OeconomiA
cope nicana
Volume 13 Issue 2 June 2022
p-ISSN 2083-1277, e-ISSN 2353-1827
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ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Ci a ion: Te án-Yépez, E., Jiménez-Cas illo, D., & Sánchez-Pé ez, M. (2022). The e ec o
in e na ional oppo uni y ecogni ion p ocesses on p oblem-sol ing compe ence: how does pas
nega i e en ep eneu ial expe ience ma e ? Oeconomia Cope nicana, 13(2), 541–579. doi:
10.24136/oc.2022.017
Con ac o co esponding au ho : Edua do Te án-Yépez, edua do. e [email protected]
A icle his o y: Recei ed: 8.02.2022; Accep ed: 1.06.2022; Published online: 30.06.2022
Edua do Te án-Yépez
Uni e si y o Alme ia (CIMEDES Resea ch Cen e and ceiA3), Spain
o cid.o g/0000-0002-1260-2477
Da id Jiménez-Cas illo
Uni e si y o Alme ia (CIMEDES Resea ch Cen e and ceiA3), Spain
o cid.o g/0000-0002-2302-1002
Manuel Sánchez-Pé ez
Uni e si y o Alme ia (CIMEDES Resea ch Cen e and ceiA3), Spain
o cid.o g/0000-0003-3709-3389
The e ec o in e na ional oppo uni y ecogni ion p ocesses
on p oblem-sol ing compe ence: how does pas nega i e
en ep eneu ial expe ience ma e ?
JEL Classi ica ion: D91; F23; L26; M16
Keywo ds: in e na ional oppo uni y ecogni ion; p oblem-sol ing speed; p oblem-sol ing
c ea i i y; pas nega i e en ep eneu ial expe ience; ma ke oppo uni y iden i ica ion
Abs ac
Resea ch backg ound: Li le esea ch add esses how iden i ying an oppo uni y in he in e na-
ional ma ke , whe he h ough ac i e sea ch o se endipi ous disco e y, may ha e implica ions
o he subsequen ges a ion beha io s. An eme ging body o esea ch sugges s add essing his
de iciency by ocusing on he cogni i e and expe ience-based ac o s ha in e na ional en ep e-
neu s use o de elop an oppo uni y in he o eign ma ke once iden i ied.
Pu pose o he a icle: The aim o his s udy is o explo e he ole o ac i e and se endipi ous
in e na ional oppo uni y ecogni ion (IOR) in en ep eneu s’ p oblem-sol ing skills (p oblem-
Oeconomia Cope nicana, 13(2), 541–579
542
sol ing speed and c ea i i y), as well as he mode a ing e ec o pas nega i e en ep eneu ial
expe ience (PNE) on such ela ionships.
Me hods: This s udy used he su ey da a collec ion me hod h ough an online sel -adminis e ed
ques ionnai e. Pa ial leas squa e s uc u al equa ion modeling (PLS-SEM) me hod was used o
analyze he esul s o e a sample o Spanish in e na ional en ep eneu s.
Findings & alue added: The esul s show ha en ep eneu s ha ha e iden i ied an in e na ion-
al oppo uni y (IO) ac i ely a e be e equipped o sol e p oblems speedily han hose ha ha e
disco e ed an IO se endipi ously. In con as , en ep eneu s who iden i ied an IO se endipi ously
a e be e equipped o sol e p oblems c ea i ely. Fu he mo e, he impac o ac i e sea ch on
p oblem-sol ing speed is g ea e o en ep eneu s wi hou PNE, and he impac o ac i e sea ch
on p oblem-sol ing c ea i i y is g ea e o en ep eneu s wi h PNE. Also, i is ound ha PNE
does no mode a e se endipi ous IOR ela ionship wi h p oblem-sol ing compe ence. These
indings a e ele an as hey indica e ha he IOR p ocesses ha e implica ions o he subsequen
ges a ion beha io s. Thus, he alue added o his s udy is he combina ion o cogni i e and expe-
ience-based ac o s o he in e na ional en ep eneu o en ich he link be ween IOR p ocesses
and IO de elopmen . These a e wo in e wined and in e dependen p ocesses, which, howe e ,
ha e been sca cely s udied as a whole. The esul s o his esea ch help in e na ional en ep e-
neu s o unde s and how and why he way hey ecognized an IO and ha ing o no PNE in luence
hei p oblem-sol ing skills du ing he IO de elopmen phase.
In oduc ion
The iden i ica ion and de elopmen o in e na ional ma ke oppo uni ies
a e c i ical o i ms’ in e na ional expansion since, wi hou ecogni ion and
de elopmen , in e na ional oppo uni ies (IOs) canno be exploi ed
(Chand a e al., 2009). As en ep eneu s o en play a c ucial ole in hese
ac i i ies, one o he opics ha ha e ecen ly a ac ed he in e es o in e -
na ional en ep eneu ship (IE) academics and p ac i ione s is o unde s and
how en ep eneu s ecognize and de elop IOs (Che y e al., 2018; Di
G ego io e al., 2021; Hilme sson e al., 2021a).
D awing on oppo uni y iden i ica ion heo y (A dich ili e al., 2003),
he li e a u e a gues ha en ep eneu s ecognize IOs h ough ac i e sea ch
o se endipi ous disco e y (Taba es e al., 2021). Ac i e sea ch claims o
he iden i ica ion o IOs h ough a sys ema ic sea ch o in o ma ion and
egula analysis o he in e na ional ma ke (Hilme sson e al., 2021a;
Tuomisalo, 2019), while in se endipi ous disco e y, IOs a e ecognized
h ough en ep eneu s’ ale ness and sensi i i y du ing passi e sea ch si ua-
ions (Kiss e al., 2020; Kon inen & Ojala, 2011). Al hough an e o has
been made in ecen yea s o s udy he in e na ional oppo uni y ecogni ion
(IOR) phenomenon in g ea e dep h, esea ch has mainly been ocused on
how and why en ep eneu s iden i y IOs ei he by ac i e sea ch o se endip-
i ous disco e y (Galan & To sein, 2021; Zae a ian e al., 2016). Howe e ,
he IOR is no hing mo e han he beginning o he IE p ocess and, a e
ecognizing an IO h ough pu pose ul sea ch o o ui ous ci cums ance,
Oeconomia Cope nicana, 13(2), 541–579
543
in e na ional en ep eneu s en e in o a de elopmen s age whe e he IO is
e alua ed and whe e hey ypically ha e o sol e a whole se o p oblems
ha esul om he in e na ionaliza ion challenges (Di G ego io e al.,
2021; Hilme sson e al., 2021b; Taba es e al., 2021).
The di e ences be ween ac i e sea ch and se endipi ous disco e y a ise
a ques ion ega ding whe he he way en ep eneu s iden i y a new in e na-
ional ma ke oppo uni y can a ec how hey ace he eme gence o p ob-
lems and challenges ha a e common du ing in e na ional business ac i i-
ies (Chand a e al., 2020; Ji e al., 2016) and can limi oppo uni y de el-
opmen and exploi a ion. This issue is pa icula ly ele an conce ning en-
ep eneu s’ p oblem-sol ing skills as hey a e seen as key compe i i e
en ep eneu ial and manage ial weapons o success ully de elop and ex-
ploi an IO (Mos a iz & Goh, 2018; Taba es e al., 2021). P oblem-sol ing
skills, e e ed o as p oblem-sol ing speed and p oblem-sol ing c ea i i y
(A uahene-Gima & Wei, 2011), help en ep eneu s o o e come he chal-
lenges ha can hinde he oppo uni y o ope a e o e seas, as hey imply
de eloping imely, no el, and cos -e ec i e solu ions ha lead o he ex-
ploi a ion o he IO (Chand a e al., 2020; Mainela & Puhakka, 2009). Al -
hough ecen s udies sugges ha p oblem-sol ing skills a e a c i ical con-
e e ha can ansla e ecognized IOs in o aluable IOs o exploi
(Mos a iz & Goh, 2018; Zucchella, 2021), he e is a lack o esea ch ha
e i ies how each IOR app oach (ac i e IOR and se endipi ous IOR) is
ela ed o p oblem-sol ing compe ence and why can he e be p oblem-
sol ing compe ence he e ogenei y among in e na ional en ep eneu s.
Acco dingly, his s udy analyzes whe he ac i e and se endipi ous IOR
dis inc i ely de e mines p oblem-sol ing compe ence du ing in e na ional
oppo uni y de elopmen (IOD) p ocess. The heo e ical logic o expec ing
hese di e ences may be ound in p io li e a u e which sugges s ha di -
e ences in IOR may subs an ially a ec IOD and en ep eneu s’ skills and
beha io . Indeed, academics ha e a gued ha ac i e and se endipi ous IOR
di e en ly impac s on oppo uni y implemen a ion quickness, in e na ional-
iza ion speed, and isk- aking p opensi y (Ci a egna e al., 2014; De Cle cq
e al., 2012; Hilme sson & Papaioannou, 2015). In his s udy, we heo ize
ha ac i e in e na ional en ep eneu s — hose who iden i y IOs h ough
a pu pose ul p ocess — end o sol e p oblems as e han hei passi e
coun e pa s. On he con a y, we pos ula e ha passi e in e na ional en e-
p eneu s — hose who iden i y IOs h ough a se endipi ous p ocess — end
o sol e p oblems mo e c ea i ely han ac i e in e na ional en ep eneu s.
In speci ying he model, we d aw on he en ep eneu ial cogni ion heo y
(Mi chell e al., 2002) ollowing he ecen call o IE schola s o apply psy-
chological heo ies o o e a iche unde s anding o indi iduals’ he e oge-
Oeconomia Cope nicana, 13(2), 541–579
544
nei y, and hus o explo e he e ec o en ep eneu ial mindse (e.g.,
knowledge, expe ience, cogni ion) on hei beha io and skills (Wach &
Głodowska, 2021; Zucchella, 2021).
Also, p e ious li e a u e a gues ha ce ain indi idual ac o s would im-
pac he IOD p ocess. In pa icula , he na u e o p e ious expe ience (posi-
i e o nega i e) has been sugges ed as a c i ical ac o a ec ing he speed
and c ea i i y o decisions (La uen e e al., 2019; Shephe d e al., 2015).
Schola s highligh ha in e na ional en ep eneu s wi h pas nega i e en e-
p eneu ial expe ience (PNE) di e om hose wi hou PNE since hey
show di e en beha io s and skills (La uen e e al., 2019; Ucbasa an e al.,
2013). In his s udy, we pay pa icula a en ion o PNE as an impo an
expe ience-based ac o o he e ec i eness o he ela ionship be ween
IOR and p oblem-sol ing skills. In pa icula , we pos ula e ha ega dless
o he ype o IOR p ocess, he p oblem-sol ing speed o in e na ional en-
ep eneu s wi h PNE is lesse han hose wi hou PNE. Also, we p opose
ha he e e se migh be expec ed o p oblem-sol ing c ea i i y; ega d-
less o he ype o IOR s yle, he p oblem-sol ing c ea i i y o in e na ional
en ep eneu s wi h PNE is g ea e han hose wi hou PNE.
The esul s o pa ial leas squa e s uc u al equa ion modeling (PLS-
SEM) analysis using da a om Spanish in e na ional en ep eneu s la gely
suppo ou hypo heses. The s udy p o ides wo main con ibu ions o he
IE li e a u e. Fi s , by disen angling he ela ionship be ween ac i e and
se endipi ous IOR and p oblem-sol ing skills, we con ibu e by demon-
s a ing ha each IOR pe spec i e di e en ly impac s p oblem-sol ing
speed and c ea i i y. Thus, we con i m ha he way an en ep eneu ecog-
nizes an IO is a sou ce o he e ogenei y ha explains why some in e na-
ional en ep eneu s sol e p oblems ha a ise du ing IOD as e and mo e
c ea i ely han o he s. Second, we also con ibu e by p o ing ha he na-
u e o pas expe iences, in ou case PNE, can be a ac o ha mode a es he
ela ionship be ween ac i e IOR and p oblem-sol ing skills, bu no he
ela ionship be ween se endipi ous IOR and p oblem-sol ing skills. Be-
sides, we show ha PNE has a dicho omous e ec on ac i e in e na ional
en ep eneu s ha ei he imp o es o hinde s hei p oblem-sol ing skills.
The es o he pape is o ganized as ollows. In he ollowing sec ion,
we ou line he heo e ical backg ound o he esea ch and e eal he hy-
po heses de elopmen . Nex , we elucida e he esea ch me hodology and
p esen he esul s o he s udy. Finally, we discuss hese esul s and con-
clude he s udy by p o iding manage ial implica ions, limi a ions and u-
u e esea ch di ec ions.
Oeconomia Cope nicana, 13(2), 541–579
545
Li e a u e e iew and hypo heses de elopmen
Rele ance o IOR pe spec i es
How do in e na ional en ep eneu s disco e IOs? Based on oppo uni y
iden i ica ion heo y (A dich ili e al., 2003), p e ious li e a u e sugges s
wo undamen al possibili ies: ac i e IOR and se endipi ous IOR (C ick &
Spence, 2005; Te án-Yépez e al., 2021; Zae a ian e al., 2016). In ac i e
IOR, en ep eneu s iden i y IOs h ough sys ema ic pu sui and scanning
he en i onmen o gaps in he in e na ional ma ke (Che y e al., 2018;
Hilme sson & Papaioannou, 2015). This IOR s yle is based on a a ional,
delibe a e, analy ic, and ule-based sea ch and ga he ing o in o ma ion ha
conduc s o conscious easoning (Oyson & Whi ake , 2015; Tuomisalo,
2019). Ac i e IOR includes conduc ing s a egic planning, expo ma ke
esea ch, goal se ing, in e na ional ma ke scanning, o compe i i e analy-
sis, and he e o e i enables in e na ional en ep eneu s o inc ease hei
in o ma ion and knowledge base (Ci a egna e al., 2014; Muzychenko &
Liesch, 2015; Tuomisalo, 2019).
Con e sely, in se endipi ous IOR, en ep eneu s ecognize IOs o ui-
ously o acciden ally, h ough hei gu eeling in he cou se o o he ac i i-
ies (Hilme sson e al., 2021a; Kiss e al., 2020). Since his IOR s yle is no
based on any o m o planned sea ch, schola s poin ou ha i eases and
as s IOR (C ick & Spence, 2005). Al hough he se endipi ous IOR is con-
side ed o ui ous, p e ious esea ch s a es ha i is no pu e luck (Chand a
e al., 2009; Galan & To sein, 2021) bu a he ha in e na ional en ep e-
neu s ale ness in passi e sea ch si ua ions and he assimila ion ha he
in o ma ion ecei ed by chance could be o alue a e he main d i e s o
his p ocess (Che y e al., 2018; Kon inen & Ojala, 2011). These IOs a e
mainly iden i ied in unexpec ed con e sa ions wi h iends and colleagues,
when eading newspape s, o du ing aca ions (Kiss e al., 2020; Zae a ian
e al., 2016).
P e ious esea ch has sugges ed ha di e ences in IOR may ha e sub-
s an ial e ec s bo h on IOD and o e en ep eneu s’ skills and beha io .
Fo example, schola s ha e ound ha ac i e and se endipi ous IOR di e -
en ly in luence oppo uni y implemen a ion quickness, in e na ionaliza ion
speed, idea gene a ion, idea newness, isk- aking p opensi y, and
knowledge accumula ion (Ci a egna e al., 2014; De Cle cq e al., 2012;
Hilme sson & Papaioannou, 2015). In his ega d, schola s a gue ha di -
e ences in he IOR p ocess impac he iming and speed o implemen a ion
in he way ha IOs iden i ied o ui ously a e implemen ed mo e slowly
han hose iden i ied pu pose ully (Ci a egna e al., 2014). Resea ch on

Oeconomia Cope nicana, 13(2), 541–579
546
in e na ionaliza ion speed s a es simila beha io , as i s ipula es ha IOs
ecognized h ough delibe a e sea ch lead o a quicke in e na ionaliza ion
han hose IOs iden i ied o ui ously (De Cle cq e al., 2012).
Conce ning idea gene a ion, schola s sugges ha en ep eneu s ha ely
on se endipi ous IOR gene a e mo e ideas han en ep eneu s ha ely on
ac i e IOR (Fie & Pa el, 2008). Rega ding idea newness, p e ious esea ch
shows inconclusi e and opposi e esul s. Some au ho s a gue ha he delib-
e a e iden i ica ion o IOs leads o a highe deg ee o idea newness because
he sea ch inc eases he de ec ion o new ideas (Dahlq is e al., 2004).
Howe e , o he au ho s sugges ha en ep eneu s wi h se endipi ous IOR
p edisposi ion end o gene a e mo e c ea i e and no el ideas wi h many
unique cha ac e is ics because you canno sea ch o wha you do no know
(Hilme sson & Papaioannou, 2015). Also, when IOs a e iden i ied se en-
dipi ously, en ep eneu s p e e o ake a lowe - isk, lowe -cos app oach o
in e na ional expansion (Chand a e al., 2015).
Fu he mo e, as ac i e IOR in ol es deep e lec ion, as i leads o high
knowledge in ensi y and acili a es e ie al o ele an knowledge om
memo y in con as o se endipi ous IOR, which elies on shallow ep esen-
a ions and ew, supe icial knowledge (Jones & Casulli, 2014). Ex apola -
ing om hese indings, i is easonable o expec ha di e ences in he
IOR p ocess will also ma e conce ning p oblem-sol ing skills du ing
IOD.
P oblem-sol ing compe ence in IOD
A uahene-Gima and Wei (2011) p oposed wo p oblem-sol ing skills:
p oblem-sol ing speed and p oblem-sol ing c ea i i y, which a e ele an
o new p oduc de elopmen and an e ec i e esponse o ma ke ends.
As such, p oblem-sol ing compe ence desc ibes he abili y o p oduce no -
el solu ions and implemen hem in a imely manne (A uahene-Gima &
Wei, 2011; Mo is e al., 2013). In he IE p ocess, and speci ically in he
IOD s age, p oblems ha a ise in he in e na ional ma ke a e ha d o o e-
cas in ad ance and may equi e u gen , use ul, and cos -e ec i e solu ions
(Hilme sson e al., 2021b). Thus, p oblem-sol ing speed and c ea i i y a e
c i ical. as hey help o e come he challenges ha can hinde he oppo uni-
y o ope a e in he in e na ional ma ke (Boso e al., 2019; Chand a e al.,
2020). Mo eo e , hese skills ha e been ound o posi i ely in luence new
en u e su i al (S enholm & Renko, 2016), and in e na ional en y mode
pe o mance (Ji e al., 2016), and he lack o hese skills hinde he in e na-
ionaliza ion p ocess (Chand a e al., 2020). Indeed, p e ious esea ch has
elucida ed ha p oblem-sol ing is he mos demanded compe ence o new
Oeconomia Cope nicana, 13(2), 541–579
547
employees by companies acing in e na ionaliza ion ac i i ies (Vibhaka &
Smi h, 2005), and i is also a key compe ence ha should be de eloped by
uni e si y s uden s who wan o engage in in e na ional business ac i i ies
(Mo is e al., 2013).
A uahene-Gima and Wei (2011) and Hilme sson e al. (2021b) sugges
ha inding quickly many solu ions o he p oblems de ec ed in he in e na-
ional ma ke is no enough, bu implemen ing hem speedily is ac ually
a skill. This s udy concep ualizes p oblem-sol ing speed as he abili y o
apidly ind and implemen an app op ia e numbe o solu ions o he mul i-
ace ed in e na ionaliza ion- ela ed p oblems ha jeopa dize he exploi a-
ion o an IO. Mo eo e , because he concep o c ea i i y in ol es no el y
and cos -e iciency (A uahene-Gima & Wei, 2011; Mo is e al., 2013),
hese wo aspec s a e included in ou concep ualiza ion o p oblem-sol ing
c ea i i y, de ined as he abili y o ind and implemen o iginal, use ul, and
cos -e ec i e solu ions o he in e na ionaliza ion- ela ed p oblems ha pu
he exploi a ion o an IO a isk. Since hese skills de i e om knowledge
and in o ma ion-based p ocesses and hus hey a e no homogeneously
de eloped, i is di icul o in e na ional en ep eneu s o show he same
p oblem-sol ing e ec i eness (G ube e al., 2015; Hilme sson e al.,
2021b). The e o e, hey a e seen as a compe i i e ad an age o exploi ing
oppo uni ies in new in e na ional ma ke s (Mos a iz & Goh, 2018).
En ep eneu ial cogni ion heo y
The en ep eneu ial cogni ion heo y (Mi chell e al., 2002) helps o un-
de s and how in e na ional en ep eneu s hink, how hey disco e IOs, and
why hey beha e di e en ly when aced wi h new IOs (Taba es e al.,
2021; Zah a e al., 2005). Zucchella (2021, p. 4) a gues ha his heo y
could shed ligh on he “non-di ec ly obse able elemen s in he mind o
he en ep eneu s like knowledge o ma ion, judgmen and e alua ion, ea-
soning, and p oblem-sol ing.” In his ein, en ep eneu ial cogni ion heo y
cha ac e izes he en ep eneu as a collec ion o unique in o ma ion and
knowledge ha signi ican ly impac s on his/he skills and beha io in he
en ep eneu ial p ocess (Ku a ko e al., 2021). Acco dingly, based on en-
ep eneu ial cogni ion heo y, schola s sugges ha an en ep eneu ’s p ob-
lem-sol ing abili y a ies while abso bing in o ma ion and knowledge o
ma ke s (Chen e al., 2018; Chen e al., 2020).
As p e iously a gued, we know ha each IOR app oach en ails di e en
beha io s o ga he ing ma ke in o ma ion. The e a e, in ac , di e ences
in he knowledge accumula ion abou he IO and he acili y o acqui e new
in o ma ion abou i depending on whe he he IO was ecognized pu pose-
Oeconomia Cope nicana, 13(2), 541–579
548
ully o se endipi ously (Hilme sson & Papaioannou, 2015; Jones &
Casulli, 2014; Oyson & Whi ake , 2015). Fo example, en ep eneu s who
disco e an IO based on ac i e sea ch end o seek and acqui e mo e do-
main-speci ic in o ma ion abou he IO (Oyson & Whi ake , 2015). The e-
o e, a knowledge acquisi ion gap is c ea ed be ween IOs iden i ied ac i ely
and hose iden i ied se endipi ously. As p oblem-sol ing skills a e
knowledge and in o ma ion-based, p oblem-sol ing speed and c ea i i y in
he IOD s age may be condi ional on he in o ma ion and knowledge he
en ep eneu has gene a ed du ing he IOR phase. D awing on he en ep e-
neu ial cogni ion heo y, we a gue ha he e ogenei y in how en ep eneu s
iden i y IOs, especially he unique o m hey de elop he in o ma ion and
knowledge s uc u es ela ed o he IO, ul ima ely de e mines hei abili y o
sol e p oblems. Simila ly, Bai e al. (2019) ha e demons a ed ha di e -
ences in he in o ma ion and knowledge acqui ed abou he IO lead o a i-
a ion in p oduc -de elopmen skills.
Ac i e IOR and p oblem-sol ing compe ence
When en ep eneu s pu pose ully iden i y IOs, hey sys ema ically
sea ch o in o ma ion ha en ails ha ing di e en knowledge sou ces,
causing en ep eneu s o ha e ex ensi e in o ma ion necessa y o IOR
(Che y e al., 2018; Tuomisalo, 2019). This sea ch o in o ma ion would
help en ep eneu s o disco e he a eas in which he IO may all sho .
Thus, ac i e IOR enables hem o an icipa e p oblems ha may a ise du ing
he in e na ionaliza ion p ocess and ha e some po en ial p oblem-solu ion
pai s al eady p ede ined, acili a ing he quicke implemen a ion o solu-
ions (Hilme sson e al., 2021a; Vaghely & Julien, 2010). Fu he mo e, he
in o ma ion ga he ing consis s ypically no only o egula analysis o he
in e na ional en i onmen , bu may also in ol e in es iga ing he needs o
in e na ional cus ome s, examining and ques ioning he compe i o s, and/o
main aining echnical dialogues wi h supplie s (Chand a e al., 2015;
Ci a egna e al., 2014). Such ex e nal knowledge in e ac ion may inc ease
speed when sol ing p oblems du ing IOD since i educes misunde s and-
ings abou cus ome p oblems, allows o ha e in mind a pool o possible
solu ions al eady implemen ed by compe i o s, and builds capabili ies wi h-
in speci ic a eas (Bai e al., 2018; De Cle cq & Zhou, 2014). As such, he
in ense hough , planning, and in o ma ion exposu e and ga he ing expend-
ed a he ac i e IOR p ocess can sa e ime la e on, suppo ing speedily
de elopmen o he IO because in o ma ion gained h ough ac i e IOR can
be ecalled and p ojec ed in o de o ace he in e na ionaliza ion p oblems
(Chand a e al., 2009; Jones & Casulli, 2014).
Oeconomia Cope nicana, 13(2), 541–579
549
Mo eo e , p e ious esea ch has emphasized he bond be ween acqui -
ing in o ma ion and knowledge and being c ea i e (Giampaoli e al., 2017).
Schola s emphasize ha access o in o ma ion and knowledge in he ele-
an domain bene i s he gene a ion o c ea i e solu ions (Chen e al.,
2018) The in o ma ion and knowledge acqui ed h ough he ac i e IOR can
ensu e a comple e analysis and unde s anding o ac ions equi ed o de el-
op and exploi an IO (Hilme sson e al., 2021a). Such ea ly analysis and
unde s anding may inc ease he likelihood o inding and implemen ing
cos -e ec i e and c ea i e solu ions (Chen e al., 2018; Mo is e al.,
2013). Addi ionally, h ough sys ema ic sea ch and in e na ional en i on-
men scanning, in e na ional en ep eneu s gain insigh in o he na u e and
con ex o he in e na ional ma ke . This would allow hem o imp o e he
unde s anding o he solu ion ends demanded by he in e na ional cus om-
e s, enac ed by supplie s, and implemen ed by he compe i o s (Bai e al.,
2018, 2019), which may heigh en he eme gence o a g ea a ie y o alu-
able and esh solu ions. The e o e, we hypo hesize as ollows:
H1: Ac i e IOR is posi i ely ela ed o (a) p oblem-sol ing speed and (b)
p oblem-sol ing c ea i i y.
Se endipi ous IOR and P oblem-Sol ing Compe ence
Se endipi ous IOR usually occu s h ough he in e p e a ion and eason-
ing o incomple e in o ma ion o unusual si ua ions in he in e na ional
en i onmen , implying ha en ep eneu s ha e limi ed knowledge abou he
IO (Hilme sson e al., 2021a; Kiss e al., 2020). Howe e , p e ious e-
sea ch sugges s ha despi e he ac ha en ep eneu s wi h se endipi ous
IOR p edisposi ion do no ha e s uc u ed in o ma ion abou he IO (C ick
& Spence, 2005; Kiss e al., 2020), hey could be well-skilled o sol e
p oblems ha may a ise du ing IOD since hey will be likely o connec
knowledge acqui ed in di e en con ex s o implemen solu ions
(Hilme sson e al., 2021b; Muelle & Shephe d, 2016). Mo eo e , passi e
en ep eneu s a e likely o p edic some p oblems and imagine al e na i e
solu ions ha hei new IOs may ace in ad ance (Chen e al., 2020). Rein-
o cing his idea, p e ious esea ch has a gued ha i would be expec ed
ha passi e in e na ional en ep eneu s use he a ailable dispe se in o -
ma ion abou he IO o deli e imely solu ions (E e s & O’Go man, 2011)
because hey a e amed in an impulsi e and amo phous p ocedu e ha
leads hem o conside he sca ce a ailable in o ma ion o make a decision
(Kon inen & Ojala, 2011).
Oeconomia Cope nicana, 13(2), 541–579
556
coun s). As sugges ed by p e ious esea ch, he ques ionnai e was adminis-
e ed o owne –manage s o ac i e in e na ionalized i ms (e.g., Bolzani &
Foo, 2018).
To ensu e ha he pa icipan s a e in e na ional en ep eneu s, we es ab-
lished as sampling c i e ia ha we will only conside en ep eneu s who a e
cu en ly pu suing (de eloping) an oppo uni y in he in e na ional ma ke .
Acco dingly, ou inal a ge sample was 997 in e na ional en ep eneu s
who we e asked by e-mail o comple e an online sel -adminis e ed ques-
ionnai e de eloped wi h Google Fo ms so wa e. Two weeks and ou
weeks a e he ini ial su ey mailing, a eminde e-mail was sen o non-
esponden s. We ealized he da a collec ion be ween June 22 and Oc obe
11, 2020. We ecei ed 174 illed ques ionnai es. We nex e ined ou sam-
ple by checking he knowledgeabili y abou he opics and consis ency o
esponden s’ a i udes in he ques ionnai e by applying wo con ol ques-
ions. We emo ed 2 esponden s om he sample, one because incon-
sis ency in he esponses and he o he o bo h easons, i.e., low knowl-
edgeabili y and inconsis ency in he esponses. Thus, we ob ained 172 usa-
ble su eys, ep esen ing an e ec i e esponse a e o 17.3%. Fu he mo e,
o ensu e ha non- esponse bias is no a p oblem in ou s udy, we com-
pa ed he answe s o he 15 ea ly and he 15 la e esponden s by applying
a se ies o - es s (A ms ong & O e on, 1977). The esul s con i med ha
he e exis no signi ican di e ences and, he e o e, non- esponse bias is
no a p oblem in his s udy.
Fu he mo e, wi h he help o G*Powe so wa e (Memon e al., 2020),
we assessed i ou ini ial sample size (n = 172) mee s he minimum e-
qui ed o achie e he desi ed le el o s a is ical powe . Gi en ha he mos
complex eg ession in ou hypo hesized model has wo p edic o s, and as-
suming a medium e ec size o 0.15 and a powe o 0.80 being alpha 0.05,
a minimum sample size o 68 indi iduals is equi ed. Consequen ly, ou
inal sample highly exceeds he minimum equi ed. As o he esponden s’
cha ac e is ics, 102 indi iduals (59.3%) we e men and 70 (40.7%) women,
and he a e age age o esponden s was 42 yea s. 6.9% o hose su eyed
had a second-le el educa ion (seconda y school), 48.3% had a hi d-le el
educa ion (uni e si y deg ee), and 44.8% had a ou h-le el educa ion
(pos g adua e deg ee). I is also wo h no ing ha he en ep eneu s ep e-
sen nine di e en indus ies and ha 42.4% (n = 73) o hose acknowl-
edged ha hey had a PNE.

Oeconomia Cope nicana, 13(2), 541–579
557
Measu es and ques ionnai e design
The su ey consis ed o 36 ques ions di ided in h ee sec ions. The i s
sec ion se ed as an in oduc ion o he su ey and es ablished a ques ion in
which pa icipan s had o gi e hei consen o pa icipa e in he s udy. Sec-
ion wo con ained 25 ques ions e e ed o he main a iables o he s udy
(i.e., in e na ional oppo uni y ecogni ion, p oblem-sol ing skills) and o
a a iable ha was used as ma ke a iable, as well as wo con ol ques-
ions. Finally, he hi d sec ion includes 10 ques ions abou socio-
demog aphic and p e ious expe ience ac o s o esponden s.
The su ey was ini ially designed in English based on adap a ions o
p e iously alida ed scales. Then, i was ansla ed in o Spanish, as his is
he mo he ongue o he esponden s. Once ansla ed, he ques ionnai e
was judged by an expe panel consis ing o i e in e na ional en ep eneu s
and six schola s. Following he expe s’ sugges ions, mino adjus men s
we e made o adap he ins umen o he s udy con ex . As a inal s ep, he
su ey was back- ansla ed o English, and no di e ences ha a ec he
na u e o he o iginal scales we e ound. The majo i y o i ems we e meas-
u ed as closed ques ions using a se en-poin Like scale (1 = o ally disa-
g ee o 7 = o ally ag ee) excep o hose ques ions whe e esponden s
we e equi ed o espond ei he posi i ely o nega i ely (e.g., i hey ha e
had any nega i e en ep eneu ial expe ience in he pas ) o whe e hey we e
equi ed o exp ess a speci ic esponse (e.g., hei age in yea s). Table 1
con ains a de ailed lis o he main a iables and i ems used in his s udy.
In e na ional oppo uni y ecogni ion. To measu e ac i e and se endipi-
ous IOR, we adap ed p e ious scales de eloped by Kucke z e al. (2017),
Lo enz e al. (2018), and Nicolaou e al. (2009) o ou con ex . Ac i e IOR
was measu ed u ilizing six i ems ha cap u e he igid planning o ind
ele an in o ma ion abou he in e na ional ma ke , he delibe a e in es -
men in ime and esou ces, and he a emp o scan he in e na ional ma ke
cons an ly. Se endipi ous IOR was measu ed wi h i e i ems ha cap u e
he spon aneous eme gence o an IO, lack o in en ionali y o iden i y an
IO, and he sensi i i y and ale ness o disco e an IO in momen s o in-
sigh .
P oblem-sol ing speed and P oblem-sol ing c ea i i y
The measu e o hese wo cons uc s was assessed by adap ing he scales
de eloped by A uahene Gima and Wei (2011). Focusing on p oblems ha
in e na ional en ep eneu s encoun e du ing IOD, p oblem-sol ing speed
was measu ed wi h ou i ems ha add ess he quickness in inding and
Oeconomia Cope nicana, 13(2), 541–579
558
implemen ing solu ions, and p oblem-sol ing c ea i i y was measu ed wi h
ou i ems, which e lec he cos -e ec i eness and no el y o he solu ions.
Pas nega i e en ep eneu ial expe ience. As in p e ious s udies (e.g.,
La uen e e al. 2019), o measu e PNE esponden s epo ed whe he hey
ha e (yes o no) any nega i e en ep eneu ial expe ience in he pas (e.g.,
closu e/sale/ ailu e o a business whose pe o mance was oo low o he
en ep eneu ’s expec a ions).
Con ol a iables. We included i e con ol a iables in he s udy;
which a e, gende (1 = emale; 2 = male), educa ional le el ( i e le els),
age (in yea s), in e na ional business expe ience (1 = yes; 2 = no), and PNE
se e i y (numbe o imes he en ep eneu has had nega i e en ep eneu ial
expe iences). Ou logic was ha hese i e a iables ha e p e iously been
ecognized as ele an o explaining possible sou ces o a ia ion when
s udying en ep eneu ial and in e na ionaliza ion beha io (Mu nieks e al.,
2020; Shephe d e al., 2015; Wach & Głodowska, 2021).
Da a analysis app oach
PLS-SEM was used o conduc he da a analysis (Hensele e al., 2009).
Se e al a gumen s jus i y he use o his echnique in ou s udy. Fi s , PLS
is app op ia e when he esea ch is conce ned wi h p edic ing mo e han
one dependen a iable (Hai e al., 2019). Second, since PLS is based on
boo s apping echniques, i p o ides mo e ealis ic in e ences (Rigdon,
2016), making i pa icula ly p e e able o s udy p e iously unp o en ela-
ionships. As he hi d a gumen , PLS-SEM, compa ed o co a iance-based
s uc u al equa ion modeling (CB-SEM), usually p oduces smalle s uc u -
al coe icien s, hus p o iding mo e secu e hypo hesis es ing in less s udied
con ex s such as Andalusia (Reina z e al., 2009). Fo he es ima ion me h-
od, Mode A ( e lec i e measu es) was selec ed since i s usage is sugges ed
when co ela ed i ems a e expec ed (i.e., he i ems o a scale a e in e -
changeable) (Ja is e al., 2003) and because a ela ionship is expec ed o
occu om he cons uc o he indica o s (Diaman opoulos & Winklho e ,
2001). The so wa e used o ca y ou he analysis was Sma PLS 3.3.
Common me hod bias
Common me hod bias (CMB) could be a p oblem in su ey-based s ud-
ies when he same esponden answe s independen and dependen a ia-
bles. The e o e, we ook some p ocedu es o a oid and con ol o CMB.
Fi s , we applied a ious emedies ecommended by MacKenzie and Pod-
sako (2012) o mi iga e CMB om he e y design phase o he su ey
Oeconomia Cope nicana, 13(2), 541–579
559
(e.g., p e es he ques ionnai e, gua an ee pa icipan s anonymi y, ask pa -
icipan s o hones y, ensu e pa icipan s knowledgeabili y). Second, once
he da a was collec ed, we applied he measu ed la en ma ke a iable
(MLMV) echnique o de ec and con ol CMB, which is ecognized as he
only e ec i e s a is ical emedy o ha pu pose (Chin e al., 2013). The
basis o he MLMV is ha i should be om a di e en uni o analysis and
a di e en domain han he a iables included in he hypo hesized model.
Thus, o con ol o CMB, we included he o ganiza ional exhibi ionism
scale de eloped by Hamedoglu and Po as (2012) as MLMV. Ca ying ou
he men ioned analysis, we can a gue ha he CMB is no a p oblem in ou
esea ch, since he esul s ob ained a e he inclusion o he MLMV show
ha (1) he model p esen s a wo se i han he o iginal model and (2) ha
he pa h coe icien s do no show signi ican di e ences be ween hem and
a e consis en wi h he o iginal es ima es.
Resul s
Measu emen model assessmen
As we used Mode A ( e lec i e measu es) as es ima ion me hod, i s , well-
es ablished adi ional measu es should be applied o e alua e he meas-
u emen model’s in e nal consis ency, eliabili y, and alidi y (Hai e al.,
2019). All indica o loadings a e abo e he minimum limi sugges ed in he
li e a u e o 0.707 (Ca mines & Zelle , 1979), and hus, indi idual i em
eliabili y is conside ed sa is ac o y. Rega ding C onbach’s Alpha and
composi e eliabili y (CR), all a iables ha e alues be ween 0.70 and 0.95,
which a e he minimum and maximum alues espec i ely o ake in o con-
side a ion (Hai e al., 2019; Nunnally, 1978). Besides, he AVE o all a i-
ables is abo e he 0.50 cu -o le el, which con i ms he con e gen alidi-
y o ou measu emen s (Fo nell & La cke , 1981). Table 1 shows all hese
alues. Disc iminan alidi y was e alua ed h ough he He e o ai -
Mono ai Ra io (HTMT) 0.85 c i e ion (see Table 2), which is s ic e in
compa ison wi h o he disc iminan alidi y measu es such as c oss-
loadings and Fo nell-La cke c i e ion (Hensele e al., 2015). The esul s
ob ained h ough all hese measu es con i m he alidi y o ou measu e-
men model and he e o e we can p oceed o e alua e he s uc u al model.
Oeconomia Cope nicana, 13(2), 541–579
560
S uc u al model assessmen
To s a e alua ing he s uc u al model, we mus i s look a he global
adjus men model calcula ed by he S anda dized Mean Squa e Residue
(SRMR). Ou model a ains an SRMR o 0.063, a alue ha is below he
ecommended maximum limi o 0.080, and he e o e means ha ou model
has an app op ia e i (Hu & Ben le , 1999). F om he e, we e alua e he
s uc u al model by examining he sign, size, and meaning o he s uc u al
pa h coe icien s and he
2
,
which allow he assessmen o he ela ion-
ships’ s a is ical signi icance. 10,000 esamples (boo s apping echnique)
we e u ilized o gene a e -s a is ics o e alua e he s a is ical signi icance
o he pa h coe icien s.
As displayed in Table 3, h ee o he i s ou hypo hesized ela ion-
ships a e suppo ed, ha is, H1a, H1b, and H2b. Howe e , H2a is no sup-
po ed, as se endipi ous IOR shows an ex emely low
2
, unde he mini-
mum le el o 0.02. Thus, se endipi ous IOR and PS speed a e no associa -
ed. I should also be no ed ha H1a and H2b show a s ong e ec size,
while H1b shows a weak e ec size (Cohen, 1988). Addi ionally, o es i-
ma e H3 and H4, we applied he app oach p oposed by Rod íguez-En ena
e al. (2018), which examines whe he he es ima es o wo pa ame e s ha e
signi ican di e ences be ween hem. In his ega d, H3 and H4 a e sup-
po ed, which con i ms ou supposi ion ha ac i e IOR possesses a signi i-
can ly g ea e e ec on p oblem-sol ing speed han se endipi ous IOR. On
he con a y, se endipi ous IOR possesses a signi ican ly g ea e e ec on
p oblem-sol ing c ea i i y han ac i e IOR.
Fu he mo e, he R
2
and he Q
2
alues we e examined o assess he p e-
dic i e ele ance o ou model. Ou hypo hesized model appea s o possess
sui able p edic i e powe (in-sample p edic ion) o bo h endogenous a i-
ables. Indeed, PS speed (R
2
= 0.433) and PS c ea i i y (R
2
= 0.384) show
a mode a e R
2
signi icance (Hensele e al., 2009). Likewise, when analyz-
ing ou esea ch model’s p edic i e pe o mance (ou -o -sample p edic-
ion), ou model seems o possess an adequa e p edic i e pe o mance by
calcula ing Q
2
alues h ough PLS p edic (PS Speed – Q
2
= 0.314; PS c e-
a i i y – Q
2
= 0.268), sugges ing ha ou model can p edic exac alues o
indi idual cases (E e mann & Ta e, 2016). Mo eo e , i should be no ed
ha none o he i e con ol a iables ha e signi ican e ec s o e he de-
penden a iables and he e o e a e no sou ces o a ia ion. Indeed, by
including only he con ol a iables in a model, we con i m ha none o
hem un old signi ican e ec s and gene a e a he weak R
2
alues (0.050
o PS speed and 0.056 o PS c ea i i y).
Oeconomia Cope nicana, 13(2), 541–579
561
Finally, we conduc ed a mul i-g oup analysis (Hensele & Fasso ,
2010) o es he mode a ing e ec o PNE on he ela ionships included in
ou hypo hesized model. Consequen ly, we spli he sample in o wo
g oups, in e na ional en ep eneu s wi h (n = 73) and wi hou (n = 99) PNE.
Be o e compa ing pa h es ima es ac oss g oups, i is necessa y o exam-
ine he measu emen in a iance o composi e models (MICOMs). In his
way, i can be assu ed ha he e ec o he in ensi y o PNE as a mode a -
ing a iable is limi ed o he pa h coe icien s o he s uc u al model and
no o he pa ame e s o he measu emen model. Thus, we apply he h ee-
s ep p ocedu e (i.e., (1) con igu al in a iance, (2) composi ional in a iance,
and (3) an assessmen o equal a iances and means) o examine he
MICOMs when using PLS (Ma hews, 2017). As Table 4 shows, he ull
measu emen in a iance o bo h g oups was achie ed o all a iables.
Consequen ly, we nex applied a non-pa ame ic app oach, he pe mu a-
ion-based p ocedu e, o conduc mul i-g oup analyses h ough he e alua-
ion o he di e ences be ween he pa h coe icien s o wo g oups (Chin &
Dibbe n, 2010). The ad an age o his echnique is ha i is no based on
dis ibu ion assump ions, bu on a ough andomiza ion es in which a sub-
se o all possible da a pe mu a ions be ween g oups is made. In he pe mu-
a ion-based me hod, only a p- alue o he di e ences be ween he pa h
coe icien s lowe han 0.05 a he 5% le el indica es he exis ence o sig-
ni ican di e ences in he wo g oups, and hus i is he mos eliable me h-
od o conduc mul i-g oup analyses (Chin & Dibbe n, 2010; Hai e al.,
2018). As Table 4 illus a es, he e exis signi ican di e ences in wo o
he ou di ec e ec s on which mode a ion hypo heses we e pos ula ed.
H5a and H5b a e s a is ically suppo ed, while H6a and H6b a e no sup-
po ed. The e o e, PNE mode a es he ela ionships be ween ac i e IOR
and p oblem-sol ing skills bu does no a ec he ela ionships be ween
se endipi ous IOR and p oblem-sol ing skills. Pa h coe icien s, signi i-
cance le el, and R
2
o each subsample a e displayed in Figu e 2.
Discussion
We unde ook his s udy o ad ance he IE li e a u e by examining he ela-
ionship be ween IOR and p oblem-sol ing compe ence. In pa icula , we
pay special a en ion o whe he he wo IOR app oaches (i.e., ac i e IOR
and se endipi ous IOR) di e en ly in luence p oblem-sol ing speed and
c ea i i y and, hus, i hey a e a sou ce o he e ogenei y ha explains why
some in e na ional en ep eneu s sol e p oblems ha a ise du ing IOD as -
e and mo e c ea i ely. Mo eo e , we analyzed whe he PNE may be

Oeconomia Cope nicana, 13(2), 541–579
562
a sou ce o di e en ia ion ha mode a es he ela ionship be ween IOR
s yles and p oblem-sol ing skills. Ou indings, apa om ha ing ele an
heo e ical con ibu ions o he li e a u e, also ha e manage ial implica-
ions.
Theo e ical implica ions
As he i s con ibu ion, his s udy adds empi ical e idence ha con-
i ms ha he way an en ep eneu ecognizes an IO (ac i ely e sus se en-
dipi ously) di e en ly a ec s he de elopmen o he IO (c . Ci a egna e
al., 2014; Zhou, 2007). In pa icula , we o e ini ial insigh s on how ac i e
and se endipi ous IOR in luence en ep eneu s’ p oblem-sol ing compe-
ence o IOD. Ac i e IOR was ound o be posi i ely ela ed o bo h p ob-
lem-sol ing speed and c ea i i y, while se endipi ous IOR has a posi i e
ela ionship o p oblem-sol ing c ea i i y. Addi ionally, we ound ha se -
endipi ous IOR is mo e highly ela ed o p oblem-sol ing c ea i i y han
ac i e IOR, and on he con a y, ha ac i e IOR has a g ea e posi i e ela-
ionship wi h p oblem-sol ing speed han se endipi ous IOR. Indeed, al -
hough se endipi ous IOR does ha e a posi i e ela ionship wi h p oblem-
sol ing speed, his ela ionship is no signi ican .
The dynamic na u e o he o eign ma ke sugges s ha o compe e e -
ec i ely is i al o o e come he challenge and c i icali y o apidly de el-
oping he IO ma e ializa ion p ocess (Acedo & Jones, 2007). As such, he
posi i e e ec o ac i e IOR on p oblem-sol ing speed b ings new e i-
dence on he ele ance o in o ma ion ga he ing as a de e minan o he
apid de elopmen o IOs. Thus, his esul aligns somewha wi h p e ious
belie s ha IOs ecognized by ac i eness ha e a as e implemen a ion and
in e na ionaliza ion (Ci a egna e al., 2014) han hose ecognized by se -
endipi y which akes longe o be ma e ialized and in e na ionalized (De
Cle cq e al., 2012; Zhou, 2007). Wi h ou indings, we o e a possible
explana ion o his phenomenon, as i seems ha in se endipi ous IOR, he
p oblems ha appea ake longe o be sol ed by in e na ional en ep e-
neu s, which will esul in a la e implemen a ion o he IO. Indeed, ega d-
ing he non- ela ionship be ween se endipi ous IOR and p oblem-sol ing
speed, i appea s ha he limi ed knowledge abou he IO p e en s p ob-
lems ha a ise om being sol ed quickly. This inding con adic s p e ious
pos ula ions ha a i m ha en ep eneu s ha ecognized IOs se endipi-
ously use he sca ce a ailable in o ma ion o make imely decisions (E e s
& O’Go man, 2011; Kon inen & Ojala, 2011). Howe e , i is in line wi h
p io esea ch sugges ing ha en ep eneu s ha ecognized IOs se endipi-
ously need mo e hough ime o encoun e new in o ma ion om o eign
Oeconomia Cope nicana, 13(2), 541–579
563
ma ke s be o e selec ing he igh solu ion (Chand a e al., 2009; Hohen hal
e al., 2003) which slowdowns p oblem-sol ing p ocess.
Thus, ou indings yield he pa adox ha while se endipi ous disco e y
accele a es he ecogni ion o IOs (C ick & Spence, 2005), i appea s ha
o IOs iden i ied in his way, in e na ional en ep eneu s will ake longe o
ind and implemen solu ions o IO de elopmen and exploi a ion ela ed
p oblems. Ins ead, while iden i ying an IO h ough ac i eness akes ime
and e o , sol ing p oblems ha a ise in hese oppo uni ies will be as e .
Ul ima ely, hese indings imply ha iden i ying IOs in one way o ano he
condi ion he speed o p oblem esolu ion, impac ing in e na ional oppo -
uni y exploi a ion and i m pe o mance (Giampaoli e al., 2017).
Rega ding p oblem-sol ing c ea i i y, e en i we ound i o be posi i e-
ly ela ed o bo h ac i e and se endipi ous IOR, se endipi ous IOR is a be -
e p edic o o implemen ing c ea i e solu ions, which aligns wi h ou
p io e lec ions. Se endipi ous IOR leads en ep eneu s o an open-ended
app oach o p oblem-sol ing, which indeed is be e sui ed o his end by
enabling analogical easoning p ocesses and he connec ion o knowledge
o igina ing in di e en con ex s (Muelle & Shephe d, 2016). Al hough
en ep eneu s wi h an ac i e IOR p edisposi ion may gene a e a lis o pos-
sible “new o he i m” solu ions based on hei sys ema ic sea ch on in e -
na ional ma ke s, he solu ions hey apply will usually be based on p ede-
ined p oblem-solu ion pai s wi h limi ed c ea i i y (A uahene-Gima &
Wei, 2011; Vaghely & Julien, 2010). Ou indings suppo he iew ha he
elaxed s anda ds o se endipi ous disco e y will allow in e na ional en e-
p eneu s o a i e a new p oblem-solu ion pai s, as hey possess an imagi-
na i e and uncon en ional way o hinking ha leads o gene a ing o iginal
and unique ideas (Hilme sson & Papaioannou, 2015; Vaghely & Julien,
2010). Likewise, c ea i e p oblem-sol ing does encompass no only he
o iginali y and no el y o he implemen ed solu ions bu also he ac ha
hese a e cos -e icien (A uahene-Gima & Wei, 2011). Ou indings add o
he li e a u e ha sugges s ha en ep eneu s ha ha e ecognized an IO
se endipi ously end o implemen lowe -cos ideas, as hey a e mo e likely
o use he a ailable esou ces o ma e ialize hei business oppo uni ies
(Hilme sson e al., 2021b; S enholm & Renko, 2016).
Does PNE ma e ? As a second con ibu ion, ou indings e eal ha he
na u e o he pas expe ience o in e na ional en ep eneu s plays a ole in
some o he p oposed ela ionships. In pa icula , he p oblem-sol ing
speed o ac i e en ep eneu s dec eases when hey ha e su e ed a PNE,
bu hei p oblem-sol ing c ea i i y inc eases. These indings con i m ha
PNE has dicho omous e ec s on en ep eneu s, ei he posi i e o nega i e
(c . Dias & Teixei a, 2017; Walsh & Cunningham, 2017). Conce ning
Oeconomia Cope nicana, 13(2), 541–579
564
p oblem-sol ing speed, ou esul s ag ee wi h Shephe d (2003) and La-
uen e e al. (2019) as PNE will lead o a lack o con idence and isk- aking
p opensi y ha inhibi he use o knowledge acqui ed du ing ac i e IOR
limi ing he numbe o solu ions conside ed and hus leng hening solu ion
implemen a ion. Rega ding p oblem-sol ing c ea i i y, he PNE will ha e
he opposi e e ec as i will in ensi y he use o acqui ed knowledge o ind
and ma e ialize mo e inno a i e solu ions (Ellis e al., 2006; La uen e e
al., 2019). Hence, ou esul s sugges ha PNE does no ha e a unique im-
pac on en ep eneu s’ skills. In his s udy, we can conclude ha PNE
ha ms skills ha in ol e a lack o e lec ion, such as ha ing o ake ac ion
quickly, and ha i will ha e a posi i e e ec on skills ha in ol e mo e
e lec ion, such as c ea i i y.
In he case o passi e in e na ional en ep eneu s, ha ing a PNE does
no in luence he ela ionship be ween se endipi ous IOR and p oblem-
sol ing compe ence. Al hough he e a e sligh di e ences be ween he wo
g oups conside ed, he e ec is no s a ically signi ican . We o e an ex-
pos explana ion o such a non- ela ionship. The esul may indica e ha in
o ui ously iden i ied IOs, he impac o p io expe ience-based ac o s
ega ding en ep eneu s’ skills is no sound (Yamakawa & Ca don, 2015).
Thus, he inding could be explained om he poin o iew ha in se en-
dipi ously disco e ed IOs, he e is al eady plen i ul unce ain y, ambigui y,
and isk a e sion (Casillas e al., 2009; Chand a e al., 2020; Chand a e al.,
2015) ha e en i en ep eneu s ha e su e ed a PNE, i does no add e en
mo e u bulence o hei hinking. In his way, i appea s ha iden i ying
IOs h ough se endipi y will make in e na ional en ep eneu s implemen
solu ions slowly and cau iously enough and use di e gen hinking and
a ailable esou ces o deli e no el and cos -e icien solu ions.
Conclusions
D awing on oppo uni y iden i ica ion and en ep eneu ial cogni ion heo-
ies, his s udy p o ides new insigh s in o he IOR p ocess and i s e ec s by
examining i he way en ep eneu s ecognize an IO (ac i ely o se endipi-
ously) di e en ly in luences en ep eneu s’ p oblem-sol ing speed and
c ea i i y. Mo eo e , we ha e analyzed i PNE plays a mode a ing ole in
hese ela ionships. Using da a om 172 Spanish in e na ional en ep e-
neu s, we ha e ound ha ac i e IOR is posi i ely ela ed o p oblem-
sol ing speed and c ea i i y, while se endipi ous IOR has a posi i e ela-
ionship solely wi h p oblem-sol ing c ea i i y. Fu he mo e, we ha e
demons a ed ha en ep eneu s wi h an ac i e IOR p edisposi ion sol e
Oeconomia Cope nicana, 13(2), 541–579
565
p oblems as e han hei passi e coun e pa s, bu ha on he con a y,
en ep eneu s wi h a se endipi ous IOR p edisposi ion sol e p oblems mo e
c ea i ely. Addi ionally, we ha e ound ha PNE can ac as a mode a o by
dec easing he impac o ac i e IOR on p oblem-sol ing speed bu inc eas-
ing he impac o ac i e IOR on p oblem-sol ing c ea i i y. Rega ding se -
endipi ous IOR, ha ing o no a PNE does no mode a e i s ela ionship
wi h ei he p oblem-sol ing speed o c ea i i y. In sho , ou indings sug-
ges IOR s yles and PNE as sou ces o he e ogenei y o en ep eneu s’
p oblem-sol ing skills.
Manage ial implica ions
Ou s udy o e s se e al manage ial implica ions o in e na ional en e-
p eneu s. They should be acknowledged ha iden i ying IOs ac i ely o
se endipi ously will di e en ly in luence hei p oblem-sol ing compe-
ence. Likewise, he ac o ha ing a PNE may in luence hei p oblem-
sol ing compe ence. Rega ding p oblem-sol ing speed, hey should be
awa e ha in ac i ely iden i ied IOs hey will be p one o sol e p oblems
as e , which could ansla e in o as e implemen a ion o he IO and,
he e o e, o being mo e compe i i e in he in e na ional ma ke . Those
en ep eneu s who ac i ely iden i y IOs possess ele an ma ke in o -
ma ion ha allows hem o an icipa e a se ies o solu ions o add ess u u e
p oblems, hus speeding up hei esponse o hese di icul ies. Thus, ou
indings jus i y he esou ces ha in e na ional en ep eneu s in es in ac-
qui ing knowledge o iden i y an IO delibe a ely, o example, h ough
in e na ional ma ke esea ch. Howe e , in e na ional en ep eneu s o he
i ms whe e hey ope a e mus conside ha ha ing su e ed an en ep e-
neu ial ailu e will dec ease he quickness o p oblem-sol ing since i will
educe he con idence in e na ional en ep eneu s ha e in he in o ma ion
hey hold. Likewise, en ep eneu s who ha e ecognized an IO se endipi-
ously should be awa e ha hey will equi e mo e hough e o and ime
o acqui e new in o ma ion be o e sol ing he p oblems ha a ise, i espec-
i e o whe he o no hey ha e su e ed a PNE. The e o e, hey should
bea in mind ha se endipi ous IOs will ake longe o ma e ialize. Indeed,
his addi ional ime needed could jeopa dize new en u e su i al and/o
company pe o mance.
Rega ding p oblem-sol ing c ea i i y, in e na ional en ep eneu s o he
i ms o which hey wo k should no ice ha whe he hey disco e IOs
ac i ely o se endipi ously, hey will be able o sol e he p oblems ha
a ise c ea i ely. Howe e , i IOs a e disco e ed o ui ously, he e will be
a g ea e endency o implemen inno a i e solu ions. The openness in
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Acknowledgmen s
This publica ion is pa o he R&D p ojec PID2020-119994RB-I00, inanced by
MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033/. This esea ch was also unded by he Anda-
lusian Regional Go e nmen [Resea ch P ojec PAIDI2018 P18-RT-4663] and he
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Annex
Table 1. Su ey i ems and measu emen model e alua ion
Cons uc /i ems
Weigh
Loading
α
CR
AVE
Please indica e you le el o ag eemen wi h each o he ollowing s a emen s ega ding he iden i ica ion o he business oppo uni y ha you a e
cu en ly pu suing (de eloping) in he in e na ional ma ke .
Se endipi ous in e na ional oppo uni y ecogni ion (SIOR) ( e lec i e)
0.903
0.928
0.721
I had a “s a e o ale ” o special sensi i i y o de ec he
oppo uni y in he in e na ional ma ke
0.260*
0.879*
I is di icul o explain how I came up wi h he in e na ional business idea; i jus came o me
spon aneously
0.234* 0.828*
I go he in e na ional business idea om
con e sa ions wi h o he people
0.192*
0.774*
I had he in ui ion o iden i y he oppo uni y in he in e na ional ma ke
0.250*
0.886*
Al hough i was no my in en ion, I iden i ied he oppo uni y o ini ia e a new business in he
in e na ional ma ke
0.238* 0.874*
Ac i e in e na ional oppo uni y ecogni ion (AIOR) ( e lec i e)
0.916
0.933
0.704
I esea ched in e na ional ma ke s o iden i y he business oppo uni y h ough an
o ganized/me hodical p ocess
0.181* 0.795*
I
in en ionally sea ched o cus ome needs o which I ha e de eloped a solu ion subsequen ly
0.195*
0.834*
In he sea ch o he in e na ional oppo uni y, I ook my ime
0.164*
0.770*
I examined and ques ioned exis ing solu ions (own and/o compe i o s’) in a pu pose ul way o
gene a e a new in e na ional business idea
0.218* 0.884*
I looked o in o ma ion o gene a e new ideas o p oduc s o se ices ocused on he
in e na ional ma ke
0.208* 0.847*
I egula ly analyzed he
in e na ional en i onmen o ind a business oppo uni y
0.220*
0.898*
Table 1. Con inued
Cons uc /i ems
Weigh
Loading
α
CR
AVE
Re e o hose momen s when you ha e expe ienced in e na ional ma ke - ela ed p oblems (i.e., p oblems du ing he in e na ionaliza ion p ocess), du ing
he de elopmen o he business oppo uni y ha you a e cu en ly pu suing in he o eign ma ke (i.e.,, a e ha ing iden i ied he oppo uni y in he
in e na ional
ma ke ) and indica e you deg ee o ag eemen wi h he ollowing s a emen s
P oblem-sol ing speed (PSS) ( e lec i e)
0.885
0.921
0.744
I belie e I was quick o de ine, ind, and implemen solu ions o he p oblems ha a ose in he
in e na ional ma ke
0.297* 0.847*
I quickly came up wi h di e en al e na i e solu ions o each p oblem ha a ose in he
in e na ional ma ke
0.293* 0.892*
I usually ound and implemen ed a app op ia e imes an app op ia e numbe o al e na i e
solu ions o he p oblems ha a ose in he in e na ional ma ke
0.293* 0.876*
Fo e e y p oblem ound in he in e na ional ma ke , I had
many solu ions
0.276*
0.836*
P oblem-sol ing c ea i i y (PSC) ( e lec i e)
0.874
0.913
0.724
The solu ions I ound and implemen ed o he p oblems ha a ose in he in e na ional ma ke
we e cos
-
e icien
0.249* 0.816*
The solu ions o he p oblems ha a ose in he in e na ional ma ke we e usually inno a i e and
o iginal
0.343* 0.871*
I usually ound solu ions o hese p oblems ha had a lowe cos han expec ed
0.284*
0.862*
In gene al, I ound and applied c ea i e solu ions o he p oblems ha a ose in he in e na ional
ma ke
0.295* 0.855*
No e: * Signi ican a he 1% le el.
Table 2. Disc iminan alidi y (HTMT)
1.
2.
3.
4.
1. Se endipi ous IOR
2. Ac i e IOR
0.392
3. P oblem
-
sol ing speed
0.213
0.724
4. P oblem
-
sol ing c ea i i y
0.657
0.075
0.264
Table 3. S uc u al model esul s
Hypo hesis Impac o On Pa h
coe icien
- alue
2
Hypo hesis
suppo ed
H1a+
Ac i e IOR
PS speed
0.675
12.571***
0.702
Yes
H1b+ Ac i e IOR PS
c ea i i y
0.183 2.565** 0.047 Yes
H2a+ Se endipi ous
IOR
PS speed 0.055 0.875 0.005 No
H2b+ Se endipi ous
IOR
PS
c ea i i y
0.661 11.486***
0.620 Yes
H3
Ac i e IOR
> Se endipi ous
IOR
PS speed 0.620
a
9.493*** -- Yes
H4
Se endipi ous
IOR > Ac i e
IOR
PS
c ea i i y 0.478
a
5.526*** -- Yes
No es: Two- ailed es .
a
Coe icien di e ences.
** Signi ican a he 5% le el.
*** Signi ican a he 1% le el.

Table 4. Resul s o he MICOMs p ocedu e and Mul i-g oup analysis based on pe mu a ion es
S ep 1 S ep 2 S ep 3a S ep 3b
Composi ional In a iance Equal Va iances Equal Means
Cons uc Con igu al
In a iance
O iginal
Co ela ion 5% Pa ial
MIE
Va iance-
O iginal
Di e ence
(PNEW-
PNEN)
2.5% 97.5% Equal
Mean-
O iginal
Di e ence
(PNEW-
PNEN)
2.5% 97.5% Equal Full
MIE
SIOR
Yes
0.999
0.997
Yes
-
0.108
-
0.283
0.269
Yes
-
0.084
-
0.297
0.300
Yes
Yes
AIOR
Yes
1.000
0.998
Yes
-
0.256
-
0.306
0.282
Yes
0.176
-
0.310
0.292
Yes
Yes
PSS
Yes
0.998
0.998
Yes
-
0.321
-
0.365
0.350
Yes
0.190
-
0.305
0.303
Yes
Yes
PSC
Yes
0.998
0.996
Yes
-
0.093
-
0.397
0.367
Yes
-
0.196
-
0.302
0.299
Yes
Yes
Di ec e ec s on
Endogenous
Va iables
PNEW PNEN Pe mu a ion Signi ican
R
2
Di ec E ec p- alue
R
2
Di ec E ec p- alue
p- alue
PSS
0.301
0.533
H5a: AIOR
0.547
0.000
0.777
0.000
0.030
Yes
H6a: SIOR
0.076
0.435
0.094
0.302
0.892
No
PSC
0.478
0.375
H5b: AIOR
0.363
0.000
0.077
0.442
0.044
Yes
H6b: SIOR
0.603
0.000
0.651
0.000
0.680
No
No es: SIOR: Se endipi ous in e na ional oppo uni y ecogni ion; AIOR: Ac i e in e na ional oppo uni y ecogni ion; PSS: P oblem-sol ing speed; PSC: P oblem-
sol ing c ea i i y; PNEW: In e na ional en ep eneu s wi h pas nega i e en ep eneu ial expe ience subsample; PNEN: In e na ional en ep eneu s wi hou pas
nega i e en ep eneu ial expe ience subsample; Pa ial MIE: Pa ial Measu emen In a iance Es ablished; Full MIE: Full Measu emen In a iance Es ablished.
Figu e 1. Concep ual model
Figu e 2. The model’s pa h coe icien s and R
2
s (PNEW g oup and PNEN g oup)
No es: PNEW: In e na ional en ep eneu s wi h pas nega i e en ep eneu ial expe ience subsample;
PNEN: In e na ional en ep eneu s wi hou pas nega i e en ep eneu ial expe ience subsample.
***Signi ican a he 1% le el.