Ci a ion: Bonilla-Algo ia, E.;
Ca asco Ca pio, C.; Ga cía-Pé ez, R.
Do A i udes owa ds Gende Equali y
In luence he In e naliza ion o
Ambi alen Sexism in Adolescence?.
Beha . Sci. 2024,14, 805. h ps://
doi.o g/10.3390/bs14090805
Academic Edi o : Xiaochun Xie
Recei ed: 15 July 2024
Re ised: 2 Sep embe 2024
Accep ed: 6 Sep embe 2024
Published: 11 Sep embe 2024
Copy igh : © 2024 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
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4.0/).
beha io al
sciences
A icle
Do A i udes owa ds Gende Equali y In luence he In e naliza ion
o Ambi alen Sexism in Adolescence?
En ique Bonilla-Algo ia 1,2 , Concepción Ca asco Ca pio 2,* and Ra ael Ga cía-Pé ez 3
1Depa men o Educa ion, Dis ance Uni e si y o Mad id (UDIMA), 28400 Mad id, Spain;
[email p o ec ed]
2Depa men o Economics (Sociology), Uni e si y o Alcalá(UAH), 28801 Mad id, Spain
3Depa men o Resea ch and Diagnos ic Me hods in Educa ion (MIDE), Uni e si y o Se ille,
41004 Se illa, Spain; [email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac : Sexism du ing adolescence may hinde he a ainmen o gende equali y and he e adica-
ion o iolence agains women. The aim o his esea ch was o analyze he ela ionship be ween
an indi idual’s iew on gende equali y and he in e naliza ion o ambi alen sexism, as well as o
s udy he impac o di e en ypes o egali a ian a i udes (sociocul u al, ela ional, and pe sonal)
on he le els o hos ile and bene olen sexism among he adolescen popula ion. A quan i a i e
app oach wi h a c oss-sec ional design was employed in his esea ch. The sample g oup consis ed
o 1840 s uden s (50.1% emale and 49.9% male) in Compulso y Seconda y Educa ion in Cas illa-La
Mancha, Spain. The esul s show ha adolescen s who endo se p o-gende -inequali y a i udes
exhibi g ea e le els o hos ile and bene olen sexism han hei coun e pa s. Con e sely, adoles-
cen s adop ing p o-equali y a i udes leads o lowe le els o ambi alen sexism. In bo h male and
emale adolescen s, egali a ian a i udes a he sociocul u al, ela ional, and indi idual le els ha e a
nega i e impac on he in e naliza ion o sexism. I is he e o e c ucial o bo h schools and amilies
o p io i ize he ins uc ion o egali a ian alues om ea ly childhood, as his will aid in ad ancing a
ai e and mo e equal socie y whils e adica ing sexis biases and iolence agains women.
Keywo ds: a i udes owa ds equali y; gende inequali y; hos ile sexism; bene olen sexism; adolescence
1. In oduc ion
The Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion [
1
] de ines adolescence as a pe iod o g ow h and
de elopmen be ween childhood and adul hood, occu ing om ages 10 o 19. Howe e ,
Sawye e al. [
2
] sugges ha ex ending adolescence om 10 o 24 yea s o age would align
be e wi h cu en pa e ns and expec a ions o human de elopmen . This pe iod o human
li e can be ega ded as a c ucial s age o psychosocial de elopmen , because in addi ion
o he appa en physical changes, i is also cha ac e ized by nume ous psychological and
social changes [
3
–
5
]. Thus, adolescence is a c i ical de elopmen al s age, al hough all s ages
o li e a e conduci e o o ming alues ha suppo gende equali y and comba iolence
agains women [
6
,
7
]. The suppo o opposi ion o gende equali y among adolescen s
is a signi ican indica o o he u u e di ec ion o socie y. As u u e adul s, hei iews
on gende equali y and inequali y can p o ide insigh s in o he socie al changes ha may
occu in he coming decades.
As s a ed by he Uni ed Na ions Popula ion Fund [
8
], gende equali y is a undamen al
human igh ha encompasses he balance be ween women and men in all sphe es o social
and pe sonal li e, including bu no limi ed o economic independence and access o heal h
and educa ion sys ems. The Gende Equali y Index assesses gende equali y h ough a a i-
e y o ac o s, including wo k, money, knowledge, ime, powe , and heal h [
9
]. The Gende
Inequali y Index assesses gende -based dispa i ies in he labo ma ke , empowe men , and
ep oduc i e heal h [
10
]. The p e alence o iolence agains women se es as an addi ional
Beha . Sci. 2024,14, 805. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/bs14090805 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/beha sci
Beha . Sci. 2024,14, 805 2 o 14
indica o ha socie ies emain a om achie ing equali y. This phenomenon ep esen s
one o he mos ex eme mani es a ions o gende inequali y [
9
]. The concep o gende
equali y is ounded upon he acknowledgmen and elimina ion o ma e ial, cul u al, and
symbolic inequali ies ha impede p og ess ac oss all domains o li e. In alignmen wi h he
p o isions se o h by he Con en ion on he Elimina ion o All Fo ms o Disc imina ion
agains Women (CEDAW), he a ainmen o gende equali y equi es no only he es ab-
lishmen o legal no ms ha gua an ee equali y be o e he law o women and men ( o mal
equali y), bu also emo ing all ba ie s ha p e en equali y om becoming isible in ac
(subs an i e equali y) [11].
Gende equali y, wi hin he amewo k o he 2030 Agenda o Sus ainable De elop-
men , mus be included as one o he ans e sal goals o achie e human de elopmen
wo ldwide [
12
]. In he con ex o he global pa ne ship o sus ainable de elopmen , he
elimina ion o iolence agains women and gi ls has also become a global p io i y [
13
,
14
].
Consequen ly, a ious socie ies a e implemen ing ac ions and policies ha a e aligned
wi h he p omo ion o gende equali y and he e adica ion o sexism and iolence agains
women. Despi e social suppo in ecen decades, inequali ies, gende oles, and sexis
a i udes can be di icul o change. Heise e al. [
15
] illus a e he deep- oo ed connec ion
be ween gende no ms and pa icula mind-se s ha indi iduals lea n in childhood, e en
hough hey a e no necessa ily pe manen . This s udy aims o analyze whe he a i udes
owa ds equali y can in luence he in e naliza ion o sexism in adolescence.
A i udes owa ds gende equali y a e ela ed o people’s p edisposi ion o equali y.
Consequen ly, hey delinea e a pe son’s posi ion a he h ee le els o gende socializa-
ion [
16
]: sociocul u al, ela ional, and pe sonal. The i s le el e e s o social gende oles
and he dis ibu ion o domes ic and amily wo k; he second le el e e s o in e pe sonal e-
la ionships, including issues such as leade ship, emo ions, oles, and gende -based iolence;
and he hi d le el e e s o p e e ences, expec a ions, belie s, and gende iden i y om a
pe sonal poin o iew. Thus, he posi ioning owa ds gende equali y a he sociocul u al,
ela ional, and pe sonal le el allows o he di e en ia ion o h ee a i udinal p o iles [
16
]:
he egali a ian p o ile, which implies ecogni ion o he di e en o ms o gende inequali y
and unequi ocal suppo o egali a ian alues; he adap i e p o ile, which implies a pos u e
linked o poli ical co ec ness, inso a as only he mos explici inequali ies ha a e socially
ejec ed a e ecognized; and he unequal p o ile, which implies non- ecogni ion o gende
inequali y and he consequen ep oduc ion o gende oles and pa ia chal alues, e en in
an unconscious manne .
Sexism, as de ined by Glick and Fiske [
17
,
18
] using he ambi alence app oach, in-
ol es wo o ms wi h opposing ye complemen a y sen imen s (subjec i ely posi i e and
nega i e) ha s eng hen each o he ins ead o con lic ing: hos ile sexism and bene olen
sexism. Hos ile sexism in ol es o e ly nega i e and coe ci e a i udes owa ds women,
ma ching he o ms o classical sexism, while bene olen sexism e lec s subjec i ely posi-
i e a i udes—wi h a pa e nalis ic and condescending one— ha s e eo ype and es ic
he social ole o women [
17
–
19
]. In his espec , despi e he con as ing e alua ions o
women implied by he wo o ms o ambi alen sexism, esea ch has consis en ly shown
di ec and posi i e co ela ions be ween hem [20–25].
Ambi alen sexism is a mul idimensional phenomenon, ye i s wo dis inc o ms
sha e a common objec i e: he pe pe ua ion and main enance o an unequal gende s uc-
u e. Consequen ly, hos ile and bene olen sexism a e associa ed, because hey ep esen
wo sides o he same cons uc [
17
,
18
]. Sexis hos ili y is di ec ed owa ds women who
challenge adi ional gende oles, whe eas sexis bene olence in ol es a posi i e e alua-
ion o women who accep hese oles. Ambi alen sexism, which consolida es men’s powe
and limi s women’s oles in he public and p i a e ields [
19
], is an ideology o inequali y.
This is e lec ed in a ious s udies conduc ed in ecen decades. The concep o ambi alen
sexism has been e alua ed in a a ie y o c oss-cul u al con ex s, wi h bo h o ms o sexism
being ound o be ela ed o gende inequali y [
20
–
24
,
26
]. The e o e, empi ical e idence
Beha . Sci. 2024,14, 805 3 o 14
shows ha in coun ies wi h high le els o hos ile and bene olen sexism, gende equali y
indexes end o be lowe [23,24].
Based on he esul s ob ained om a ious na ional and in e na ional s udies, i is
emphasized ha he adolescen popula ion s ill shows gende biases, unequal belie s, and
sexis a i udes ha e lec social inequali ies be ween women and men [
7
,
16
,
20
–
22
,
25
,
27
–
34
].
In ac , esea ch explo ing c oss-cul u al di e ences in adolescen s indica es ha social changes
a e no uni o mly a ec ing all con ex s; u he mo e, he e appea s o be a decele a ion in
gende equali y [
30
]. In he speci ic case o ambi alen sexism, ecen esea ch indings sugges
ha sexis a i udes a e deeply oo ed in he adolescen wo ld iew, wi h gi ls demons a ing
a g ea e awa eness o socie al sexism han boys. Ayala e al. [
27
] disco e ed ha , in a
sample o adolescen s om Spain, Po ugal, Romania, Poland, I aly, and he Uni ed Kingdom,
sexis a i udes pe sis and a e mo e p e alen in boys, pa icula ly wi h espec o hos ile
and bene olen sexism. Gil e al. [
31
] e ealed ha ambi alen sexism is p e alen among
adolescen s; u he mo e, he s udy demons a ed ha gi ls ace social p essu e o comply
wi h beha io s con o ming o socially accep ed no ms. In Cas illa-La Mancha, Díaz and
Sánchez [
21
] obse ed ha boys exhibi signi ican ly highe le els o hos ile sexism han gi ls,
whe eas Ca asco e al. [29] ound ha boys sco e highe in all ca ego ies o sexism.
The academic li e a u e sugges s ha adolescen s, especially gi ls, li ing in mo e
gende -equal en i onmen s gene ally show mo e egali a ian a i udes conce ning gende
oles [
30
]. This se es as a use ul e e ence when designing educa ional p og ams ha
p omo e gende equali y. Acco ding o p e ious s udies [
35
,
36
], he e is a nega i e co -
ela ion be ween gende awa eness and neo-sexism in young people. This means ha
highe gende awa eness and equali y le els a e linked o lowe le els o neo-sexism and
ice e sa. Me ma-Molina e al. [
33
], simila ly, demons a e ha adi ional gende oles
heigh en he likelihood o sexism du ing adolescence. Hence, hey a gue ha p omo ing
egali a ian oles and alues can help p e en such a i udes. In samples o uni e si y
s uden s and he gene al popula ion, Megías e al. [
37
] iden i ied a posi i e co ela ion
be ween my hs abou in ima e pa ne iolence agains women and ambi alen sexism
and a nega i e co ela ion be ween hese a iables and eminis ideology. The e o e, i
seems ha egali a ian o eminis educa ion may be one o he mos e ec i e ins umen s
o e adica ing sexism and achie ing a ully egali a ian socie y de oid o iolence agains
women [6,26,38,39].
Achie ing gende equali y h ough educa ion may be mo e di icul han expec ed,
as social eali y shows ha , al hough i is necessa y, i is no enough o educa ional ins i-
u ions o be ee om sexism [
6
]. Mo eo e , conscious e o s a e equi ed o coun e ac
he in luence o pa ia chal socie y and es ablish p inciples ha b ing us close o egali a -
ianism. In o he wo ds, educa ional ins i u ions mus collabo a e wi h amilies o make
equali y a undamen al p inciple o socializa ion [
38
]. The educa ional sys em, based
on coeduca ion and comp ehensi e sexuali y educa ion, mus ake ac ion o p e en he
pe pe ua ion o gende s e eo ypes, sexis a i udes, and iolence agains women [
38
,
39
].
This ans o ma ion equi es ha educa o s ecei e aining no only o iden i y gende
inequali ies bu also o de elop he essen ial ools o p omo e egali a ian a i udes among
younge gene a ions [
26
,
40
,
41
]. I is only when educa o s and amilies a e awa e o he
pe sis ing inequali ies in mul iple sphe es o li e ha hey will be able o p omo e equali y
and he e o e ake ac ion o elimina e he ba ie s ha hinde i .
Gi en he abo e, he objec i e o he p esen s udy is o examine he ela ionship
be ween an indi idual’s iew on gende equali y and he in e naliza ion o ambi alen
sexism, as well as o in es iga e he impac o di e en ypes o egali a ian a i udes
(sociocul u al, ela ional, and pe sonal) on he le els o hos ile and bene olen sexism
among adolescen s. The esea ch hypo heses a e as ollows: i s ly, ha adolescen s wi h
egali a ian p o iles will show lowe le els o sexis a i udes han hei pee s (hypo hesis 1);
and secondly, ha egali a ian a i udes a di e en le els will ha e a nega i e impac on
he in e naliza ion o hos ile and bene olen sexism in bo h boys and gi ls (hypo hesis 2).
Beha . Sci. 2024,14, 805 4 o 14
2. Me hod
2.1. Pa icipan s
This s udy included 1840 s uden s (50.06% gi ls and 49.94% boys) in he hi d and
ou h yea o Compulso y Seconda y Educa ion in Cas illa-La Mancha Au onomous
Communi y (see Table 1). Age-wise, he s udy included s uden s aged be ween 12 and
18 yea s, wi h an a e age age o 14.67 yea s (SD = 0.89). Ou o all he pa icipan s, 52.77%
we e en olled in he hi d yea and 47.23% in he ou h yea o Compulso y Seconda y
Educa ion. The sample was ep esen a i e o Cas illa-La Mancha, wi h a con idence le el
o 95% and a ma gin o e o o 2.2% o a popula ion o a ound 40,000 s uden s in he hi d
and ou h g ade. The s uden s we e selec ed using s a i ied andom sampling, which
included all i e p o inces (Albace e, Ciudad Real, Cuenca, Guadalaja a, and Toledo) and
dis ic s o di e en sizes ( u al, semi-u ban, and u ban) in he Au onomous Communi y.
Table 1. Sample cha ac e is ics.
n% Mean (SD)
Age ange
12–14 yea s 848 46.19
15–18 yea s 988 53.81
Mean age 14.67 (0.89)
Sex
Boys 893 49.94
Gi ls 895 50.06
Educa ional le el
Thi d g ade 970 52.77
Fou h g ade 868 47.23
Na ionali y
Spanish 1675 91.03
Fo eign 165 8.97
P o ince
Albace e 177 9.62
Ciudad Real 516 28.04
Cuenca 145 7.88
Guadalaja a 316 17.17
Toledo 686 37.28
Size o municipali y a ea
Ru al 100 5.43
Semi-u ban 740 40.22
U ban 1000 54.35
2.2. Ins umen s
-
Adolescen Sexism De ec ion Scale (ASD) [
25
]: Speci ically designed o measu e am-
bi alen sexism in adolescen s, he ASD consis s o wen y-six i ems di ided in o
wo dimensions. The i s dimension e alua es a i udes ela ed o hos ile sexism
using 16 i ems, while he second dimension e alua es a i udes owa ds bene olen
sexism using 10 i ems. The esponse o ma is a Like - ype scale anging om 1
(s ongly disag ee) o 6 (s ongly ag ee), whe e highe sco es indica e highe le els o
ambi alen sexism. The eliabili y ob ained in his s udy o he ASD was 0.93. The
eliabili y o he wo subscales was 0.91 o hos ile sexism and 0.87 o bene olen
sexism. The mean ob ained in ASD was 1.91 (SD = 0.72)
-
School Doing Gende /s uden s Scale (SDG/s) [
16
]: The in en ion o his scale is o measu e
a i udes owa ds gende equali y cul u e and coeduca ion among s uden s. The scale has
30 i ems di ided in o h ee analy ical le els: pe sonal (10 i ems), sociocul u al (10 i ems),
and ela ional (10 i ems). The answe o ma comp ises a Like - ype scale ha o e s i e
al e na i es: 1 signi ies o al disag eemen , while 5 indica es ull ag eemen . S uden s can
Beha . Sci. 2024,14, 805 5 o 14
be ca ego ized in o h ee g oups, based on hei pe spec i e on gende equali y: hose
wi h an unequal p o ile (sco e
≤
89); hose wi h an adap i e p o ile (sco e be ween 90 and
119); and hose wi h an egali a ian p o ile (sco e
≥
120). The alpha coe icien ob ained in
his s udy indica ed adequacy in he SDG/s (
α
= 0.92), and ha was he case o i s h ee
le els: pe sonal (
α
= 0.80), sociocul u al (
α
= 0.81), and ela ional (
α
= 0.80). The a e age
sco e ob ained in he SDG/s was 133.72 (SD = 15.76).
2.3. P ocedu e
The sample o educa ional ins i u ions was made accessible by he Women’s Ins i u e
and Regional Minis y o Educa ion o Cas illa-La Mancha. The andomly selec ed schools
we e in o med o he s udy’s cha ac e is ics and con en s h ough bo h elephone and
email communica ion. The sel -adminis e ed ques ionnai es we e comple ed du ing he
ag eed-upon school hou s wi h he managemen eams. The esea ch eam was p esen
h oughou he da a collec ion p ocess, cla i ying he objec i es and p o iding ele an
ins uc ions o he eache s and s uden s. The u o ’s w i en in o med consen o med he
basis o he s uden s’ pa icipa ion. Responden s comple ed he ques ionnai e olun a ily
and anonymously wi hou any inancial o o he compensa ion. The Uni e si y o Alcalá
Resea ch E hics Commi ee app o ed he esea ch p ojec (CEI/HU/2019/39).
2.4. Analysis
The da abase was designed using SPSS s a is ical so wa e ( e sion 24.0). The le els o
sexism we e e alua ed using he one- ac o ANOVA model based on he s uden s’ a i udes
owa ds gende equali y. Pos hoc mul iple compa isons we e conduc ed o compa e
he di e ences be ween each pai o means among he a ious o ms o sexism. Se e al
mul iple linea eg ession analyses we e conduc ed o analyze he in luence o a i udes
owa ds equali y on ambi alen sexism. The In oduc ion me hod was used. Finally, a
classi ica ion model o he s uden body was c ea ed using he decision ee echnique based
on he le el o sexism and he a i ude owa ds gende equali y. In he model, he missing
alues in bo h scales we e eplaced wi h he mean o he se ies. The Chi-squa e Au oma ic
In e ac ion De ec o (CHAID) was used as he g ow h me hod in he classi ica ion ee. Fo
all he analyses, he esul s we e in e p e ed as s a is ically signi ican acco ding o alues
o p≤0.05.
3. Resul s
Table 2shows he a e age sco es conce ning hos ile sexis a i udes based on s uden s’
a i udes owa ds gende equali y. On all he i ems ha comp ise he hos ile sexism
subscale, s uden s wi h an unequal p o ile ha e conside ably highe sco es in con as o
he egali a ian and adap i e p o iles (p< 0.001). The mos signi ican di e ences be ween
he h ee g oups a e ound in i em 23 (Men should make he mos impo an decisions in
he couple’s li e; F = 394.36, p< 0.001) and i em 9 (Taking good ca e o he household is he
esponsibili y o women; F = 358.66, p< 0.001). On he o he hand, he smalles di e ences a e
ound in i em 7 (I is mo e na u al o daugh e s and no sons o ake ca e o hei elde ly pa en s;
F = 98.06, p< 0.001) and i em 26 (A man should bea a ec iona e, ye decisi e, con ol o e his
wi e; F = 116.10, p< 0.001).
Table 2. Le els o hos ile sexism acco ding o s uden s’ a i udes owa ds equali y.
I ems
Unequal
P o ile
M (SD)
Adap i e
P o ile
M (SD)
Egali a ian P o ile
M (SD) F
2. The mos sui able place o he woman is he home
wi h he amily. 3.41 (1.56) 2.65 (1.42) 1.56 (1.00) 145.14 ***
4. Women a e weake han men in e e y espec . 3.68 (1.49) 2.58 (1.36) 1.52 (0.98) 162.42 ***

Beha . Sci. 2024,14, 805 6 o 14
Table 2. Con .
I ems
Unequal
P o ile
M (SD)
Adap i e
P o ile
M (SD)
Egali a ian P o ile
M (SD) F
5. Women s aying a home would be a good way o
comba unemploymen . 2.91 (1.58) 1.75 (1.06) 1.10 (0.43) 254.68 ***
7. I is mo e na u al o daugh e s and no sons o ake
ca e o elde ly pa en s. 3.06 (1.61) 2.46 (1.25) 1.55 (1.05) 98.06 ***
9. Taking good ca e o he household is he
esponsibili y o women. 3.42 (1.75) 2.00 (1.09) 1.14 (0.49) 358.66 ***
10. Women should be pu in hei place so ha hey do
no domina e he man. 3.71 (1.84) 2.18 (1.21) 1.27 (0.74) 242.68 ***
12. Women a e manipula i e by na u e. 3.85 (1.69) 2.57 (1.41) 1.39 (0.82) 255.48 ***
14. A man should be he main sou ce o income o
his amily. 3.89 (1.61) 2.72 (1.34) 1.38 (0.80) 326.80 ***
16. The husband is he head o he amily, and he wi e
should espec his au ho i y. 3.51 (1.65) 2.21 (1.12) 1.19 (0.60) 351.47 ***
18. I is no p ope o men o be in cha ge o
household cho es. 4.00 (1.59) 2.59 (1.33) 1.43 (0.95) 221.53 ***
19. Women eason wo se han men. 2.86 (1.68) 2.37 (1.16) 1.33 (0.74) 202.28 ***
20. Men a e mo e quali ied han women o public
a ai s (e.g., poli ics, business, e c.). 4.15 (1.67) 2.59 (1.35) 1.38 (0.87) 276.87 ***
22. Women who wo k ou side he home neglec
hei amilies. 3.24 (1.65) 1.96 (1.01) 1.19 (0.57) 261.14 ***
23. Men should make he mos impo an decisions in
he couple’s li e. 3.69 (1.68) 2.20 (1.13) 1.19 (0.57) 394.36 ***
25. A woman should be willing o sac i ice he sel o
he husband’s p o essional success. 2.91 (1.84) 2.28 (1.20) 1.34 (0.74) 171.49 ***
26. A man should bea a ec iona e, ye decisi e,
con ol o e his wi e 4.00 (1.72) 3.18 (1.48) 1.94 (1.34) 116.10 ***
No e: *** p≤0.001.
The mean di e ences in bene olen sexis a i udes a e also signi ican based on he
s uden s’ a i udes owa ds gende equali y (see Table 3). Howe e , al hough s uden s
wi h an unequal p o ile sco e highe in all i ems, he ANOVA alues a e lowe han hose
ound o hos ile sexism. The mos signi ican mean di e ences a e obse ed in i em 21
(Women a e i eplaceable in he home; F = 166.09, p< 0.001) and i em 11 (No one knows how
o aise child en be e han women; F = 103.43, p< 0.001). Rega ding a i udes wi h smalle
di e ences, i em 1 (Women a e na u ally mo e pa ien and ole an han men) is he only one
whe e all p o iles sco e highe han 3, he eby making he mean compa ison s a is ic lowe
(F = 9.09, p< 0.001).
Table 3. Le els o bene olen sexism acco ding o s uden s’ a i udes owa ds equali y.
I ems
Unequal
P o ile
M (SD)
Adap i e
P o ile
M (SD)
Egali a ian P o ile
M (SD) F
1. Women a e na u ally mo e pa ien and ole an
han men. 3.37 (1.70) 3.64 (1.33) 3.20 (1.46) 9.09 ***
3. A ec ion is mo e impo an o women han o
men. 3.49 (1.63) 3.17 (1.38) 2.30 (1.41) 48.72 ***
Beha . Sci. 2024,14, 805 7 o 14
Table 3. Con .
I ems
Unequal
P o ile
M (SD)
Adap i e
P o ile
M (SD)
Egali a ian P o ile
M (SD) F
6. Women a e be e gi ed han men a pleasing
o he s (being a en i e o wha hey wan
and need).
3.63 (1.56) 3.21 (1.36) 2.09 (1.30) 93.53 ***
8. Because o hei g ea e sensi i i y, women a e
mo e compassiona e han men owa ds
hei pa ne .
3.77 (1.68) 3.14 (1.30) 2.55 (1.39) 30.51 ***
11. No one knows how o aise hei child en
be e han women. 4.37 (1.70) 3.28 (1.58) 2.12 (1.40) 103.43 ***
13. Women ha e a g ea e capaci y o o gi e
hei pa ne ’s aul s han men. 3.86 (1.80) 2.98 (1.36) 2.37 (1.37) 37.58 ***
15. Fo a man, a agile woman has a
special cha m. 3.45 (1.68) 2.97 (1.44) 1.98 (1.23) 78.64 ***
17. Women na u ally possess a g ea e sensi i i y
han men. 4.03 (1.64) 3.37 (1.38) 2.46 (1.44) 58.68 ***
21. Women a e i eplaceable in he home. 3.97 (1.71) 2.68 (1.43) 1.56 (1.06) 166.09 ***
24. By na u e, women a e be e endowed han
men o bea su e ing. 3.06 (1.80) 2.52 (1.41) 1.88 (1.29) 36.13 ***
No e: *** p≤0.001.
Figu e 1shows he dis ibu ion o s uden s’ mean sco es on he di e en o ms o sexism
acco ding o hei gende equali y p o ile. On he one hand, s uden s wi h an unequal p o ile
(M = 3.59, SD = 0.95) show highe le els o ambi alen sexism compa ed o s uden s wi h
an adap i e p o ile (M = 2.66, SD = 0.62) and s uden s wi h an egali a ian p o ile (M = 1.71,
SD = 0.56
) (F = 439.18, p< 0.001; Welch = 309.11, p< 0.001). On he o he hand, o he wo
o ms o ambi alen sexism, he esul s epo ha hose wi h an egali a ian p o ile exhibi
signi ican ly less hos ile sexism (M
egali a ian
= 1.37, SD = 0.44; M
adap i e
= 2.39, SD = 0.65;
Munequal = 3.52
,
SD = 0.97
) (F = 738.83, p< 0.001; Welch = 353.31, p< 0.001) and less bene olen
sexism (
Megali a ian = 2.25
, SD = 0.91; M
adap i e
= 3.10, SD = 0.81; M
unequal
= 3.70, SD = 1.10)
(F = 128.78, p< 0.001; Welch = 132.33, p< 0.001).
A e con i ming he p esence o mean di e ences among he h ee p o iles, pos hoc
mul iple compa isons we e conduc ed o compa e he di e ences be ween each pai o
means in he a ious ypes o sexism. The pos hoc compa isons we e pe o med using
he Games–Howell es , since he assump ion o homoscedas ici y was no me in he
homogenei y o a iance es (p< 0.05). The esul s indica e ha he di e ences be ween
all pai s o means we e s a is ically signi ican in he h ee ypes o sexism (see Table 4):
S uden s wi h an unequal p o ile we e signi ican ly mo e sexis han hose wi h egali a ian
o adap i e p o iles. S uden s wi h an adap i e p o ile we e signi ican ly mo e sexis han
hose wi h an egali a ian p o ile, and less sexis han hose wi h an unequal p o ile. Finally,
s uden s wi h an egali a ian p o ile we e signi ican ly less sexis han hei coun e pa s
wi h ei he an egali a ian o adap i e p o ile.
Addi ionally, a classi ica ion ee was c ea ed o u he explo e he in luence o a i udes
owa ds equali y on ambi alen sexism (see Figu e 2). Fo his pu pose, sco es on he ASD a e
g ouped in o h ee (dependen a iable): a low le el o sexism (sco e
≤
2.00), medium le el o
sexism (sco e be ween 2.01 and 3.00), and high le el o sexism (sco e
≥
3.01). The independen
a iable is he a i udes o he s uden s owa ds gende equali y: egali a ian p o ile, adap i e
p o ile, and unequal p o ile. The esul s sugges ha a i udes suppo ing gende equali y a e
associa ed wi h le els o ambi alen sexism: 73% o adolescen s showing an egali a ian p o ile
exhibi low le els o sexism, whils 86.8% o adolescen s wi h unequal o adap i e p o iles
Beha . Sci. 2024,14, 805 8 o 14
display medium o high le els o sexism. I is no ewo hy ha only a small pe cen age o
adolescen s wi h an egali a ian p o ile (3%) demons a e high le els o ambi alen sexism.
Beha . Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 o 15
Figu e 1 shows he dis ibu ion o s uden s’ mean sco es on he diffe en o ms o
sexism acco ding o hei gende equali y p o ile. On he one hand, s uden s wi h an un-
equal p o ile (M = 3.59, SD = 0.95) show highe le els o ambi alen sexism compa ed o
s uden s wi h an adap i e p o ile (M = 2.66, SD = 0.62) and s uden s wi h an egali a ian
p o ile (M = 1.71, SD = 0.56) (F = 439.18, p < 0.001; Welch = 309.11, p < 0.001). On he o he
hand, o he wo o ms o ambi alen sexism, he esul s epo ha hose wi h an egali-
a ian p o ile exhibi signi ican ly less hos ile sexism (Megali a ian = 1.37, SD = 0.44; Madap i e =
2.39, SD = 0.65; Munequal = 3.52, SD = 0.97) (F = 738.83, p < 0.001; Welch = 353.31, p < 0.001)
and less bene olen sexism (Megali a ian = 2.25, SD = 0.91; Madap i e = 3.10, SD = 0.81; Munequal =
3.70, SD = 1.10) (F = 128.78, p < 0.001; Welch = 132.33, p < 0.001).
Figu e 1. Le els o sexism acco ding o s uden s’ a i udes owa ds equali y.
A e con i ming he p esence o mean diffe ences among he h ee p o iles, pos hoc
mul iple compa isons we e conduc ed o compa e he diffe ences be ween each pai o
means in he a ious ypes o sexism. The pos hoc compa isons we e pe o med using
he Games–Howell es , since he assump ion o homoscedas ici y was no me in he ho-
mogenei y o a iance es (p < 0.05). The esul s indica e ha he diffe ences be ween all
pai s o means we e s a is ically signi ican in he h ee ypes o sexism (see Table 4): S u-
den s wi h an unequal p o ile we e signi ican ly mo e sexis han hose wi h egali a ian
o adap i e p o iles. S uden s wi h an adap i e p o ile we e signi ican ly mo e sexis han
hose wi h an egali a ian p o ile, and less sexis han hose wi h an unequal p o ile. Fi-
nally, s uden s wi h an egali a ian p o ile we e signi ican ly less sexis han hei coun e -
pa s wi h ei he an egali a ian o adap i e p o ile.
Table 4. Pos hoc analysis o sexism acco ding o s uden s’ a i ude owa ds equali y.
S uden s’
P o ile (I)
S uden s’
P o ile (J1)
Diffe ence
be ween
Means (I-J1)
S uden s’
P o ile (J2)
Diffe ence
be ween
Means (I-J2)
Ambi alen
sexism
Unequal
p o ile
Adap i e
p o ile 0.92 *** Egali a ian
p o ile 1.88 ***
Adap i e
p o ile
Unequal
p o ile –0.92 *** Egali a ian
p o ile 0.96 ***
Egali a ian
p o ile
Unequal p o-
ile −1.88 *** Adap i e p o-
ile –0.96 ***
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
Unequal p o ile Adap i e p o ile Egali a ian p o ile
Ambi alen sexism Hos ile sexism Bene olen sexism
Figu e 1. Le els o sexism acco ding o s uden s’ a i udes owa ds equali y.
Table 4. Pos hoc analysis o sexism acco ding o s uden s’ a i ude owa ds equali y.
S uden s’
P o ile (I)
S uden s’
P o ile (J1)
Di e ence
be ween
Means (I-J1)
S uden s’
P o ile (J2)
Di e ence
be ween
Means (I-J2)
Ambi alen
sexism
Unequal
p o ile
Adap i e
p o ile 0.92 *** Egali a ian
p o ile 1.88 ***
Adap i e
p o ile
Unequal
p o ile –0.92 *** Egali a ian
p o ile 0.96 ***
Egali a ian
p o ile
Unequal
p o ile −1.88 *** Adap i e
p o ile –0.96 ***
Hos ile
sexism
Unequal
p o ile
Adap i e
p o ile 1.12 *** Egali a ian
p o ile 2.15 ***
Adap i e
p o ile
Unequal
p o ile −1.12 *** Egali a ian
p o ile 1.02 ***
Egali a ian
p o ile
Unequal
p o ile −2.15 *** Adap i e
p o ile −1.02 ***
Bene olen
sexism
Unequal
p o ile
Adap i e
p o ile 0.60 ** Egali a ian
p o ile 1.45 ***
Adap i e
p o ile
Unequal
p o ile −0.60 ** Egali a ian
p o ile 0.85 ***
Egali a ian
p o ile
Unequal
p o ile −1.45 *** Adap i e
p o ile –0.85 ***
No e: ** p≤0.01; *** p≤0.001.
Finally, h ee linea eg ession analyses we e conduc ed o in es iga e he impac o
egali a ian a i udes on di e en o ms o sexism—ambi alen , hos ile, and bene olen .
These h ee ypes o sexism se e as he dependen a iables (see Table 5). The independen
a iables comp ise a i udes owa ds equali y a h ee le els—sociocul u al, ela ional, and
pe sonal. All h ee s a is ical analyses show ha egali a ian a i udes ha e an in luen ial
ole in he eg ession models, wi h alues anging om 1.84 o 1.97 in he independence
o e o s es (Du bin–Wa son) and be ween 2.50 and 3.02 in he collinea i y es (IVF).
Beha . Sci. 2024,14, 805 9 o 14
A i udes owa ds gende equali y a he sociocul u al, ela ional, and pe sonal le els
enable he p edic ion o he a iance o ambi alen sexism (52.79% wi h nega i e eg ession
coe icien s; R = 0.727; ANOVA = 632.89, p< 0.001), hos ile sexism (63.04% wi h nega i e
eg ession coe icien s; R = 0.794; ANOVA = 965.59, p< 0.001), and bene olen sexism
(26.52% wi h nega i e eg ession coe icien s; R = 0.515; ANOVA = 204.29, p< 0.001).
Beha . Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o 15
Hos ile
sexism
Unequal
p o ile
Adap i e
p o ile 1.12 *** Egali a ian
p o ile 2.15 ***
Adap i e
p o ile
Unequal
p o ile −1.12 *** Egali a ian
p o ile 1.02 ***
Egali a ian
p o ile
Unequal
p o ile −2.15 *** Adap i e p o-
ile −1.02 ***
Bene olen
sexism
Unequal
p o ile
Adap i e
p o ile 0.60 ** Egali a ian
p o ile 1.45 ***
Adap i e
p o ile
Unequal
p o ile −0.60 ** Egali a ian
p o ile 0.85 ***
Egali a ian
p o ile
Unequal
p o ile −1.45 *** Adap i e p o-
ile –0.85 ***
No e: * p ≤ 0.05; ** p ≤ 0.01; *** p ≤ 0.001.
Addi ionally, a classi ica ion ee was c ea ed o u he explo e he in luence o a i-
udes owa ds equali y on ambi alen sexism (see Figu e 2). Fo his pu pose, sco es on
he ASD a e g ouped in o h ee (dependen a iable): a low le el o sexism (sco e ≤ 2.00),
medium le el o sexism (sco e be ween 2.01 and 3.00), and high le el o sexism (sco e ≥
3.01). The independen a iable is he a i udes o he s uden s owa ds gende equali y:
egali a ian p o ile, adap i e p o ile, and unequal p o ile. The esul s sugges ha a i udes
suppo ing gende equali y a e associa ed wi h le els o ambi alen sexism: 73% o ado-
lescen s showing an egali a ian p o ile exhibi low le els o sexism, whils 86.8% o ado-
lescen s wi h unequal o adap i e p o iles display medium o high le els o sexism. I is
no ewo hy ha only a small pe cen age o adolescen s wi h an egali a ian p o ile (3%)
demons a e high le els o ambi alen sexism.
Figu e 2. T ee diag am o he es ima ion o ambi alen sexism.
Finally, h ee linea eg ession analyses we e conduc ed o in es iga e he impac o
egali a ian a i udes on diffe en o ms o sexism—ambi alen , hos ile, and bene olen .
These h ee ypes o sexism se e as he dependen a iables (see Table 5). The
Figu e 2. T ee diag am o he es ima ion o ambi alen sexism.
Table 5. Linea eg ession o p edic ion o sexism.
B SE
S anda dized B
pCI 95%
Ambi alen sexism:
Cons an 6.175 0.102 60.40 0.000 5.975/6.376
A i udes owa ds equali y a he
sociocul u al le el −0.039 0.003 −0.318 −11.37 0.000 −0.046/−0.032
A i udes owa ds equali y a he
ela ional le el −0.041 0.003 −0.349 −13.21 0.000 −0.047/−0.035
A i udes owa ds equali y a he
pe sonal le el −0.017 0.004 −0.128 −4.43 0.000 −0.024/−0.009
Hos ile sexism:
Cons an 6.028 0.085 70.82 0.000 5.861/6.195
A i udes owa ds equali y a he
sociocul u al le el −0.039 0.003 −0.341 −13.77 0.000 −0.045/−0.034
A i udes owa ds equali y a he
ela ional le el −0.036 0.003 −0.322 −13.81 0.000 −0.041/−0.031
A i udes owa ds equali y a he
pe sonal le el −0.025 0.003 −0.208 −8.12 0.000 −0.031/−0.019
Bene olen sexism:
Cons an 6.410 0.173 37.03 0.000 6.071/6.750
A i udes owa ds equali y a he
sociocul u al le el −0.039 0.006 −0.231 −6.62 0.000 –0.050/−0.027
A i udes owa ds equali y a he
ela ional le el −0.050 0.005 −0.311 −9.45 0.000 −0.060/−0.039
A i udes owa ds equali y a he
pe sonal le el −0.003 0.006 −0.015 −0.40 0.688 −0.015/0.010
No e: B = uns anda dized coe icien ; SE = s anda d e o ; s anda dized B = s anda dized coe icien ; = S uden ’s
T; p= signi icance; CI 95% = con idence in e al o B a 95%.