Life cycle cost assessment and economic analysis of a decentralized wastewater treatment to achieve water sustainability within the framework of circular economy

OeconomiA cope nicana Volume 14 Issue 1 Ma ch 2023 p-ISSN 2083-1277, e-ISSN 2353-1827 www.oeconomia.pl Copy igh © Ins y u Badań Gospoda czych / Ins i u e o Economic Resea ch (Poland) This is an Open Access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu- ion License (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/), which pe mi s un es ic ed use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed. ORIGINAL ARTICLE Ci a ion: López-Se ano, M. J., Lakho, F. H., Van Hulle, S. W. H., & Ba lles-delaFuen e, A. (2023). Li e cycle cos assessmen and economic analysis o a decen alized was ewa e ea - men o achie e wa e sus ainabili y wi hin he amewo k o ci cula economy. Oeconomia Cope nicana, 14(1), 103–133. doi: 10.24136/oc.2023.003 Con ac o co esponding au ho : Ma ía J. López-Se ano, m[email p o ec ed] A icle his o y: Recei ed: 17.11.2022; Accep ed: 7.03.2023; Published online: 25.03.2023 Ma ía J. López-Se ano Uni e si y o Alme ía, Spain o cid.o g/0000-0001-6439-0819 Fida Hussain Lakho Ghen Uni e si y Campus Ko ijk, Belgium o cid.o g/0000-0001-8559-3981 S ijn W.H. Van Hulle Ghen Uni e si y Campus Ko ijk, Belgium o cid.o g/0000-0001-5773-7773 Ana Ba lles-delaFuen e Uni e si y o Alme ía, Spain o cid.o g/0000-0003-2108-0516 Li e cycle cos assessmen and economic analysis o a decen alized was ewa e ea men o achie e wa e sus ainabili y wi hin he amewo k o ci cula economy JEL Classi ica ion: Q25; Q53; Q56 Keywo ds: was ewa e ; economic analysis; LCCA; Sus ainable De elopmen Goals; mone a y e alua- ion Oeconomia Cope nicana, 14(1), 103–134 104 Abs ac Resea ch backg ound: The inc easing wa e demand oge he wi h an unceasing p oduc ion o was ewa e wo ldwide has esul ed in a si ua ion whe e he sca ci y and pollu ion o wa e esou ces a e jeopa dizing and deple ing such a i al asse . Pu pose o he a icle: In his con ex , Na u e Based Solu ions (NBS) such as Ve ical Flow Cons uc ed We lands (VFCWs) a e key because o hei capaci y o channelling a was e in o a esou ce. Howe e , and no wi hs anding hei essen ial ole, hei inancial bene i s oo o en go unno iced because o missing esea ch ha s udy hem om an economic pe spec i e and his a icle has co e ed his exis ing gap. The objec i e o his esea ch is o analyse he eco- nomic consequences o using VFCW agains i s adi ional al e na i e h ough a comp ehen- si e economic assessmen . Me hods: A e doing a Li e Cycle Assessmen (LCA), a combina ion o wo app oaches has been ca ied ou . This esea ch has de eloped a holis ic app oach whe e a Li e Cycle Cos Assessmen (LCCA) based on a Cos Bene i Analysis (CBA) along wi h an economic e alua- ion o cleaning en i onmen al cos s ha e been calcula ed o wo di e en scena ios. Fo his mone a y analysis, he en i onmen al ex e nali ies de i ed om he use o cleaning he pollu- ion caused by a public wa e supply and sewe age sys em and he VFCW ha e been quan i- ied. Findings & alue added: Resul s conclude ha VFCW apa o being a cos -e ec i e and p o i able al e na i e o an in es o , i has also aluable bene i s o he socie y in gene al because o i s meaning ul and posi i e ex e nali ies and he high emo al cos o he en i on- men al pollu an s o he adi ional wa e supply and sewage sys em bo h con ibu ing di ec - ly o he achie emen o Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SDGs). Fu he mo e, 4/5 en i on- men al impac s de i ed om he use o adi ional al e na i e pollu e mo e han wice as much as he VFCW does. Las ly, he cleaning cos s di e ence be ween bo h al e na i es is 1,984,335€. In oduc ion The demand o he essen ial, aluable, un ai ly-dis ibu ed and limi ed esou ce, eshwa e , has been s eadily inc easing in he las decades and he si ua ion is s ill expec ed o wo sen u he due o a ying an h opic easons, hus aising majo conce ns wo ldwide (Bunn, 2016; Tociu e al., 2019; Ashu & Lee., 2021; Baggio e al., 2021; T uchado e al., 2021). Clima e change, which comp ises global wa ming and mo e unp edic able and changing wea he pa e ns, along wi h he wo ld’s g owing popula ion, bo h o ecas ed o exace ba e in upcoming yea s, ha e de i ed in o in- c eased wa e sca ci y and pollu ion which endange s he wa e supply and ai dis ibu ion o ini e eshwa e esou ces, pu ing s ain on wa e and ood secu i y (Melián-Na a o & Ruiz-Canales, 2020; Al-agele e al., 2021; Wang e al., 2021; A ellano-Gonzalez e al., 2021; Wee asoo iya e al., 2021; Maniam e al., 2022). The en isaged wo sening o a cu en a e ul Oeconomia Cope nicana, 14(1), 103–134 105 si ua ion whe e mo e han wo billion people expe ience wa e s ess and ou billion su e om se e e wa e sca ci y o a leas a mon h e e y yea , b ing o ligh he u gency o looking o al e na i e and sus ainable wa e esou ces (UNESCO, 2021; UNESCO, 2022). Wi hin his con ex , ea ed was ewa e has become in o a eliable and cos -e ec i e wa e al e na i e ha gua an ees wa e supply and ha has been p o ed o be able o add ess many o he p oblems de i ed by wa e cons ain s all a once (H is o e al., 2021). The use o eclaimed wa e is also o majo impo ance in he pu sui o he 17 SDGs p oposed by he Uni ed Na ions (UN) in 2015, since i di ec ly encompasses he aims o Goal 6 (clean wa e and sani a ion o all) and a o s he comple e achie emen o many o he goals due o in e connec ions (B ennan e al., 2021; Di Vaio e al., 2021; Rod íguez de Sá Sil a e al., 2022). The al eady p o en key ole o ea ed was ewa e is pa icula ly c i ical in de eloping coun ies whe e da a shows de as a ing consequences om no ha ing an adequa e wa e supply o was ewa e managemen , esul ing in he popula ion being se i- ously a ec ed in e ms o hygiene, heal h, he economy, and socially (Lu - e beck e al., 2017; Sánchez Pé ez e al., 2020). This al e na i e sou ce o wa e channels was e in o a esou ce, hus collabo a ing wi h ci cula economy and enhancing sus ainable de elopmen wi hou jeopa dizing he en i onmen , and p e en ing he deg ada ion o ecosys ems (La nić e al., 2017; Mak opoulos e al., 2018; Pahl-Wos l, 2019; Ponce-Robles e al., 2020; Es el ich e al., 2021). Agains his backg ound, he objec i e o his esea ch is o analyse he economic consequences o using NBS agains i s adi ional al e na i e h ough a comp ehensi e economic assessmen able o show no only he inancial p o i abili y o he in es men bu also he ea men cos s sa ed by implemen ing i s use. This objec i e is key in o de o show law make s, s akeholde s and esea che s in a measu able way he impo ance o in- es ing in NBS o each wa e sus ainabili y wi hin he amewo k o ci cu- la economy. Fu he mo e, by eaching he objec i e p oposed, he pi o al ole ha bo h ea ing was ewa e p ope ly and channelling was e in o esou ce ha e in iew o he SDGs will be un eiled in a quan i iable way. Fo his pu pose, p io o his esea ch, a LCA ollowing ISO 14044 was ca ied ou whe e en i onmen al impac s we e e alua ed and quan i ied in he same scena io he e conside ed. This pape consis s o a quan i a i e analysis ha no only conside s adi ional inancial indica o s widely ex ended in economic e alua ions in Oeconomia Cope nicana, 14(1), 103–134 106 wa e - ela ed analysis h ough a LCCA o see he p o i abili y o he in- es men bu also ca ies ou a mone a y e alua ion o he cleaning cos s de i ed om he use o NBS agains he adi ional al e na i e. Fo de el- oping hese ambi ious me hodologies, a combina ion wo di e en ap- p oaches, which make his g oundb eaking esea ch holis ic, ha e been aken. On he one hand, adi ional inancial indica o s widely ex ended in economic e alua ions in wa e - ela ed analysis ha e been calcula ed in a LCCA h ough CBA. The decision c i e ia used o assess CBA a e Ne P esen Value (NPV), Bene i -Cos Ra io (BCR), In e nal Ra e o Re u n (IRR) and Discoun ed Payback Pe iod (DPP). On he o he hand, a mone- a y e alua ion o he cleaning cos o en i onmen al indica o s de i ed om he use o bo h scena ios conside ed, he adi ional and he con- s uc ed we land (CW), ha e been ca ied ou hus uly e alua ing and quan i ying he eal cos s o bo h al e na i es. Li e a u e e iew The inc easing wa e demand oge he along wi h he clima e change and he unceasing p oduc ion o was ewa e wo ldwide, has led o a scena io whe e wa e esou ces a e deple ing and has esul ed in a si ua ion whe e eusing was ewa e is no only an adap i e ac ion bu also a easible solu- ion o achie ing sus ainable de elopmen (Hejduko á & Ku eko á, 2020; Zagklis & Bampos, 2022). Agains he cu en si ua ion, he impo ance o channelling was e in o a new esou ce as eclaimed wa e is o undamen- al impo ance, since i os e s ci cula economy and sus ainabili y goals. Fu he mo e, i is impo an o analyse he po en ial en i onmen al impac s de i ed om hese al e na i e ea men sys ems (Resende e al., 2019). The use o hese g een sys ems is s eadily inc easing and an icipa ed o g ow in bo h de eloped and de eloping coun ies, because o he posi i e educ- ion hey may enhance o ene gy demand, en i onmen al pollu ion and economic cos s (Nuamah e al., 2020). While adi ionally was ewa e ea men sys ems ha e been cen al- ized, o a ious easons, such as hei g ea capaci y o anspo la ge olumes o wa e , bene i s o scale and hei highly p edic able ea men pe o mance, hei high economic cos and ene gy and esou ces consump- ion a e lea ing oom o decen alized sys ems (Hasik e al., 2016; Peñaco- ba-An ona e al., 2021; Khalkhali e al., 2021). Decen alized sys ems a e Oeconomia Cope nicana, 14(1), 103–134 107 ypically s andalone sys em used o smalle was ewa e lows whe e he euse happens on si e (Liccia dello e al., 2018; Van de Walle e al., 2022). Ene gy consump ion plays a c ucial ole wi hin he “wa e -ene gy” nexus wi h la ge coun ies like he US spending o e 45% o o al p ima y ene gy on “ene gy o wa e ”, which includes e e y p ocess whe e wa e needs ene gy and wa e supply sys ems ep esen ing up o 15% o o al ene gy usages (Kyle e al., 2016 Vakili a d e al., 2018,). Ano he limi a ion o Cen- alized Wa e Recycling Sys ems (CWRS) is hei incapaci y o e ec i ely and e icien ly p o ide wa e esou ces o u al and low-income u ban a eas whe he because o geog aphical dispe sion o low wa e p essu e and leaking pipes (Picke ing e al., 2015; Lai inen e al., 2017; Wang e al., 2019). This las disad an age is o g ea impo ance as mo e han 40% o he global popula ion li e in u al a eas (Weli i a e al., 2021; Balk e al., 2021). Al hough ully cen alized sys ems ha e been widely used in he las dec- ades, he la es ecommenda ions based on esea ch and cos -bene i anal- yses sugges ansi ioning away om hese sys ems owa ds mo e adap a- ble and sus ainable ones, hus leading o a shi om con en ional cen al- ized sys ems o ei he hyb id o ully decen alized ones (De e al., 2021; Cas ella e al., 2022). Decen alized Was ewa e T ea men Sys ems (DWTS) ha e been shown o be a sus ainable, iable, lexible, eliable, and cos -e ec i e al e na i e sou ce o wa e , especially use ul on a small scale (Gukelbe ge e al., 2019; Liu e al., 2021; Ma ya i e al., 2022). Fu he mo e, he use o DWRS, apa om enhancing en i onmen al p o ec ion and e- sou ce eco e y, may lead o en i onmen al and local economic de elop- men (Jahne e al., 2020; Van de Walle e al., 2022; Es é ez e al., 2022). One o he mos ex ended and consolida ed decen alized echnologies a e NBS such as CW, which, apa om s ic ly mee ing chemical and physical s anda ds o wa e euse, equi e low ene gy, a e cos -e ec i e, easily ope a ional and low main enance (Co bella e al., 2017; Rica e al., 2021; Cao e al., 2021). Since he cons uc ion o he i s CW in 1974, he echnology o hese a i icial enginee ed we lands has been de eloping o make hem desi able and e icien in he ask o ea ing was ewa e physi- cally, chemically, and biologically which has expanded hei use and im- plemen a ion wo ldwide (Zhang e al., 2021). CWs a e conside ed a g een, na u e based echnology ha in ol es we land ege a ion, soil subs a es and mic oo ganisms, and whe eby me abolic p ocesses ake place esul ing in he ans o ma ion and emo al o pollu an s om wa e (Ga inge e al., 2016; Resende e al., 2019). Fu he mo e, i plan ed, hey can be aes he i- Oeconomia Cope nicana, 14(1), 103–134 108 cally pleasing while p omo ing biodi e si y, con ibu ing o lood p o ec- ion, and o e ing cooling e ec s (Dumax & Rozan, 2021). To s eng hen he compa ison wi h adi ional was ewa e plan s, he ac ha he g een- house gas emissions (GHG) o a CW ha e p o ed o be 2714 imes lowe can be highligh ed (Liu e al., 2019). Thei high e iciency linked o im- po an ecological bene i s, make hem g een echnology ha p omo e a sus ainable wa e supply (Cui e al., 2022). Fos e ing he cons uc ion o CWs hus imp o es he wa e supply om a sus ainable poin o iew by mee ing human needs wi hou deple ing exis ing wa e esou ces no a - ec ing in a nega i e way local economies and he en i onmen in a nega- i e way (Diao, 2021; Ka aki e al., 2021). Despi e ha ing been used o mo e han 50 yea s and all o he esea ch s a ing he bene i s o CWs, al hough he e has been an inc ease in hei popula i y, hei e ec i e implemen a ion s ill emains a challenge (Wu e al., 2015; Deng e al., 2021; Vymazal e al., 2021; Yang e al., 2022). This ail- ing, which pa ially impedes a success ul ull adop ion, migh be a esul o a lack o ag eemen on many speci i ies in he was ewa e indus y, con- c e ely because en i onmen al impac s s udied in LCAs a e highly de- penden on many ac o s, such as he loca ion, popula ion, o socio- economic condi ions, among o he s (Lou enço & Nunes, 2021). Despi e he impo ance o educing nega i e ex e nali ies and os e ing ecosys em se - ices, which deeply bene i he whole socie y wi h hei posi i e ex e nali- ies, all he in angible bene i s o using VFCW oo o en go unno iced be- cause o missing economic e alua ions and cos -analyses (F eeman e al., 2019). In a p e ious s udy o he cu en au ho s, a compa a i e LCA was conduc ed o assess he en i onmen al impac s o a decen alized was ewa e ea men sys em combining a VFCW and a memb ane-based pu i ica ion uni o ea ing black wa e o d inking pu poses wi h hei con en ional al e na i e o sewage ea men and po able supply (Lakho e al., 2022). The ou comes o he s udy showed ha he decen alized sys em had o e all lowe en i onmen al impac s as compa ed o i s con en ional al e na i e. Agains his backg ound, he e is an impe a i e need o e- sea ch ha shows economic da a ha e i ies and suppo s no only he inancial desi abili y o he in es men bu also he en i onmen al bene i s o using his al e na i e wa e supply agains i s adi ional compe i o om a angible, compa able and mone a y pe spec i e. Fu he mo e, and in o de o pu an end o his p oblem, his s udy in oduces a g ound- b eaking me hodology whe e h ough holis ic esea ch, adi ional inan- Oeconomia Cope nicana, 14(1), 103–134 109 cial indica o s ha e been calcula ed along wi h he economic alue o en i- onmen al indica o s ha may endange human heal h and he en i on- men and jeopa dize ecosys em se ices. In his way and based on a p e i- ous LCA ca ied ou , da a a iabili y om one geog aphical a ea o ano he would be mos ly elimina ed due o en i onmen al indica o s ha ing almos he same human and en i onmen al consequences wo ldwide, and so e- sul s can be ep esen a i e and easily ex apola ed o o he a eas (Lakho e al., 2022). Resea ch me hods Scena io All he calcula ions o his esea ch ha e been done conside ing a VFCW coupled wi h a memb ane-based po able wa e p oduc ion sys em as he in es men p oposal. This scena io, which has al eady gone h ough an LCA, is ope a ed a a es au an in Belgium wi h a wa e low o 4 m3.d−1, and i has been compa ed wi h i s adi ional al e na i e: a public wa e supply and sewe age sys em in he same geog aphical a ea o Belgium which is ±300m away om he es au an (Lakho e al., 2022). The es au- an is open 5 days a week and can se e a maximum o 135 cus ome s pe day. The expec ed discha ge a e is ¼ popula ion equi alen pe cus ome (1/4 × 150 = 37.5 L). I i is conside ed ha is going o be wo king i y- wo weeks pe yea and a pe iod o wen y yea s, his means ha he ini ial in es men igu es ha e been calcula ed o a VFCW ha is going o be capable o ea ing 20,800m3 o was ewa e du ing i s use ul li e. Figu e 1 shows he di e en s eps ha wa e go h ough in bo h o he scena ios conside ed in his esea ch, VFCW and con en ional sys em. Li e cycle cos analysis An LCCA was ca ied ou in o de o app aise he economic iabili y and e iciency o a CW used as an al e na i e o adi ional sewe age sys- em in a es au an . LCCA is an analy ical app oach based on cos -bene i analysis (CBA) and i s use o e alua e he p o i abili y o an in es men p ojec is widely ex ended especially o al e na i e wa e supply sys ems like VFCW (Diaz-Elsayed e al., 2020; Cao e al., 2021). Th ough CBA, mone- Oeconomia Cope nicana, 14(1), 103–134 110 a y alue is assigned o each inpu and ou pu ha esul om he p ojec ha is being e alua ed. Ne e heless, and despi e i s key alue in p ojec e alua ion, i s use is a ely seen in me hodologies ela ed o was ewa e euse p ojec s, lea ing a esea ch gap in his ield o s udy (Decle cq e al., 2020). The mos common decision c i e ia used o assess cos -bene i analy- sis a e NPV, BCR, IRR, DPP (Gal is e al., 2018; Omole e al., 2019; F eeman e al., 2019; Loa e-Flo es e al., 2020; Pahunang e al., 2021; Sakcha oen e al., 2021; López-Se ano e al., 2021; Gha ou ian e al., 2022). In he con ex o de eloping an LCCA his esea ch is o g ea impo ance because a new ac o ela ed o he in e es a e calcula ion has been in oduced in o he economic me hodology. Al hough he e is exis ing li e a u e whe e adi- ional indica o s ha e been calcula ed, in all o he pape s p e iously pub- lished only a single ixed in e es a e o he whole pe iod has been con- side ed, hus lea ing behind he in e es luc ua ions ha may happen in pe iods as long as 20 yea s (Abdul a ah e al., 2019; O e e al., 2020). Fu - he mo e, and in a con ex o unce ain y in he in e na ional inancial ma - ke s whe e in e es a es a e changing almos daily, di e en a es wi hin a yield cu e o he nex wo decades a e o special ele ance o s udy he iabili y o a p ojec . The Eu o a ea yield cu e ha has been conside ed o his esea ch akes in o accoun bo h, he Eu ibo a es based on in e bank loans o he Eu o a ea and longe ma u i ies o in e es a es o he mos ele an Eu opean bonds, pa icula ly he Ge man bond. P ojec ions o he yield cu e a e om Sep embe 27 h, 2022 and a e based on Bloombe g analyses. Fu he mo e, and since cash in lows may be mone a y bene i s o sa ings, o all he inancial indica o s calcula ed in his esea ch he g oss income and e enues a e based on sa ings esul ing om he use o he al e na i e s udied agains ha o he adi ional op ion (Zadeh e al., 2013; Abdelhay & Abunase , 2021). Be o e calcula ing he adi ional indica o s, and in o de o comple e a de ailed LCCA, i is also c ucial o de elop an ini ial cos s uc u e based on he s a -up cos s ha a e needed o he cons uc ed we land (Bassi e al., 2022; Bolinches e al., 2022). Fo his su ey cons uc ion and ope a ional cos s ha e been e alua ed based on p ima y da a. Da a collec ion has been done in he las qua e o 2022 by con ac ing local, na ional and in e na- ional companies which p o ided in e nal da a, local, na ional and in e na- ional au ho i ies which p o ided public epo ing and da a and s akehold- e s. Da a om he di e en sou ces we e c ossed and alida ed be o e be- ing used in his esea ch. The ini ial in es men has been calcula ed based Oeconomia Cope nicana, 14(1), 103–134 111 on he ma e ials needed o he cons uc ion o he we land ha ha e been p o ided by local supply companies, bu double-checked wi h in e na ion- al companies in o de o see ha da a, and he e o e esul s, used o his esea ch can be easily ex apola ed o o he a eas whe e wa e sca ci y is an issue. The ollowing assump ions ha e been made: − The p ojec li e ime has been se a 20 yea s as in p e ious VFCW as- sessmen s (Abdelhay & Abunase , 2021; Lakho e al., 2022). − Discoun a es a e di e en each yea and a e based on he Eu o a ea yield cu e. − Cos s de i ed om cons uc ing and ins alling a VFCW sys em a a es au an o medium le el wi h local knowledge and esou ces we e independen ly in es iga ed and collec ed h ough a ma ke su ey. Economic indica o s NPV To ca y ou an economic analysis ha displays he inancial iabili y o using a VFCW, he NPV was adop ed. The NPV is he di e ence be ween cash in lows and ou lows du ing a ce ain pe iod by aking in o conside a- ion a discoun a e. I s esul may be posi i e o nega i e, and while a posi i e magni ude e lec s ne p o i and he e o e he desi abili y o he p ojec , a nega i e igu e shows he lack o economic p o i abili y. This means ha he highe he NPV, he g ea e i s p o i abili y. The NPV has been calcula ed acco ding o he ollowing equa ion: NPV =       ()    (1) whe e: d Discoun a e (%) R Re enues o Sa ings (EUR) C Cos s (EUR) n Numbe o yea s ( om 0 o n) Oeconomia Cope nicana, 14(1), 103–134 118 sewe age sys em compa ed o he VFCW) he ea men cos o he adi- ional al e na i e ha a e displayed in Table 5 a e always mo e expensi e han hose o he VFCW. Conclusions The scope o his esea ch is o g ea impo ance i he alue o wa e wo ldwide is aken in o accoun . VFCWs ha e been e i ied in his s udy as a iable al e na i e ha may enhance wa e supply in hose a eas whe e he adi ional sys ems a e ei he inexis en o unp o i able. Fu he mo e, all he adi ional inancial indica o s used he e o analyze he iabili y o he in es men ha e s a ed he desi abili y o he p ojec om an economic poin o iew and, mo eo e , he e alua ion o he ea men cos s o VFCW agains he adi ional al e na i e bols e he impo ance o os e - ing he cons uc ion o VFCW o help bo h he en i onmen and he socie- y. In his con ex , VFCWs a e especially use ul in u al a eas ha a e no connec ed o public sewe age sys ems because o long dis ances o a small popula ion. Fo hese easons, VFCWs may also help wi h comba ing u al exodus since he cons uc ion o adi ional wa e supply and sewe age sys ems is o en a oo expensi e and unp o i able o he low numbe o people who would bene i om hei cons uc ion. In hese si ua ions, building VFCWs would bene i all he s akeholde s; he go e nmen by sa ing money i compa ed wi h he adi ional al e na i e, ci izens by ha - ing a way o ea ing was ewa e is an en i onmen ally iendly manne , and all he socie y as a whole by de eloping sus ainable communi ies and p omo ing u al de elopmen ha a e also a undamen al pa o SDGs. Las , bu no leas , esul s de i ed om his esea ch jus i y he con- s uc ion o VFCWs o ea was ewa e as being cos -e ec i e o all, he in es o , he en i onmen , and socie y in gene al. The use o VFCWs o ea ing was ewa e also makes an indi ec con ibu ion o he economy since as well as enhancing economic de elopmen h ough s andalone businesses like es au an s, i also p omo es he p o ec ion o wa e bodies, hei a ailabili y, and egene a ion. This in u n enhances i s use in o he con ex s and economic sec o s whe e wa e esou ces a e o i al im- po ance, and i s implemen a ion would upli he achie emen o SDGs due o he c i ical ole wa e supply has di ec ly and indi ec ly on hei ul ilmen . Oeconomia Cope nicana, 14(1), 103–134 119 Some limi a ions o his esea ch migh be linked o he a ailabili y o supplies needed o he cons uc ion o he VFCW ha can be ha d o ind in some geog aphical egions, especially in unde de eloped coun ies whe e u al a eas a e o g ea impo ance and wa e supply a key issue a ec ing millions o people. On he o he hand, he “yuck ac o ” also de- se es special a en ion, since i may slow down o e en s op he euse o ea ed was ewa e based on w ong ex ended belie s and pe cep ions ha conside his al e na i e wa e esou ce as nega i e o e en ha m ul. An- o he limi a ion ha migh limi he scope o his esea ch is linked wi h he ela i ely high ini ial in es men . This, oge he wi h he cu en high in- e es a e scena io may be po en ial ba ie s o he success ul implemen a- ion o VFCWs. In his sense, public au ho i ies could eally os e hei adop ion h ough public g an s o loans hus educing o minimizing he ini ial economic e o . Fu he mo e, public, and in e na ional ins i u ions could enhance he cons uc ion o VFCW by subsidizing pa o he ini ial in es men o h ough ax incen i es o hose people in es ing in his g een echnology ha os e sus ainable de elopmen wi hin he ame- wo k o ci cula economy. Finally, ano he limi a ion o his esea ch may be connec ed wi h he adi ional inancial indica o s used in he me hod- ology as quali a i e a iables and isk ac o s a e no assessed. Agains his backg ound, and in o de o sol e he p oblem o he po- en ial disad an age ha he una ailabili y o supplies may cause, u u e esea ch should ocus on looking o easy- o-supply al e na i es and ma e- ials wi h which o cons uc he VFCW i sel and he Memb ane-based po able wa e p oduc ion sys em. Apa om ha , and since his esea ch is based on a p e ious LCA, whe e an analysis o a mobile CW o ea g ey wa e a music es i als agains he adi ional bo led wa e was also ca - ied ou , u u e esea ch could include i s LCCA and he mone a y e alua- ion o i s ea men cos s. Oeconomia Cope nicana, 14(1), 103–134 120 Re e ences Abdelhay, A., & Abunase , S. G. (2021). Modeling and economic analysis o g ey- wa e ea men in u al a eas in Jo dan using a no el e ical- low cons uc ed we land. En i onmen al Managemen , 67(3), 477–488. doi: 10.1007/s00267-020-0134 9-7. Abdul a ah, H. K., S anley, O. I., Nze em, P., & Jakada, K. (2019). 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