OeconomiA
cope nicana
Volume 14 Issue 1 Ma ch 2023
p-ISSN 2083-1277, e-ISSN 2353-1827
www.oeconomia.pl
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ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Ci a ion: López-Se ano, M. J., Lakho, F. H., Van Hulle, S. W. H., & Ba lles-delaFuen e, A.
(2023). Li e cycle cos assessmen and economic analysis o a decen alized was ewa e ea -
men o achie e wa e sus ainabili y wi hin he amewo k o ci cula economy. Oeconomia
Cope nicana, 14(1), 103–133. doi: 10.24136/oc.2023.003
Con ac o co esponding au ho : Ma ía J. López-Se ano, m[email p o ec ed]
A icle his o y: Recei ed: 17.11.2022; Accep ed: 7.03.2023; Published online: 25.03.2023
Ma ía J. López-Se ano
Uni e si y o Alme ía, Spain
o cid.o g/0000-0001-6439-0819
Fida Hussain Lakho
Ghen Uni e si y Campus Ko ijk, Belgium
o cid.o g/0000-0001-8559-3981
S ijn W.H. Van Hulle
Ghen Uni e si y Campus Ko ijk, Belgium
o cid.o g/0000-0001-5773-7773
Ana Ba lles-delaFuen e
Uni e si y o Alme ía, Spain
o cid.o g/0000-0003-2108-0516
Li e cycle cos assessmen and economic analysis o
a decen alized was ewa e ea men o achie e
wa e sus ainabili y wi hin he amewo k o ci cula economy
JEL Classi ica ion: Q25; Q53; Q56
Keywo ds: was ewa e ; economic analysis; LCCA; Sus ainable De elopmen Goals; mone a y e alua-
ion
Oeconomia Cope nicana, 14(1), 103–134
104
Abs ac
Resea ch backg ound: The inc easing wa e demand oge he wi h an unceasing p oduc ion
o was ewa e wo ldwide has esul ed in a si ua ion whe e he sca ci y and pollu ion o wa e
esou ces a e jeopa dizing and deple ing such a i al asse .
Pu pose o he a icle: In his con ex , Na u e Based Solu ions (NBS) such as Ve ical Flow
Cons uc ed We lands (VFCWs) a e key because o hei capaci y o channelling a was e in o
a esou ce. Howe e , and no wi hs anding hei essen ial ole, hei inancial bene i s oo o en
go unno iced because o missing esea ch ha s udy hem om an economic pe spec i e and
his a icle has co e ed his exis ing gap. The objec i e o his esea ch is o analyse he eco-
nomic consequences o using VFCW agains i s adi ional al e na i e h ough a comp ehen-
si e economic assessmen .
Me hods: A e doing a Li e Cycle Assessmen (LCA), a combina ion o wo app oaches has
been ca ied ou . This esea ch has de eloped a holis ic app oach whe e a Li e Cycle Cos
Assessmen (LCCA) based on a Cos Bene i Analysis (CBA) along wi h an economic e alua-
ion o cleaning en i onmen al cos s ha e been calcula ed o wo di e en scena ios. Fo his
mone a y analysis, he en i onmen al ex e nali ies de i ed om he use o cleaning he pollu-
ion caused by a public wa e supply and sewe age sys em and he VFCW ha e been quan i-
ied.
Findings & alue added: Resul s conclude ha VFCW apa o being a cos -e ec i e and
p o i able al e na i e o an in es o , i has also aluable bene i s o he socie y in gene al
because o i s meaning ul and posi i e ex e nali ies and he high emo al cos o he en i on-
men al pollu an s o he adi ional wa e supply and sewage sys em bo h con ibu ing di ec -
ly o he achie emen o Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SDGs). Fu he mo e, 4/5 en i on-
men al impac s de i ed om he use o adi ional al e na i e pollu e mo e han wice as
much as he VFCW does. Las ly, he cleaning cos s di e ence be ween bo h al e na i es is
1,984,335€.
In oduc ion
The demand o he essen ial, aluable, un ai ly-dis ibu ed and limi ed
esou ce, eshwa e , has been s eadily inc easing in he las decades and
he si ua ion is s ill expec ed o wo sen u he due o a ying an h opic
easons, hus aising majo conce ns wo ldwide (Bunn, 2016; Tociu e al.,
2019; Ashu & Lee., 2021; Baggio e al., 2021; T uchado e al., 2021). Clima e
change, which comp ises global wa ming and mo e unp edic able and
changing wea he pa e ns, along wi h he wo ld’s g owing popula ion,
bo h o ecas ed o exace ba e in upcoming yea s, ha e de i ed in o in-
c eased wa e sca ci y and pollu ion which endange s he wa e supply
and ai dis ibu ion o ini e eshwa e esou ces, pu ing s ain on wa e
and ood secu i y (Melián-Na a o & Ruiz-Canales, 2020; Al-agele e al.,
2021; Wang e al., 2021; A ellano-Gonzalez e al., 2021; Wee asoo iya e al.,
2021; Maniam e al., 2022). The en isaged wo sening o a cu en a e ul
Oeconomia Cope nicana, 14(1), 103–134
105
si ua ion whe e mo e han wo billion people expe ience wa e s ess and
ou billion su e om se e e wa e sca ci y o a leas a mon h e e y
yea , b ing o ligh he u gency o looking o al e na i e and sus ainable
wa e esou ces (UNESCO, 2021; UNESCO, 2022).
Wi hin his con ex , ea ed was ewa e has become in o a eliable and
cos -e ec i e wa e al e na i e ha gua an ees wa e supply and ha has
been p o ed o be able o add ess many o he p oblems de i ed by wa e
cons ain s all a once (H is o e al., 2021). The use o eclaimed wa e is
also o majo impo ance in he pu sui o he 17 SDGs p oposed by he
Uni ed Na ions (UN) in 2015, since i di ec ly encompasses he aims o Goal
6 (clean wa e and sani a ion o all) and a o s he comple e achie emen
o many o he goals due o in e connec ions (B ennan e al., 2021; Di Vaio e
al., 2021; Rod íguez de Sá Sil a e al., 2022). The al eady p o en key ole o
ea ed was ewa e is pa icula ly c i ical in de eloping coun ies whe e
da a shows de as a ing consequences om no ha ing an adequa e wa e
supply o was ewa e managemen , esul ing in he popula ion being se i-
ously a ec ed in e ms o hygiene, heal h, he economy, and socially (Lu -
e beck e al., 2017; Sánchez Pé ez e al., 2020). This al e na i e sou ce o
wa e channels was e in o a esou ce, hus collabo a ing wi h ci cula
economy and enhancing sus ainable de elopmen wi hou jeopa dizing he
en i onmen , and p e en ing he deg ada ion o ecosys ems (La nić e al.,
2017; Mak opoulos e al., 2018; Pahl-Wos l, 2019; Ponce-Robles e al., 2020;
Es el ich e al., 2021).
Agains his backg ound, he objec i e o his esea ch is o analyse he
economic consequences o using NBS agains i s adi ional al e na i e
h ough a comp ehensi e economic assessmen able o show no only he
inancial p o i abili y o he in es men bu also he ea men cos s sa ed
by implemen ing i s use. This objec i e is key in o de o show law make s,
s akeholde s and esea che s in a measu able way he impo ance o in-
es ing in NBS o each wa e sus ainabili y wi hin he amewo k o ci cu-
la economy. Fu he mo e, by eaching he objec i e p oposed, he pi o al
ole ha bo h ea ing was ewa e p ope ly and channelling was e in o
esou ce ha e in iew o he SDGs will be un eiled in a quan i iable way.
Fo his pu pose, p io o his esea ch, a LCA ollowing ISO 14044 was
ca ied ou whe e en i onmen al impac s we e e alua ed and quan i ied in
he same scena io he e conside ed.
This pape consis s o a quan i a i e analysis ha no only conside s
adi ional inancial indica o s widely ex ended in economic e alua ions in
Oeconomia Cope nicana, 14(1), 103–134
106
wa e - ela ed analysis h ough a LCCA o see he p o i abili y o he in-
es men bu also ca ies ou a mone a y e alua ion o he cleaning cos s
de i ed om he use o NBS agains he adi ional al e na i e. Fo de el-
oping hese ambi ious me hodologies, a combina ion wo di e en ap-
p oaches, which make his g oundb eaking esea ch holis ic, ha e been
aken. On he one hand, adi ional inancial indica o s widely ex ended in
economic e alua ions in wa e - ela ed analysis ha e been calcula ed in
a LCCA h ough CBA. The decision c i e ia used o assess CBA a e Ne
P esen Value (NPV), Bene i -Cos Ra io (BCR), In e nal Ra e o Re u n
(IRR) and Discoun ed Payback Pe iod (DPP). On he o he hand, a mone-
a y e alua ion o he cleaning cos o en i onmen al indica o s de i ed
om he use o bo h scena ios conside ed, he adi ional and he con-
s uc ed we land (CW), ha e been ca ied ou hus uly e alua ing and
quan i ying he eal cos s o bo h al e na i es.
Li e a u e e iew
The inc easing wa e demand oge he along wi h he clima e change and
he unceasing p oduc ion o was ewa e wo ldwide, has led o a scena io
whe e wa e esou ces a e deple ing and has esul ed in a si ua ion whe e
eusing was ewa e is no only an adap i e ac ion bu also a easible solu-
ion o achie ing sus ainable de elopmen (Hejduko á & Ku eko á, 2020;
Zagklis & Bampos, 2022). Agains he cu en si ua ion, he impo ance o
channelling was e in o a new esou ce as eclaimed wa e is o undamen-
al impo ance, since i os e s ci cula economy and sus ainabili y goals.
Fu he mo e, i is impo an o analyse he po en ial en i onmen al impac s
de i ed om hese al e na i e ea men sys ems (Resende e al., 2019). The
use o hese g een sys ems is s eadily inc easing and an icipa ed o g ow in
bo h de eloped and de eloping coun ies, because o he posi i e educ-
ion hey may enhance o ene gy demand, en i onmen al pollu ion and
economic cos s (Nuamah e al., 2020).
While adi ionally was ewa e ea men sys ems ha e been cen al-
ized, o a ious easons, such as hei g ea capaci y o anspo la ge
olumes o wa e , bene i s o scale and hei highly p edic able ea men
pe o mance, hei high economic cos and ene gy and esou ces consump-
ion a e lea ing oom o decen alized sys ems (Hasik e al., 2016; Peñaco-
ba-An ona e al., 2021; Khalkhali e al., 2021). Decen alized sys ems a e
Oeconomia Cope nicana, 14(1), 103–134
107
ypically s andalone sys em used o smalle was ewa e lows whe e he
euse happens on si e (Liccia dello e al., 2018; Van de Walle e al., 2022).
Ene gy consump ion plays a c ucial ole wi hin he “wa e -ene gy” nexus
wi h la ge coun ies like he US spending o e 45% o o al p ima y ene gy
on “ene gy o wa e ”, which includes e e y p ocess whe e wa e needs
ene gy and wa e supply sys ems ep esen ing up o 15% o o al ene gy
usages (Kyle e al., 2016 Vakili a d e al., 2018,). Ano he limi a ion o Cen-
alized Wa e Recycling Sys ems (CWRS) is hei incapaci y o e ec i ely
and e icien ly p o ide wa e esou ces o u al and low-income u ban
a eas whe he because o geog aphical dispe sion o low wa e p essu e
and leaking pipes (Picke ing e al., 2015; Lai inen e al., 2017; Wang e al.,
2019). This las disad an age is o g ea impo ance as mo e han 40% o he
global popula ion li e in u al a eas (Weli i a e al., 2021; Balk e al., 2021).
Al hough ully cen alized sys ems ha e been widely used in he las dec-
ades, he la es ecommenda ions based on esea ch and cos -bene i anal-
yses sugges ansi ioning away om hese sys ems owa ds mo e adap a-
ble and sus ainable ones, hus leading o a shi om con en ional cen al-
ized sys ems o ei he hyb id o ully decen alized ones (De e al., 2021;
Cas ella e al., 2022). Decen alized Was ewa e T ea men Sys ems
(DWTS) ha e been shown o be a sus ainable, iable, lexible, eliable, and
cos -e ec i e al e na i e sou ce o wa e , especially use ul on a small scale
(Gukelbe ge e al., 2019; Liu e al., 2021; Ma ya i e al., 2022). Fu he mo e,
he use o DWRS, apa om enhancing en i onmen al p o ec ion and e-
sou ce eco e y, may lead o en i onmen al and local economic de elop-
men (Jahne e al., 2020; Van de Walle e al., 2022; Es é ez e al., 2022).
One o he mos ex ended and consolida ed decen alized echnologies
a e NBS such as CW, which, apa om s ic ly mee ing chemical and
physical s anda ds o wa e euse, equi e low ene gy, a e cos -e ec i e,
easily ope a ional and low main enance (Co bella e al., 2017; Rica e al.,
2021; Cao e al., 2021). Since he cons uc ion o he i s CW in 1974, he
echnology o hese a i icial enginee ed we lands has been de eloping o
make hem desi able and e icien in he ask o ea ing was ewa e physi-
cally, chemically, and biologically which has expanded hei use and im-
plemen a ion wo ldwide (Zhang e al., 2021). CWs a e conside ed a g een,
na u e based echnology ha in ol es we land ege a ion, soil subs a es
and mic oo ganisms, and whe eby me abolic p ocesses ake place esul ing
in he ans o ma ion and emo al o pollu an s om wa e (Ga inge e
al., 2016; Resende e al., 2019). Fu he mo e, i plan ed, hey can be aes he i-
Oeconomia Cope nicana, 14(1), 103–134
108
cally pleasing while p omo ing biodi e si y, con ibu ing o lood p o ec-
ion, and o e ing cooling e ec s (Dumax & Rozan, 2021). To s eng hen he
compa ison wi h adi ional was ewa e plan s, he ac ha he g een-
house gas emissions (GHG) o a CW ha e p o ed o be 2714 imes lowe
can be highligh ed (Liu e al., 2019). Thei high e iciency linked o im-
po an ecological bene i s, make hem g een echnology ha p omo e
a sus ainable wa e supply (Cui e al., 2022). Fos e ing he cons uc ion o
CWs hus imp o es he wa e supply om a sus ainable poin o iew by
mee ing human needs wi hou deple ing exis ing wa e esou ces no a -
ec ing in a nega i e way local economies and he en i onmen in a nega-
i e way (Diao, 2021; Ka aki e al., 2021).
Despi e ha ing been used o mo e han 50 yea s and all o he esea ch
s a ing he bene i s o CWs, al hough he e has been an inc ease in hei
popula i y, hei e ec i e implemen a ion s ill emains a challenge (Wu e
al., 2015; Deng e al., 2021; Vymazal e al., 2021; Yang e al., 2022). This ail-
ing, which pa ially impedes a success ul ull adop ion, migh be a esul o
a lack o ag eemen on many speci i ies in he was ewa e indus y, con-
c e ely because en i onmen al impac s s udied in LCAs a e highly de-
penden on many ac o s, such as he loca ion, popula ion, o socio-
economic condi ions, among o he s (Lou enço & Nunes, 2021). Despi e he
impo ance o educing nega i e ex e nali ies and os e ing ecosys em se -
ices, which deeply bene i he whole socie y wi h hei posi i e ex e nali-
ies, all he in angible bene i s o using VFCW oo o en go unno iced be-
cause o missing economic e alua ions and cos -analyses (F eeman e al.,
2019). In a p e ious s udy o he cu en au ho s, a compa a i e LCA was
conduc ed o assess he en i onmen al impac s o a decen alized
was ewa e ea men sys em combining a VFCW and a memb ane-based
pu i ica ion uni o ea ing black wa e o d inking pu poses wi h hei
con en ional al e na i e o sewage ea men and po able supply (Lakho e
al., 2022). The ou comes o he s udy showed ha he decen alized sys em
had o e all lowe en i onmen al impac s as compa ed o i s con en ional
al e na i e. Agains his backg ound, he e is an impe a i e need o e-
sea ch ha shows economic da a ha e i ies and suppo s no only he
inancial desi abili y o he in es men bu also he en i onmen al bene i s
o using his al e na i e wa e supply agains i s adi ional compe i o
om a angible, compa able and mone a y pe spec i e. Fu he mo e, and
in o de o pu an end o his p oblem, his s udy in oduces a g ound-
b eaking me hodology whe e h ough holis ic esea ch, adi ional inan-
Oeconomia Cope nicana, 14(1), 103–134
109
cial indica o s ha e been calcula ed along wi h he economic alue o en i-
onmen al indica o s ha may endange human heal h and he en i on-
men and jeopa dize ecosys em se ices. In his way and based on a p e i-
ous LCA ca ied ou , da a a iabili y om one geog aphical a ea o ano he
would be mos ly elimina ed due o en i onmen al indica o s ha ing almos
he same human and en i onmen al consequences wo ldwide, and so e-
sul s can be ep esen a i e and easily ex apola ed o o he a eas (Lakho e
al., 2022).
Resea ch me hods
Scena io
All he calcula ions o his esea ch ha e been done conside ing a VFCW
coupled wi h a memb ane-based po able wa e p oduc ion sys em as he
in es men p oposal. This scena io, which has al eady gone h ough an
LCA, is ope a ed a a es au an in Belgium wi h a wa e low o 4 m3.d−1,
and i has been compa ed wi h i s adi ional al e na i e: a public wa e
supply and sewe age sys em in he same geog aphical a ea o Belgium
which is ±300m away om he es au an (Lakho e al., 2022). The es au-
an is open 5 days a week and can se e a maximum o 135 cus ome s pe
day. The expec ed discha ge a e is ¼ popula ion equi alen pe cus ome
(1/4 × 150 = 37.5 L). I i is conside ed ha is going o be wo king i y- wo
weeks pe yea and a pe iod o wen y yea s, his means ha he ini ial
in es men igu es ha e been calcula ed o a VFCW ha is going o be
capable o ea ing 20,800m3 o was ewa e du ing i s use ul li e. Figu e 1
shows he di e en s eps ha wa e go h ough in bo h o he scena ios
conside ed in his esea ch, VFCW and con en ional sys em.
Li e cycle cos analysis
An LCCA was ca ied ou in o de o app aise he economic iabili y
and e iciency o a CW used as an al e na i e o adi ional sewe age sys-
em in a es au an . LCCA is an analy ical app oach based on cos -bene i
analysis (CBA) and i s use o e alua e he p o i abili y o an in es men
p ojec is widely ex ended especially o al e na i e wa e supply sys ems
like VFCW (Diaz-Elsayed e al., 2020; Cao e al., 2021). Th ough CBA, mone-
Oeconomia Cope nicana, 14(1), 103–134
110
a y alue is assigned o each inpu and ou pu ha esul om he p ojec
ha is being e alua ed. Ne e heless, and despi e i s key alue in p ojec
e alua ion, i s use is a ely seen in me hodologies ela ed o was ewa e
euse p ojec s, lea ing a esea ch gap in his ield o s udy (Decle cq e al.,
2020). The mos common decision c i e ia used o assess cos -bene i analy-
sis a e NPV, BCR, IRR, DPP (Gal is e al., 2018; Omole e al., 2019; F eeman
e al., 2019; Loa e-Flo es e al., 2020; Pahunang e al., 2021; Sakcha oen e al.,
2021; López-Se ano e al., 2021; Gha ou ian e al., 2022). In he con ex o
de eloping an LCCA his esea ch is o g ea impo ance because a new
ac o ela ed o he in e es a e calcula ion has been in oduced in o he
economic me hodology. Al hough he e is exis ing li e a u e whe e adi-
ional indica o s ha e been calcula ed, in all o he pape s p e iously pub-
lished only a single ixed in e es a e o he whole pe iod has been con-
side ed, hus lea ing behind he in e es luc ua ions ha may happen in
pe iods as long as 20 yea s (Abdul a ah e al., 2019; O e e al., 2020). Fu -
he mo e, and in a con ex o unce ain y in he in e na ional inancial ma -
ke s whe e in e es a es a e changing almos daily, di e en a es wi hin
a yield cu e o he nex wo decades a e o special ele ance o s udy he
iabili y o a p ojec . The Eu o a ea yield cu e ha has been conside ed o
his esea ch akes in o accoun bo h, he Eu ibo a es based on in e bank
loans o he Eu o a ea and longe ma u i ies o in e es a es o he mos
ele an Eu opean bonds, pa icula ly he Ge man bond. P ojec ions o he
yield cu e a e om Sep embe 27 h, 2022 and a e based on Bloombe g
analyses. Fu he mo e, and since cash in lows may be mone a y bene i s o
sa ings, o all he inancial indica o s calcula ed in his esea ch he g oss
income and e enues a e based on sa ings esul ing om he use o he
al e na i e s udied agains ha o he adi ional op ion (Zadeh e al., 2013;
Abdelhay & Abunase , 2021).
Be o e calcula ing he adi ional indica o s, and in o de o comple e
a de ailed LCCA, i is also c ucial o de elop an ini ial cos s uc u e based
on he s a -up cos s ha a e needed o he cons uc ed we land (Bassi e
al., 2022; Bolinches e al., 2022). Fo his su ey cons uc ion and ope a ional
cos s ha e been e alua ed based on p ima y da a. Da a collec ion has been
done in he las qua e o 2022 by con ac ing local, na ional and in e na-
ional companies which p o ided in e nal da a, local, na ional and in e na-
ional au ho i ies which p o ided public epo ing and da a and s akehold-
e s. Da a om he di e en sou ces we e c ossed and alida ed be o e be-
ing used in his esea ch. The ini ial in es men has been calcula ed based
Oeconomia Cope nicana, 14(1), 103–134
111
on he ma e ials needed o he cons uc ion o he we land ha ha e been
p o ided by local supply companies, bu double-checked wi h in e na ion-
al companies in o de o see ha da a, and he e o e esul s, used o his
esea ch can be easily ex apola ed o o he a eas whe e wa e sca ci y is an
issue.
The ollowing assump ions ha e been made:
− The p ojec li e ime has been se a 20 yea s as in p e ious VFCW as-
sessmen s (Abdelhay & Abunase , 2021; Lakho e al., 2022).
− Discoun a es a e di e en each yea and a e based on he Eu o a ea
yield cu e.
− Cos s de i ed om cons uc ing and ins alling a VFCW sys em a
a es au an o medium le el wi h local knowledge and esou ces we e
independen ly in es iga ed and collec ed h ough a ma ke su ey.
Economic indica o s
NPV
To ca y ou an economic analysis ha displays he inancial iabili y o
using a VFCW, he NPV was adop ed. The NPV is he di e ence be ween
cash in lows and ou lows du ing a ce ain pe iod by aking in o conside a-
ion a discoun a e. I s esul may be posi i e o nega i e, and while
a posi i e magni ude e lec s ne p o i and he e o e he desi abili y o he
p ojec , a nega i e igu e shows he lack o economic p o i abili y. This
means ha he highe he NPV, he g ea e i s p o i abili y.
The NPV has been calcula ed acco ding o he ollowing equa ion:
NPV =
()
(1)
whe e:
d Discoun a e (%)
R Re enues o Sa ings (EUR)
C Cos s (EUR)
n Numbe o yea s ( om 0 o n)
Oeconomia Cope nicana, 14(1), 103–134
118
sewe age sys em compa ed o he VFCW) he ea men cos o he adi-
ional al e na i e ha a e displayed in Table 5 a e always mo e expensi e
han hose o he VFCW.
Conclusions
The scope o his esea ch is o g ea impo ance i he alue o wa e
wo ldwide is aken in o accoun . VFCWs ha e been e i ied in his s udy
as a iable al e na i e ha may enhance wa e supply in hose a eas whe e
he adi ional sys ems a e ei he inexis en o unp o i able. Fu he mo e,
all he adi ional inancial indica o s used he e o analyze he iabili y o
he in es men ha e s a ed he desi abili y o he p ojec om an economic
poin o iew and, mo eo e , he e alua ion o he ea men cos s o
VFCW agains he adi ional al e na i e bols e he impo ance o os e -
ing he cons uc ion o VFCW o help bo h he en i onmen and he socie-
y. In his con ex , VFCWs a e especially use ul in u al a eas ha a e no
connec ed o public sewe age sys ems because o long dis ances o a small
popula ion. Fo hese easons, VFCWs may also help wi h comba ing u al
exodus since he cons uc ion o adi ional wa e supply and sewe age
sys ems is o en a oo expensi e and unp o i able o he low numbe o
people who would bene i om hei cons uc ion. In hese si ua ions,
building VFCWs would bene i all he s akeholde s; he go e nmen by
sa ing money i compa ed wi h he adi ional al e na i e, ci izens by ha -
ing a way o ea ing was ewa e is an en i onmen ally iendly manne ,
and all he socie y as a whole by de eloping sus ainable communi ies and
p omo ing u al de elopmen ha a e also a undamen al pa o SDGs.
Las , bu no leas , esul s de i ed om his esea ch jus i y he con-
s uc ion o VFCWs o ea was ewa e as being cos -e ec i e o all, he
in es o , he en i onmen , and socie y in gene al. The use o VFCWs o
ea ing was ewa e also makes an indi ec con ibu ion o he economy
since as well as enhancing economic de elopmen h ough s andalone
businesses like es au an s, i also p omo es he p o ec ion o wa e bodies,
hei a ailabili y, and egene a ion. This in u n enhances i s use in o he
con ex s and economic sec o s whe e wa e esou ces a e o i al im-
po ance, and i s implemen a ion would upli he achie emen o SDGs
due o he c i ical ole wa e supply has di ec ly and indi ec ly on hei
ul ilmen .
Oeconomia Cope nicana, 14(1), 103–134
119
Some limi a ions o his esea ch migh be linked o he a ailabili y o
supplies needed o he cons uc ion o he VFCW ha can be ha d o ind
in some geog aphical egions, especially in unde de eloped coun ies
whe e u al a eas a e o g ea impo ance and wa e supply a key issue
a ec ing millions o people. On he o he hand, he “yuck ac o ” also de-
se es special a en ion, since i may slow down o e en s op he euse o
ea ed was ewa e based on w ong ex ended belie s and pe cep ions ha
conside his al e na i e wa e esou ce as nega i e o e en ha m ul. An-
o he limi a ion ha migh limi he scope o his esea ch is linked wi h he
ela i ely high ini ial in es men . This, oge he wi h he cu en high in-
e es a e scena io may be po en ial ba ie s o he success ul implemen a-
ion o VFCWs. In his sense, public au ho i ies could eally os e hei
adop ion h ough public g an s o loans hus educing o minimizing he
ini ial economic e o . Fu he mo e, public, and in e na ional ins i u ions
could enhance he cons uc ion o VFCW by subsidizing pa o he ini ial
in es men o h ough ax incen i es o hose people in es ing in his
g een echnology ha os e sus ainable de elopmen wi hin he ame-
wo k o ci cula economy. Finally, ano he limi a ion o his esea ch may
be connec ed wi h he adi ional inancial indica o s used in he me hod-
ology as quali a i e a iables and isk ac o s a e no assessed.
Agains his backg ound, and in o de o sol e he p oblem o he po-
en ial disad an age ha he una ailabili y o supplies may cause, u u e
esea ch should ocus on looking o easy- o-supply al e na i es and ma e-
ials wi h which o cons uc he VFCW i sel and he Memb ane-based
po able wa e p oduc ion sys em. Apa om ha , and since his esea ch
is based on a p e ious LCA, whe e an analysis o a mobile CW o ea g ey
wa e a music es i als agains he adi ional bo led wa e was also ca -
ied ou , u u e esea ch could include i s LCCA and he mone a y e alua-
ion o i s ea men cos s.
Oeconomia Cope nicana, 14(1), 103–134
120
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Figu e 2. Napie ian loga i hm o emo al cos
-1.0
1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
9.0
11.0
13.0
15.0
Cleaning cos s o VFCW s CWS
VFCW
CONVENTIONAL WATER SUPPLY AND SEWERAGE
