6 (15)
Na a a 2 (5)
Valencia 3 (7.5)
* ERTE: a o m o pa ial o ully paid lea e manda ed by employe s. ** includes enginee , a chi ec , license,
unde g adua e s udies.
Th oughou he in e iews, he e we e se en men ions o social media use in gene al.
In e ms o speci ic applica ion use, he e we e 7 men ions o Ins ag am, 4 o Facebook,
1 o Twi e , and 4 o YouTube. Fi e pa icipan s said ha hey used social media mo e
du ing he pandemic han hey did be o e COVID-19, and one pa icipan said hey use
less social media han be o e he pandemic. Th ee pa icipan s made a poin o say ha
hey we e spending ‘a lo o ime’ on social media. Repo s o Wha sApp use we e much
mo e common, as he e we e 42 speci ic men ions o Wha sApp use ac oss he in e iews,
and 12 men ions o using Wha sApp o communica e wi h g oups o iends, amily, o
neighbo s. The e we e 9 co-occu ing codes whe e pa icipan s emphasized spending a lo
o ime on he phone using Wha sApp in pa icula .
“Some imes we send humo ous hings, and in hese si ua ions i b ings a smile
and i makes you happy, I belie e i ’s posi i e, Wha sApp aking away [ he s ess
and su e ing] a li le
. . .
I belie e [Wha sApp] o me is impo an and o a lo
o people oo.” —Male, 73, Basque Coun y
Video calls we e he mos coded concep ac oss he in e iews, wi h 80 o al men ions
o ideo call use o pe sonal easons. The e we e 20 coded co-occu ences o Wha sApp
wi h ideo calls, while ou pa icipan s speci ically men ioned he use o Zoom, and ou
pa icipan s speci ically men ioned he use o Skype. Ten pa icipan s iden i ied ha hey
had changes in hei daily ou ine ela ed o ideo calls since he pandemic s a ed. The e
we e 13 co-occu ing codes whe e pa icipan s emphasized spending ‘a lo o ime’ on he
phone speci ically o ideo calls, and 9 co-occu ences whe e pa icipan s said hey had
mo e con ac wi h o he s and mo e ideo calls du ing he pandemic compa ed o be o e.
Finally, he e we e 12 co-occu ences o ideo calls and communica ing o he pu pose o
social suppo .
“We ha e a lo o iends in I aly who ha e been [in lockdown] since Feb ua y
and so we knew he g a i y o his and we con ined ou sel es a home 10 days
ea lie . O cou se, social media has se ed as a way o ca e o each o he . I call
my mo he e y o en, bu now I send he hings on YouTube e e yday so ha
she exe cises, cooks, she p epa es b eak as and I p epa e dinne . I ’s he e o
enhance a ec ions and o connec you o he people who you a en’ able o see.”
—Female, aged 36–55 (no speci ied), Ca alonia
Se e al hemes ela ed o media use we e iden i ied du ing he induc i e coding
p ocess including change in ou ine, social suppo , being ace- o- ace o seeing aces, news
in he media, media use o hobbies and heal hie li ing, i ual hangou s o e en s, and
media use o pandemic elie . Table 2p o ides de ailed analyses o hese hemes.
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2022,19, 3952 8 o 20
Table 2. Mixed me hods able o ecu ing hemes and sub- hemes om quali a i e in e iews (n= 40).
Theme # o Men ions n(%)
Female
Age Ca ego y
n(%) * No able Quo es
Change in Rou ine
Gene al change in ou ine 20 10 (50)
a. 7 (35)
b. 9 (45)
c. 4 (20)
“I didn’ use ideo calls be o e, I was a li le an i- ideo call and now I do 2–3 long ideo calls a day wi h
iends, e en g oup ideo calls. I alk o my iends ha I’ e had since I was a kid and we s ay in con ac ,
ha e some wine, and sha e abou ou weeks.” —Male, 54, Cas illa-Leon
“As o iends, I’m always on my phone, I’m a pe son who likes o espond as soon as possible, so yea I ha e
a lo o in e ac ions wi h people and iends, especially on Wha sApp, we alk a lo . On Skype, yea I’ e done
a ew ideo calls and wha ’s mo e . . . hey’ e long ideo calls, 3 o 4 h, bu abo e all I’m on Wha sApp and
Ins ag am.” —Male, 22, Na a a
“In no mal ci cums ances I would ne e ha e dedica ed his much ime o Wha sApp, one hing is ha you
ha e ela ionships, he o he is ha you’ e a home all day, so now yea, i ’ is one mo e sou ce o ela ionships,
and when I open Wha sApp I p ac ically ha e o be he e o an hou and a hal eading and esponding, his
is ou ageous.” —Male, 73, Basque Coun y
“Ac ually, I had dele ed all o my social media accoun s jus be o e all o his happened, and now wi h
e e y hing I eac i a ed Ins ag am because i I didn’ , I wouldn’ see any o he hings ha a e happening . . .
” —Male, 54, Cas illa-Leon
(In esponse o being asked i he e we e any new ac i i ies ha hey ha e s a ed ha hey did no do be o e
COVID) “Abo e all i ’s he use o social media, I didn’ use social media much be o e and now he ecipes
ha I’m in en ing I sha e wi h people, and his mo e han any hing, he u h is ha he only ac i i y ha I’m
doing now ha I didn’ do be o e . . . i ’s ying o be in con ac wi h mo e people, o know how one’s eeling,
sha ing how i is o be locked up.” —Male, 24, Andalucía
A lo o ime on he phone in gene al 18 10 (55.6)
a. 6 (33.3)
b. 8 (44.4)
c. 4 (22.2)
A lo o ime on phone/ ideo calls 14 10 (71.4)
a. 5 (35.7)
b. 7 (50)
c. 2 (14.3)
A lo o ime on social media 3 0 (0)
a. 2 (66.7)
b. 0 (0)
c. 1 (33.3)
Mo e social media use compa ed o p e-COVID 5 1 (20)
a. 1 (20)
b. 4 (80)
c. 0 (0)
Less social media use compa ed o p e-COVID 1 0 (0)
a. 0 (0)
b. 0 (0)
c. 1 (100)
Mo e con ac han p e-COVID 11 6 (54.5)
a. 5 (45.5)
b. 5 (45.5)
c. 1 (9.1)
No change in ou ine 2 2 (100)
a. 1 (50)
b. 1 (50)
c. 0 (0)
Social Suppo
Con ac wi h amily 53 31 (58.5)
a. 17 (32.1)
b. 28 (52.8)
c. 8 (15.1)
“One hing ha I’ e seen is ha many mu ual suppo ne wo ks a e being gene a ed amongs he neighbo s,
he e a e a ious Wha sApp g oups ha I am in i ed o, bu di ec con ac wi h hem, I’ e ne e had.”
—Female, 29, Ca alonia
“We sha e in o ma ion wi h ou iends om all pa s o he wo ld; wi h hose om I aly, my iends om
Chile and Oceania. They’ e coun ies e y a away, and we wan o know how e e y hing is going he e.
Nu se he ela ionships ha we al eady ha e, alk wi h hose we didn’ alk o be o e, communica e wi h
people om o he coun ies and see how hey’ e doing, and in o m hem as well. Sha e expe iences. They
keep me in o med on wha ’s going on in Chile and I in o m hem on wha ’s going on he e.” —Female, 36–55
(exac age no speci ied), Ca alonia
“ . . . I ell my daugh e on Wha sApp o send he song o su i al, i ’s like i com o s me, i ills me and I
hold on o ha spi i , ha soon his will all pass and we will be oge he and hings will go back o how hey
we e be o e, and his is he li le ay o ligh ha we ha e now.” —Female, 44, Mad id
“ . . . Yes I ge oge he i ually wi h my iends, wo o h ee imes a week and I d ink my bee wi h hem
h ough he phone, bu i ’s no hing like being in pe son, and I belie e ha in a ci y like ou s, Medi e anean,
physical con ac o us is so impo an , ha h ough a sc een, well i ’s jus no he same.” —Female, 30, Mad id
Con ac wi h iends 62 34 (54.8)
a. 24 (38.7)
b. 33 (53.2)
c. 5 (8.1)
Con ac wi h neighbo s 2 2 (100)
a. 1 (50)
b. 1 (50)
c. 0 (0)
In e na ional con ac 6 6 (100)
a. 1 (16.7)
b. 4 (66.7)
c. 1 (16.7)
Communica e o social suppo 22 15 (68.2)
a. 7 (31.8)
b. 12 (54.5)
c. 3 (13.6)
Vi ual con ac no he same as social suppo 7 4 (57.1)
a. 4 (57.1)
b. 3 (42.9)
c. 0 (0)
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2022,19, 3952 9 o 20
Table 2. Con .
Theme # o Men ions n(%)
Female
Age Ca ego y
n(%) * No able Quo es
Seeing Faces/Being Face- o-Face 13 3 (23.1)
a. 3 (23.1)
b. 7 (53.8)
c. 3 (23.1)
“Well yes I am missing human con ac , being ace- o- ace. I am someone who speaks o he ace and I need o
ha e people in on o me. Ne e , since I was young, ha e I spoken on he phone, i ’s always ace- o- ace, o
me o ha e made a phone call i had o ha e been some hing eally u gen o impo an , I ha e always
enjoyed speaking ace- o- ace. I’ e jus disco e ed ideo calls now, abou 3 weeks ago, i was some hing I
always ejec ed, I didn’ like hem o alking on he phone. I like physical con ac .” —Male, 54, Cas illa-Leon
Media o News
Gene al media sou ce o news 13 7 (53.8)
a. 2 (15.4)
b. 5 (38.5)
c. 6 (46.2)
“ . . . I’m no on social media much, well, I ha e Wha sApp which I use wi h a g oup o iends bu I’m no
much, I’ e ne e been, be o e o now, and now e en less because hey bomba d you wi h alse news and
hings like his . . . ” —Male, 62, Mad id
“We wa ch he news midday and ha ’s i , we see a li le bi o wha ’s happening, how he dea h igu es a e,
now we’ e seeing hey’ e going down a li le, and ha ’s i . I do look a social media o news oo, you look a
Twi e and see a li le abou wha ’s happening and when I see e e yone ge ing hea ed, abo e all on Twi e
he people ge so hea ed a no hing.” —Male, 31, Valencia
“The TV, no I don’ wa ch i , bu i I eel like wa ching some imes I wa ch he news. Bu hen I see all he
p oblems, I don’ belie e wha hey’ e saying, hen wha I see makes me anxious . . . I don’ wa ch i .”
—Female, 41, Ex emadu a
“Wha sApp is a hing ha can ge a li le excessi e, e e y hing you ecei e, since some imes you’ll see ha
hey’ e no eliable hings, and eally I’m no one o pa icipa e and dis ibu e hings ha a en’ e y secu e o
ha don’ seem o me o be u h ul.” —Male, 73, Basque Coun y
“I ha en’ looked a he news in many days because i makes me so mad, i makes me so mad o see he
disgus ing poli icians ha we ha e, i makes me ne ous.” —Male, 43, A agon
“ . . . I ha e ano he uncle who is e y delica e and is hospi alized (wi h COVID) . . . ne e heless I ge many
e y di icul s o ies om close iends h ough Wha sApp g oups.” —Female, 50, Galicia
“ . . . I spend a lo o ime wa ching ele ision and on social media, and eally, I do no ecommend i because
hey’ e eally oxic, comple ely oxic, no?” —Female, 50, Ca alonia
Wha sApp o news 4 0 (0)
a. 1 (25)
b. 0 (0)
c. 3 (75)
YouTube o news 1 0 (0)
a. 0 (0)
b. 0 (0)
c. 1 (100)
In e ne o news 3 2 (66.7)
a. 0 (0)
b. 2 (66.7)
c. 1 (33.3)
Social media o news 6 4 (66.7)
a. 2 (20)
b. 2 (20)
c. 2 (20)
Tele ision o news 5 2 (40)
a. 0 (0)
b. 2 (40)
c. 3 (60)
Fake/dange ous news on social media/Wha sApp 7 4 (57.1)
a. 1 (14.3)
b. 3 (42.9)
c. 3 (42.9)
F us a ion/anxie y om news 6 3 (50)
a. 1 (16.7)
b. 3 (50)
c. 2 (33.3)
Media o s ay in o med 4 3 (75)
a. 1 (25)
b. 2 (50)
c. 1 (25)
Communica e o sha e COVID news and upda es 6 4 (66.7)
a. 2 (33.3)
b. 3 (50)
c. 1 (16.7)
Do no like o ead/see news 4 2 (50)
a. 1 (25)
b. 2 (50)
c. 1 (25)
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2022,19, 3952 16 o 20
hei use o ideo calls, ins an messaging, and social media; and ha hese i ual con ac s
may ha e been c ucial in limi ing he nega i e e ec s o isola ion and educed physical
con ac wi h lo ed ones [
55
]. P io esea ch has ound ha gene ally, social con ac s decline
wi h age [
56
], al hough du ing he i s lockdown, adul s aged 50 and olde saw a 45%
inc ease in ideo calls, and a 54% inc ease in ins an messages [
54
]. Simila o ou esul s,
we saw a 64% inc ease in social media use among olde adul s aged 61 and olde , and high
inc eases among younge adul s as well. Impo an o no e, Spain’s social media inc eases
we e highe han hose ound in I aly o F ance. Fo example, Spain saw a 52% inc ease in
ideo calls, and 67% inc ease in ins an messaging, much highe han inc eases in F ance
(36%, 38%) o I aly (48%, 57%) [54].
Al hough ou su eys did no di ec ly assess which social media pla o ms we e
used he mos , ou quali a i e da a sugges s ha Wha sApp was he mos commonly
u ilized as i was men ioned he mos equen ly o all social media pla o ms. This
inding is consis en wi h ou hypo hesis and o he da a ega ding Wha sApp use globally
and in Spain du ing he pandemic. Ano he epo ound ha almos hal (48%) o all
global in e ne use s aged 16–64 epo ed hei main eason o using social media was
o s ay in ouch wi h amily and iends; ollowed by illing up spa e ime, eading news
s o ies, and inding unny o en e aining con en [
8
]. These esul s a e consis en wi h
ou quali a i e indings, and show ha main aining social suppo h ough social media
and communica ion pla o ms has become a main d i e o social media use. In ou
quali a i e da a, mo e pa icipan s ci ed inc eased social media use as a way o ecei e
social suppo om iends and amily han o gene al use o o news. I is clea ha
pa icipan s u ilized he ools ha social media p o ides us wi h du ing his di icul ime
o isola ion, o main ain hei ela ionships and con inue o ecei e he social suppo ha
was needed. Bo h ou quali a i e and quan i a i e da a sugges ha his con ibu ed o
pa icipan s eeling less alone, and mo e suppo ed.
Fu he , ou su ey da a shows ha pa icipan s who epo ed inc eased eelings o
loneliness du ing he i s lockdown pe iod in Spain also signi ican ly inc eased hei social
media use. Ou da a a e consis en wi h he indings ha social media is a a o ed ou le
o social suppo , pa icula ly du ing imes o manda ed social isola ion [
6
,
33
,
35
,
36
]. Ou
p oxies o social suppo in Wa e 1 including ha ing physical o psychological p oblems,
needing social suppo , needing ood o supplies, among o he s, also ound signi ican
associa ions wi h epo ed inc eases in social media use. Ou da a shows ha indi iduals
who pe cei ed hey would ha e a lo o help wi h any o hese issues epo ed inc eases in
social media use. Based on he social suppo and social media use li e a u e du ing he
pandemic and ou quali a i e indings ega ding Wha sApp use and social suppo , we
belie e his could be a ibu ed o indi iduals eeling mo e suppo ed ia Wha sApp, and
eeling as hough hey would be able o each ou o a amily membe o iend o help
wi h any o hese p oblems o needs.
Simila ly, ou su ey da a om Wa e 2 ha e simila implica ions o social suppo and
social media use. Pa icipan s who epo ed di icul ies accessing impo an daily supplies
in Ap il 2021 and app aised hese di icul ies as somewha o e y s ess ul epo ed ei he
no change, o inc eases in hei social media use since he p e ious summe (2020). Gi en
ha he majo i y o pa icipan s epo ed an inc ease in social media use in Ap il 2020, ou
da a sugges s ha he pa icipan s in Wa e 2 who epo ed no change in social media use
since he p io summe s ill had highe han no mal engagemen in social media use. Thus,
using di icul ies in accessing supplies and he s ess app aisal o hese di icul ies, ou
da a om Wa e 2 sugges s ha he high engagemen in social media use among hose who
epo eeling somewha o e y s essed may be o help educe hei s ess in accessing
hese supplies by asking o help and suppo om o he s.
A pandemic epo ound ha Spain was he op hi d Eu opean coun y o inc eases
in social ne wo k ac i i y du ing he beginning o he COVID-19 pandemic [
7
], and ou
da a alida es hese inc eases. Ea ly epo s ound hese social media inc eases as being
ha m ul o men al and physical heal h [
6
,
31
,
32
,
34
], al hough wi h ecen da a and ou da a
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2022,19, 3952 17 o 20
sugges ing he e we e se e al bene i s o hese inc eases such as social suppo , i is possible
ha wi hou ini ial quali a i e da a o assess he easons and implica ions o he social
media use inc eases, he nega i e esul s o iginally ound we e con ounded by expe iences
o s ess, anxie y, dep ession, helplessness, and loneliness ha we e expe ienced by so
many du ing he pandemic. Thus, while in gene al, o e use o social media can po en ially
be ha m ul and cause lowe men al heal h, ou da a p o ides e idence ha in a ime
o c isis and isola ion, social media use can be le e aged o heal h bene i s and needed
social suppo .
While ou pape is he i s o quali a i ely assess social media use du ing he i s
lockdown pe iod in Spain a he beginning o he COVID-19 pandemic, i does ha e
limi a ions. Fi s , as ou da a we e collec ed a he beginning o he pandemic, i is possible
ha some aspec s o ou esul s may ha e changed du ing he cou se o he pandemic. Fo
example, some pa icipan s no ed ha ing “ ideo call a igue” o gene al a igue o social
media use jus 10 days in o he lockdown pe iod, ha i eassessed mon hs la e , many
mo e may ha e el his way [
57
,
58
]. Second, while ou ec ui men p ocess was ex emely
ho ough h ough Ne Ques and sough o ec ui a sample ha ep esen ed he a ious
sociodemog aphic a iables o Spanish adul s, ou sample needed in e ne access since
hey we e ec ui ed by email, hus Spanish adul s who do no use email, o do no ha e
egula in e ne access may ha e p o ided e y di e en esul s abou social media use
du ing he pandemic lockdown. Fu he , we made an e o o ec ui on line wo ke s and
o he indi iduals wi h jobs ha place hem a isk o COVID-19 bu we e no success ul in
his endea o . Fu u e esea ch would bene i om in e iewing indi iduals in hese a - isk
occupa ions. Finally, we did no speci ically ask abou social media use in ou in e iews,
how indi iduals accessed hei news, how o en hey used social media and wha pla o ms;
a he , we ound ha i was a ecu ing heme h oughou he in e iews h ough o he
ques ions asked and p o ided in e es ing da a ha would be bene icial o epo . I we had
di ec ly assessed hese aspec s o social media use we may ha e unco e ed mo e da a.
Despi e hese limi a ions, ou esea ch has no able s eng hs. Using a mixed-me hods
app oach, we we e able o no only p o ide s a is ics on he inc eases in social media use
among Spanish adul s bu we e also able o p o ide de ailed con ex o wha exac ly
indi iduals we e using social media o du ing he ime o he i s lockdown. Addi ionally,
we we e able o collec da a longi udinally, and a e able o compa e esul s among he
su ey sample o e ime, a di e en key imepoin s o he pandemic.
5. Conclusions
O e all, ou quan i a i e da a p o ide e idence o subs an ial inc eases in social
media use and how inc eases may be associa ed wi h eelings o social suppo . Ou
semi-s uc u ed in e iews p o ide de ailed con ex o how Spanish adul s we e le e aging
social media du ing he i s lockdown o social suppo and o he heal h bene i s, and
why hei usage inc eased so d ama ically. We ound ha mos indi iduals we e using
social media o posi i e heal h ou comes including seeking social suppo , lea ning new
hobbies, inding heal hy ecipes, and o exe cising. Ou esul s sugges ha maximizing
he po en ial o social media as an emo ional esou ce o main ain o inc ease social suppo
du ing a ime o o ced isola ion and unce ain y may be bene icial o men al and physical
heal h ou comes, and u u e esea ch should es campaigns ha p omo e social media as a
means o social suppo in s ess ul o unce ain imes.
Au ho Con ibu ions:
Concep ualiza ion, M.D.H., J.G.-B., N.B. and A.G.; me hodology, M.D.H.,
J.G.-B., N.B., A.G., T.B.H.-M. and A.O.R.; so wa e, A.O.R. and T.B.H.-M.; o mal analysis, A.O.R. and
T.B.H.-M.; da a cu a ion, M.D.H., J.G.-B. and A.G.; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion, A.O.R. and
A.L.H.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, T.B.H.-M., A.L.H., M.D.H., J.G.-B., N.B. and A.G.; isualiza ion,
A.O.R. and A.L.H.; p ojec adminis a ion, N.B. and A.G. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he
published e sion o he manusc ip .
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2022,19, 3952 18 o 20
Funding:
This esea ch was suppo ed by pilo g an unding om he Ins i u e o Collabo a ion on
Heal h, In e en ion, and Policy (InCHIP) a Uni e si y o Connec icu .
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen :
The s udy was conduc ed acco ding o he guidelines o he
Decla a ion o Helsinki, and app o ed by he Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d o Uni e si y o Basque
Coun y and Uni e si y o Connec icu elying on he designa ed IRB (p o ocol code 00011977 and
da e o app o al 8 Ap il 2020).
In o med Consen S a emen :
In o med consen was ob ained om all subjec s in ol ed in he s udy.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen :
The da a p esen ed in his s udy a e a ailable on eques om he
co esponding au ho .
Acknowledgmen s:
The au ho s would like o hank he Spanish Minis y o Uni e si ies o he
suppo p o ided o conduc his esea ch. Howe e , he inal manusc ip is solely he au ho s’
esponsibili y.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es .
Appendix A
Table A1. Desc ip ion o subjec a eas o he semi-s uc u ed in e iew ques ions.
Block Numbe Main Concep
Block 1 Employmen in o ma ion (e.g., s a us, changes due o he pandemic,
elewo king)
Block 2
Housing cha ac e is ics (e.g., numbe o occupan s, a ailable spaces, easons
o exi ing, p o ec ion measu es inside and ou side he home)
Block 3
Pe cep ion o COVID-19 and lockdown (e.g., pe cep ion o he u u e
impac o he pandemic and lockdown in he pe sonal sphe e, impac o
indi idual igh s)
Block 4 Basic habi s (e.g., changes in daily ou ine, ea ing, exe cise, sleep schedule,
subs ance use)
Block 5 Concilia ion (e.g., e ec o lockdown on amily and iend ela ionships)
Block 6
Emo ional impac (e.g., eelings abou he lockdown, assimila ion di icul ies,
possible signs o anxie y o dep ession, op imism, u u e impac o he
pandemic on heal h, COVID-19 diagnoses in sel o lo ed ones)
Block 7
Coping s a egies (e.g., coping beha io s, use o social suppo , pa icipa ion
in solida i y ac ions)
Block 8 Sel -con ol (e.g., abili y o p o ec sel du ing he pandemic)
Block 9 Final assessmen , addi ional ques ions o commen s, bes and wo s
aspec s o lockdown
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