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Food Science & Nu i ion, 2025; 13:e70259
h ps://doi.o g/10.1002/ sn3.70259
Food Science & Nu i ion
SPECIAL ISSUE SDG 13 Clima e Ac ion
ORIGINAL ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS
“I Ha e No Idea Wha 's in I !”—A Quali a i e S udy o
Adolescen s' Concep ions o Milk Al e na i es
LenaSzczepanski | InsaS onne | Flo ianFiebelko n
Biology Didac ics, Depa men o Biology/Chemis y, Osnab ück Uni e si y, Osnab ück,Ge many
Co espondence: Lena Szczepanski (lena.szczepanski@uni-osnab ueck.de)
Recei ed: 10 Decembe 2024 | Re ised: 18 Ma ch 2025 | Accep ed: 21 Ap il 2025
Keywo ds: consume pe cep ion| dai y al e na i es| nu i ion educa ion| sus ainable nu i ion| young people
This s udy aimed o analyze and compa e adolescen s' concep ions o plan - based milk al e na i es (PBMAs) and p ecision
e men a ion- based milk al e na i es (AFM), hei ing edien s, and p oduc ion. Fo his pu pose, a quali a i e app oach wi h
semi- s uc u ed in e iews was chosen. A o al o wen y- i e adolescen s om Ge many aged be ween 16 and 19 yea s we e
in e iewed in Sep embe and Oc obe 2022. The in e iews we e analyzed using quali a i e con en analysis. The esul s show
ha he adolescen s in ou s udy held simpli ied concep ions o he ing edien s (wa e , oa s, suga ) and p oduc ion (g ind oa s,
mix wi h wa e , and hea he liquid i necessa y) o PBMAs. Thei concep ions di e ed depending on cow's milk and PBMA
consump ion, wi h PBMA consume s ha ing he mos di e en ia ed concep ions. Rega ding AFM, he adolescen s held ague
concep ions and exp essed hei lack o amilia i y wi h he p oduc . They ei he had no concep o AFM o belie ed AFM o be
a i icial, syn he ic, o labo a o y milk. In conclusion, adolescen s' concep ions o milk al e na i es we e simpli ied and depend-
en on consump ion pa e ns, wi h PBMA consume s ha ing mo e di e en ia ed concep ions. Based on ou indings, we sugges
ha nu i ional educa ion should add ess he ing edien s and p oduc ion o cow's milk and milk al e na i es, as well as hei ad-
an ages and disad an ages, o enable young people o make in o med decisions abou hei consump ion o milk (al e na i es).
1 | In oduc ion
O e he pas decade, he consump ion o plan - based milk al-
e na i es (PBMAs) has become inc easingly popula in Eu ope,
wi h oa , almond, and soy milk being he mos consumed
(Eu opean Union's Ho izon 2020 Resea ch and Inno a ion
P og amme [No 862957],2021a, 2021b). The en i onmen al im-
pac o PBMAs is lowe han ha o cow's milk. Fo example,
he p oduc ion o 1 L o con en ional cow's milk causes be ween
1.4 and 3.2 kg CO2 equi alen s, while he p oduc ion o 1 L o
oa , almond, o soy milk causes be ween 0.4 and 1.0 kg CO2
equi alen s (Ca lsson Kanyama e al.2021; Gebu e al.2022;
Poo e and Nemecek 2019). Fu he mo e, he p oduc ion o
con en ional cow's milk equi es mo e land han he p oduc-
ion o oa , almond, o soy milk (Ca lsson Kanyama e al.2021;
Gebu e al.2022; Poo e and Nemecek2019): P oducing 1 L o
con en ional cow's milk equi es 1 m2 o land, while p oducing
1 L o oa , almond, o soy milk equi es be ween 0.4 and 0.6 m2
(Gebu e al.2022). Wa e use is also lowe in he p oduc ion o
oa and soy milk (1.7–2.7 m3/L) han in he p oduc ion o con-
en ional cow's milk (7.4 m3/L). Wa e use in he p oduc ion o
almond milk depends hea ily on he egion, hough, and s ud-
ies ha e shown bo h highe and lowe alues compa ed o cow's
milk (Ca lsson Kanyama e al.2021; Gebu e al.2022). No ably,
he en i onmen al impac s o cow's milk and PBMA p oduc ion
gene ally depend on he a ea o cul i a ion and he p oduc ion
me hod (o ganic o con en ional; Ca lsson Kanyama e al.2021;
Gebu e al.2022; Poo e and Nemecek2019).
Howe e , he nu i ional alues o PBMAs and cow's milk di e .
The mac o- and mic onu ien s in oa , almond, o soy milk a e
no equi alen o hose in cow's milk, no is he ene gy, a , i-
amin (e.g., A, B2, B12, and D), and o he mine al (e.g., calcium,
iodine, zinc, magnesium) con en (Paul e al.2019; Singh- Po el
This is an open access a icle unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License, which pe mi s use, dis ibu ion and ep oduc ion in any medium,
p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed.
© 2025 The Au ho (s). Food Science & Nu i ion published by Wiley Pe iodicals LLC.
2 o 17 Food Science & Nu i ion, 2025
e al.2022). Fo example, 100 g o oa and almond milk ha e a
lowe p o ein con en han 100 g o cow's milk, while he p o ein
con en o soy milk is oughly compa able o ha o cow's milk
(Paul e al.2019; Poin ke e al.2022b; Singh- Po el e al.2022).
Because cow's milk p o ides essen ial nu ien s such as calcium
and iodine, some manu ac u e s add mine als o i amins o
PBMAs (Reyes- Ju ado e al.2021).
Companies wo ldwide a e wo king on he p oduc ion o ano he
milk al e na i e— e med “animal- ee milk” (AFM)— ha is
molecula ly iden ical o con en ional cow's milk bu does no
equi e b eeding and main aining dai y cows o i s p oduc-
ion (Gas e a os2019; Law on2021; Mendly- Zambo e al.2019).
Scien is s ha e es ima ed ha he p oduc ion o AFM emi s
35%–96% less g eenhouse gases and equi es 77%–97% less land
han he p oduc ion o cow's milk (Law on2021; Mendly- Zambo
e al.2019; Pe ec Day Inc.2021).
1.1 | Pe cep ions o Milk Al e na i es
P e ious esea ch has al eady iden i ied some d i e s o and ba -
ie s o consuming milk al e na i es (e.g., Adamczyk e al.2022;
Giacalone e al.2022; Haas e al.2019; Poin ke e al.2022b). The
mos impo an easons men ioned o consuming PBMAs include
animal wel a e, en i onmen al p o ec ion, and he p omo ion o
indi idual heal h (Adamczyk e al.2022; Haas e al.2019; Poin ke
e al.2022b). Cu iosi y abou and in e es in new p oduc s also
d i e people o consume PBMAs and AFM (Adamczyk e al.2022).
In con as , senso y p ope ies (expec ed o eal) and un amilia i y
wi h milk al e na i es we e iden i ied as ba ie s. Acco dingly, he
accep ance o milk al e na i es depends no only on he pe sonal
p e e ences o consume s bu also on p oduc - ela ed ac o s such
as pe cep ions o milk al e na i es (Giacalone e al.2022).
In mo e de ail, PBMAs a e o en pe cei ed as less nu i ious,
mo e a i icial, and mo e expensi e han cow's milk (Haas
e al.2019; Kempen e al.2017; Schiano e al.2020). Howe e ,
pe cep ions o PBMAs a y depending on he consump ion o
PBMAs. Fo example, consume s o PBMAs pe cei e hem as
na u al, heal hy, as y, o nu i ionally equi alen o cow's milk,
while people who do no consume PBMAs pe cei e hem as
highly p ocessed o a i icial (Ma ínez- Padilla e al.2023). In
addi ion, pe cep ions di e among he ypes o milk al e na-
i es (Haas e al.2019; Halme e al.2023; Kempen e al.2017).
Oa milk, o example, is pe cei ed as mo e en i onmen ally
iendly due o i s lowe ca bon oo p in han cow's milk
(Halme e al.2023).
Animal- ee dai y p oduc s such as cheese a e o en pe cei ed
as less as y and na u al han con en ional cheese (Zollman
Thomas and B yan 2021). Zollman Thomas and Dilla d(2022)
also showed ha consume s om he US, Singapo e, he UK,
and Ge many pe cei ed he p oduc ion o animal- ee dai y
p oduc s as echnical and sca y. Howe e , animal- ee cheese
was pe cei ed as he mos e hical and en i onmen ally iendly
p oduc compa ed o con en ional and egan cheese in hei
s udy (Zollman Thomas and B yan 2021).
Pe cep ions o milk al e na i es a e based on memo ized o
cu en p oduc in o ma ion (i.e., concep ions; K oebe - Riel
and G öppel- Klein2013). In ou s udy, we de ine concep ions as
men al cons uc s o a ying complexi y ha conce n a opic,
objec , o beha io , including ideas, belie s, and knowledge (Dui
e al.2012; G opengieße 2020). Concep ions can be ca ego ized
as cogni i e p ocesses, as cogni ions include all o ms o hink-
ing and knowledge (Ame ican Psychological Associa ion,2022).
Impo an ly, concep ions o an objec o opic may be scien i -
ically inaccu a e o alse (i.e., misconcep ions), as concep ions
may a ise subconsciously (Coley and Tanne 2012). In consume
psychology, concep ions include subjec i e belie s and knowl-
edge abou a p oduc o p oduc ca ego y based on indi idual
expe iences, social in luences, and media in o ma ion (K oebe -
Riel and G öppel- Klein2013). People al eady ha e simple con-
cep ions abou mos p oduc s ha can be deeply embedded.
These concep ions a ec how people pe cei e a p oduc and
hus in luence consume accep ance o ha p oduc (K oebe -
Riel and G öppel- Klein 2013). Fo example, he pe cep ion o
PBMAs as a i icial migh be based on complex concep ions
abou hei p oduc ion p ocess. Howe e , o he bes o ou
knowledge, no s udy has ye examined young consume s' con-
cep ions o PBMAs and AFM.
1.2 | Aims o he S udy
In his s udy, we aim o close his esea ch gap by iden i ying and
analyzing adolescen s' concep ions o PBMAs and AFM. We ocus
on adolescen s because younge people a e mo e ad en u ous in
hei ood choices, and hei die s a e mo e lexible han hose
o adul s, which a e impo an ac o s o shaping u u e die a y
ends (Desbouys e al.2021; Die helm e al.2012; Ly le e al.2000;
Shaikh e al.2016). Fu he mo e, educa ion can in o m young peo-
ple abou how hei die s a ec human heal h, animal wel a e, and
he en i onmen , p omp ing hem o make esponsible consump-
ion choices. This can p omo e sus ainable ood consump ion, as
pe he Uni ed Na ions' Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SDG 12;
UNESCO2017).
Thus, he i s aim o ou s udy was o examine adolescen s' con-
cep ionso milk al e na i es—in pa icula , hei concep ions o
PBMAs and AFM, hei ing edien s, and p oduc ion. This aim
esul ed in wo esea ch ques ions (RQs):
• RQ1: Wha a e adolescen s' concep ions o PBMAs, hei in-
g edien s, and hei p oduc ion?
• RQ2: Wha a e adolescen s' concep ions o AFM, i s ing e-
dien s, and i s p oduc ion?
In Ge many, people cu en ly consume mo e cow's milk han
PBMAs (Quan ilope2024), despi e he consump ion o milk
in Ge many dec easing in ecen yea s (Bundesans al ü
Landwi scha und E näh ung2024). The e o e, he second
aim o ou s udy was o analyze how he concep ions o ad-
olescen cow's milk consume s (CMCs; i.e., non- consume s
o PBMAs), PBMA consume s (PBMACs), and consume s o
bo h cow's milk and PBMAs (BCs) di e . A di e en ia ed con-
side a ion o he concep ions o hese use g oups may enable
he de elopmen o speci ic ma ke s a egies (e.g., by mo i-
a ing casual consume s o CMCs o consume milk al e na-
i es o by inc easing he loyal y o exis ing PBMACs o milk
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3 o 17
al e na i es; Ma ínez- Padilla e al.2023). This aim esul ed
in he hi d RQ:
• RQ3: How do concep ions o milk al e na i es di e among
adolescen CMCs, PBMACs, and BCs?
2 | Milk Al e na i es—De ini ion, Ing edien s,
and P oduc ion
2.1 | PBMAs
PBMAs a e de ined as suspensions o wa e and dissol ed plan
componen s and a e simila o cow's milk in hei appea ance,
senso y p ope ies, and possible uses (B idges2018; Mäkinen
e al.2016; Reyes- Ju ado e al.2021). A gene al classi ica ion is
made be ween PBMAs made om ce eals (e.g., oa s), legumes
(e.g., soy), nu s (e.g., almonds), oilseeds (e.g., laxseeds), and
pseudo- ce eals (e.g., quinoa; As ol i e al.2020; B idges2018;
Paul e al.2019; Se hi e al.2016).
PBMAs a e p oduced by p ocessing aw plan ma e ials wi h
wa e , u ning hem in o a homogeneous liquid, ollowing
which s abilize s o o he ing edien s such as oil a e added o
achie e he desi ed ex u e and as e. In he i s s ep, he plan 's
aw ma e ials a e soaked in wa e and hen we milled o ex ac
nu ien s such as ca bohyd a es, p o eins, and a s (we g ind-
ing). Al e na i ely, he plan 's aw ma e ials can be p ocessed
in o lou and hen mixed wi h wa e (d y g inding). The ough
plan componen s a e hen sepa a ed om he esul ing suspen-
sion ia il e ing, decan ing, o cen i uging. Addi ional ing e-
dien s can hen be added o o mula e he p oduc , including
oils, sal , suga , swee ene s, la o ings, o colo ings, o imp o e
consis ency and/o as e. Emulsi ie s and s abilize s may also
be added o op imize he consis ency and s abili y o he PBMA.
This mix u e o wa e , plan ex ac s, and o he ing edien s is
hen homogenized o p oduce a s able emulsion. A e homog-
eniza ion, he emulsion is hea - ea ed ia ei he pas eu iza ion
o ul a- high empe a u es. Bo h p ocesses a e used o p es-
e a ion, esul ing in he longe shel li e o PBMAs (Mäkinen
e al.2016; Reyes- Ju ado e al.2021).
Due o he p oduc ion p ocess, PBMAs can be ca ego ized as
p ocessed o ul a- p ocessed oods acco ding o he NOVA
ood classi ica ion sys em (Mon ei o e al.2016). This ca ego-
iza ion depends on he lis o ing edien s: PBMAs ha consis
o plan - based aw ma e ials, wa e , oil, and sal a e consid-
e ed p ocessed oods, while hose ha con ain emulsi ie s o
ood colo ings a e conside ed ul a- p ocessed oods (Mon ei o
e al.2019).
In he Eu opean Union, PBMAs may no be e e ed o as milk,
as his e m is legally p o ec ed (Eu opean Pa liamen and
Council o he Eu opean Union2013). The e o e, PBMAs a e
o en ma ke ed as a “d ink” and no “milk” (e.g., oa d ink) in
Eu ope. In con as , in he US, PBMAs a e allowed o be sold and
ma ke ed as “milk”. The Food and D ug Adminis a ion(2023)
ecommends ha p oduce s indica e he nu i ional alues o
PBMAs and hei compa isons wi h hose o con en ional cow's
milk on he packaging, hough.
2.2 | AFM
AFM is equi alen o cow's milk in appea ance, senso y p op-
e ies, and nu ien s. The main ing edien s a e wa e and he
cow milk p o eins casein and whey p o ein, which a e p oduced
using p ecision e men a ion. Wi h his p ocess, mic oo gan-
isms ( ungi o yeas s) a e gene ically modi iedand placed in o
a bio eac o wi h a cul u e medium o exp ess casein and whey
p o ein. These a e hen mixed wi h wa e , suga , plan - based
a s, and mine als o p oduce animal- ee p oduc s such as AFM
(E cili and Ba h2021; Law on2021; Mendly- Zambo e al.2019;
Wal z2022).
In he US, Singapo e, and Hong Kong, animal- ee dai y p od-
uc s made h ough p ecision e men a ion ha e been a ailable
since 2021. In Eu ope, nei he animal- ee dai y no AFM is
a ailable, hough. The No el Food Regula ion o he Eu opean
Union is expec ed o app o e AFM in Eu ope soon, as he in-
g edien s o AFM (casein and whey p o ein) a e p oduced
wi h mic oo ganisms (Eu opean Pa liamen and Council o
he Eu opean Union2015). In Ge many, he ood echnology
company Fo mo is wo king on he p oduc ion o cheese al e -
na i es using p ecision e men a ion, and he e we e plans o
in oduce animal- ee cheese o he Ge man ma ke in 2024
(Fo mo2022, 2024).
Based on he p oduc ion p ocess and he p esence o casein and
whey p o ein, AFM can be ca ego ized as an ul a- p ocessed
ood acco ding o he NOVA ood classi ica ion sys em (Mon ei o
e al.2019).
3 | Me hods
The ma e ials and me hods a e desc ibed ollowing he
Quali a i e Design Repo ing S anda ds (JARS- Qual; Ame ican
Psychological Associa ion2018).
3.1 | S udy Design and In e iew P ocedu e
We chose a quali a i e app oach using indi idual in e -
iews and a semi- s uc u ed in e iew guide o iden i y ad-
olescen s' concep ions o milk al e na i es (Kuma 2024). A
quali a i e esea ch design p o ides a de ailed explo a ion o
indi idual associa ions and concep ions ha a e di icul o
access h ough s anda dized ques ionnai es (Flick2018). In
con as , a semi- s uc u ed in e iew guide p o ides lexi-
bili y, allowing pa icipan s o exp ess hei hough s eely
(Reinde s 2016). The in e iew guide was es ed in a pilo
s udy wi h ou adolescen s be o e da a collec ion o op imize
he in e iew ques ions, p omp s, and p ocess (Dö ing and
Bo z2016). The pilo in e iews we e no included in he da a
analysis.
The in e iew guide was di ided in o ou pa s: (1) he in o-
duc ion, (2) he main pa conce ning PBMAs, (3) he main
pa conce ning AFM, and (4) he conclusion comp ising a
sho ques ionnai e o cha ac e ize he pa icipan s (Figu e1).
Du ing da a collec ion, he o de o he wo main in e iew
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4 o 17 Food Science & Nu i ion, 2025
pa s was swi ched a e each pa icipan o minimize he possi-
ble in luence o he o de on pa icipan s' s a emen s. The main
pa s we e di ided in o h ee phases: (1) concep ions o PBMAs/
AFM and hei p oduc ion, (2) a i udes owa d PBMAs/AFM,
and (3) mo i es o and agains he consump ion o PBMAs/ he
willingness o consume AFM (Figu e1). To add ess ou RQs,
only da a om he i s phase o he main pa s we e analyzed.
The comple e in e iew guide wi h he guiding ques ions and
p omp s is p o ided in AppendixS1.
In he i s phase, he adolescen s we e asked abou hei con-
cep ions o PBMAs/AFM, hei ing edien s, and hei p oduc-
ion. Pa icipan s we e i s asked wha hey unde s ood by
PBMAs/AFM. They we e hen asked abou hei concep ions
o he ing edien s o PBMAs/AFM. To cap u e adolescen s'
concep ions o PBMA p oduc ion, hey we e i s in o med
abou PBMA ing edien s by showing hem an oa milk ca on
(wa e , oa s [12%], sun lowe oil, and sea sal ). They we e hen
asked how hey imagined he p oduc ion o a PBMA, such as
oa milk, using hese ing edien s. As AFM is no ye a ailable
on he Eu opean ma ke , i was no possible o p esen AFM
and i s ing edien s. Thus, he adolescen s we e asked abou
hei concep ions o p oducing AFM wi hou u he in o ma-
ion and hen ecei ed a sho ex abou AFM o he second
phase (AppendixS2). This ex con ained a b ie explana ion
o he impac o li es ock a ming, wha AFM is, and how i
is p oduced. In he second phase, he adolescen s we e asked
o e alua e PBMAs o AFM as “( a he ) posi i e” o “( a he )
nega i e” o assess hei a i udes owa d milk al e na i es
(Ajzen2001). In he hi d phase, he adolescen s we e asked
abou hei consump ion o PBMAs o hei willingness o
consume AFM. Based on hese esul s, he mo i es o and
agains he consump ion o PBMAs/AFM we e assessed wi h
he ques ions “Why do you (ne e ) d ink PBMAs as an al-
e na i e o cow's milk?” and “Why a e you (no ) willing o
consume AFM as an al e na i e o cow's milk?” (K oebe - Riel
and G öppel- Klein2013). This a icle ocuses on he esul s
om he i s in e iew phase. The esul s o he second and
hi d in e iew phases a e p esen ed in a sepe a e publica-
ion (Szczepanski e al. 2025). Howe e , he mo i es o and
agains consuming PBMAs om he hi d in e iew phase
we e conside ed when desc ibing he sample and discussing
he esul s (Table1).
A he end o he in e iew, a sho ques ionnai e was comple ed
by each pa icipan ha included sociodemog aphic in o ma-
ion and ques ions abou hei consump ion o cow's milk and
milk al e na i es (AppendixS1). The ques ionnai e was pu ely
desc ip i e (no a psychome ic measu ing ins umen ). I was
used o collec da a on gende (male, emale, o o he ), place
o esidence (u ban o u al), die (omni o ous, ege a ian,
egan, o o he ), and consump ion o plan - based d inks (ne e ,
mon hly, weekly, o daily) and cow's milk (ne e , mon hly,
weekly, o daily; Table1).
3.2 | Sample and Da a Collec ion
Fo sample cons uc ion, he induc i e sampling me hod o
explo a o y s udies, acco ding o Reinde s(2016), was chosen.
The sample was selec ed based on h ee c i e ia: pa icipan s
had o (1) be a leas uppe - seconda y school s uden s, (2) iden-
i y wi h di e en gende s, and (3) consume ei he cow's milk o
PBMAs. The c i e ia ‘uppe - seconda y school’ ensu ed ha he
adolescen s had su icien biological knowledge o unde s and
he p oduc ion o AFM o he in e iew phases wo and h ee.
The c i e ia “gende ” and “consume beha io ” we e chosen o
de e mine he concep ions, a i udes, and mo i es o adolescen s
o all gende s and consume g oups.
In Sep embe and Oc obe 2022, we in e iewed 25 ado-
lescen s om Ge many aged be ween 16 and 19 (N = 25;
MAge = 17.60 yea s; SDAge = 0.63 yea s; 60% emale). The in e -
iews ook an a e age o 41.86 min (SDDu a ion = 6.07 min). The
FIGURE 1 | Key ques ions and esea ch in e es s in he main phase o he in e iew ega ding concep ions o milk al e na i es. No e. Phases wo
and h ee o he main pa s o he in e iew we e no analyzed in his s udy. In he second phase, he adolescen s we e asked abou hei e alua ion o
plan - based milk al e na i es and animal- ee milk. In he hi d phase, he adolescen s we e asked abou hei mo i es o and agains he consump-
ion o plan - based milk al e na i es and animal- ee milk.
Main pa s
In oduc ion
Closing
Main pa
Animal- ee milk (AFM)
Main pa
Plan -based milk al e na i es (PBMAs)
Phase 1
Concep ions o PBMAs and hei p oduc ion
Phase 3
Mo i es
o /agains
PBMA
consump ion
Phase 2
A i udes
owa d
PBMAs
Phase 3
Mo i es
o /agains
willingness o
consume
AFM
Key ques ions concep ions
“Wha do you comp ehend by plan -based milk
al e na i es?“
“Wha do you hink a e he ing edien s o plan -
based milk al e na i es?”
“How do you imagine he p oduc ion o plan -
based milk al e na i es such as oa milk?”
Resea ch in e es
Adolescen s' concep ions o PBMAs and hei
p oduc ion
Phase 1
Concep ions o AFM and i s p oduc ion
Phase 2
A i udes
owa d
AFM
Key ques ions concep ions
“Wha do you hink “animal- ee milk” is?“
“Wha do you hink a e he ing edien s o
“animal- ee milk”?”
“How do you imagine he p oduc ion o “animal-
ee milk”?”
Resea ch in e es
Adolescen s' concep ions o AFM and i s
p oduc ion
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5 o 17
TABLE 1 | O e iew o he sample (N = 25).
NameaGende Age
In e iew
du a ion
Consump ion
cow milkb
Consump ion
PBMAsc
Willingness o
consume AFMd
Mo i es o
PBMA- consump ione
Mo i es agains
PBMA- consump ion
Cow's milk consume s
Liam Male 17 50.30 min Daily Ne e Willing / Lack o amilia i y
Social in luence
Alexande Male 17 47.63 min Daily Ne e No willing Social no m P ice
Tas e and consis ency
Ma hys Male 17 29.33 min Daily Ne e Willing Animal wel a e Social in luence
Con enience
Mila Female 18 38.01 min Daily Ne e Willing /P ice
Tas e and consis ency
Isabella Female 18 50.67 min Daily Ne e Willing /Tas e and consis ency
Indi idual heal h
Amelia Female 18 39.88 min Daily Ne e Willing /Social in luence/no m
Con enience
Cha lo e Female 18 35.73 min Daily Ne e Willing / Lack o amilia i y
Con enience
Maelys Female 18 42.56 min Weekly Ne e Willing Animal wel a e
En i onmen al p o ec ion
Tas e and consis ency
Plan - based milk al e na i e consume s
Oli e Male 17 41.40 min Ne e Weekly Willing Indi idual heal h
Social in luence
/
Samuel Male 18 46.07 min Ne e Weekly Willing Tas e and consis ency
En i onmen al p o ec ion
En i onmen al p o ec ion
Sophie Female 18 40.47 min Ne e Weekly Willing Animal wel a e
Social in luence/no m
/
Emmy Female 17 46.07 min Ne e Weekly Willing Indi idual heal h
Animal wel a e
Unce ain ies
Cow's milk and plan - based milk al e na i e consume s
Jack Male 18 34.73 min Daily Daily Willing En i onmen al p o ec ion
Indi idual heal h
Tas e and consis ency
(Con inues)
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6 o 17 Food Science & Nu i ion, 2025
NameaGende Age
In e iew
du a ion
Consump ion
cow milkb
Consump ion
PBMAsc
Willingness o
consume AFMd
Mo i es o
PBMA- consump ione
Mo i es agains
PBMA- consump ion
Lucas Male 18 37.63 min Daily Daily Willing Social in luence
En i onmen al p o ec ion
/
Mason Male 17 46.80 min Weekly Daily Willing En i onmen al p o ec ion
Indi idual heal h
P ice
Lily Female 18 35.07 min Weekly Daily Willing Indi idual heal h
Animal wel a e
P ice
Tas e and consis ency
Emma Female 17 45.11 min Mon hly Daily Willing Indi idual heal h
Animal wel a e
En i onmen al p o ec ion
Mia Female 19 49.21 min Mon hly Daily Willing En i onmen al p o ec ion
Animal wel a e
/
Ella Female 18 51.63 min Weekly Weekly Willing En i onmen al p o ec ion
Animal wel a e
Social no m
Tas e and consis ency
Oli ia Female 18 47.87 min Weekly Weekly Willing En i onmen al p o ec ion
Animal wel a e
Lack o amilia i y
Tas e and consis ency
Emily Female 18 35.78 min Weekly Weekly Willing Tas e and consis ency
Indi idual heal h
Social in luence/no m
Tas e and consis ency
Benjamin Male 16 41.13 min Weekly Weekly Willing Indi idual heal h
Animal wel a e
/
Emilia Female 17 32.32 min Mon hly Weekly Willing En i onmen al p o ec ion
Indi idual heal h
Social in luence
Sophia Female 17 43.11 min Weekly Mon hly Willing Animal wel a e
En i onmen al p o ec ion
Tas e and consis ency
Elias Male 18 39.01 min Mon hly Mon hly No willing Gene a ion ideales
En i onmen al p o ec ion
P ice
No e: “/” means ha no mo i es o o agains consuming PBMAs we e gi en.
Abb e ia ions: AFM, animal- ee milk; PBMAs, plan - based milk al e na i es.
aRandomly selec ed pseudonym acco ding o he mos popula i s names in 2022 in he Uni ed S a es o Ame ica.
bThe adolescen s we e asked abou hei consump ion o cow's milk a e he in e iew and could choose daily, weekly, mon hly, o ne e .
cThe adolescen s we e asked abou hei consump ion o PBMAs a e he in e iew and could choose daily, weekly, mon hly, o ne e .
dDu ing he in e iew, he adolescen s ecei ed an in o ma i e ex abou AFM and we e asked o decide acco dingly whe he hey we e willing o unwilling o consume AFM.
eIn he hi d phase o he in e iew, he adolescen s we e asked wha hey conside ed o be he mos impo an mo i e o he consump ion o PBMAs.
In he hi d phase o he in e iew, he adolescen s we e asked wha hey conside ed o be he mos impo an mo i e agains he consump ion o PBMAs.
TABLE 1 | (Con inued)
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7 o 17
adolescen s came om i e seconda y schools in he ci y and
dis ic o Osnab ück (Lowe Saxony, Ge many). They we e in
he ele en h o hi een h g ades (uppe - seconda y school) and
li ing wi h hei pa en s a he ime o da a collec ion, wi h 13
li ing in a u al and 12 in an u ban a ea. Fi een adolescen s
we e omni o ous, se en we e ege a ian, wo we e lexi a ian,
and one was egan. Eigh adolescen s epo ed no consuming
PBMAs bu consuming cow's milk daily o weekly. Fou ado-
lescen s epo ed no consuming cow's milk bu consuming
PBMAs weekly. Thi een adolescen s consumed bo h cow's
milk and PBMAs. The mos impo an easons o he consump-
ion o PBMAs o he adolescen s in ou s udy we e en i on-
men al p o ec ion, animal wel a e, and heal h p omo ion. The
main easons agains he consump ion o PBMAs we e as e and
consis ency, social in luence, social no ms, and p ice (Table1).
Desc ip i e s a is ics o he sample and hei sel - epo ed con-
sump ion o cow's milk, PBMAs, and hei willingness o con-
sume AFM a e p esen ed in Table1. All names men ioned in
he a icle ha e been eplaced wi h pseudonyms o ensu e
anonymi y.
School p incipals o all seconda y schools in Osnab ück we e
con ac ed ia email o ec ui uppe - seconda y school s uden s
o pa icipa e in he s udy. The email con ained a desc ip ion o
he esea ch p ojec and a eques o pe mission o collec da a
om uppe - seconda y school s uden s. The e hics app o al o
he s udy by he Regional S a e O ice o Schools and Educa ion
Osnab ück (OS 1 R.24–0541 2/N) was also a ached. P incipals
o wa ded he in i a ion o biology eache s, who hen ec ui ed
olun a y pa icipan s. The biology eache s we e ins uc ed
o ensu e an equal dis ibu ion o gende s and consump ion o
PBMAs and cow's milk when selec ing pa icipan s. The in e -
iews we e scheduled in blocks, wi h pa icipan s om he same
school being in e iewed on he same day. A e each in e iew
block, con en sa u a ion was discussed by wo code s. The wo
code s used he deduc i e ca ego y sys em as a ounda ion, in
addi ion o he audio eco dings, o discuss whe he new con-
en and induc i e codes had a isen. A e 21 in e iews, he
con en was conside ed o be sa u a ed. A his poin , ou mo e
in e iews we e scheduled, which we e hen conduc ed. This e-
sul ed in a inal sample size o 25.
Consen decla a ions we e signed by he school p incipals, he
s uden s, and—in he case o unde age s uden s— he pa en s
be o e he da a we e collec ed. The s uden s and pa en s also
ecei ed an in o ma ion le e in o ming hem abou he aims
o he s udy, he olun a y na u e o pa icipa ion, and he ano-
nymiza ion o he da a. The con en o he in e iew guide was
no communica ed o he s uden s be o e he s udy. Pa icipa ion
was olun a y and anonymous, and s uden s could wi hd aw
om he s udy wi hou consequences.
3.3 | Da a P ocessing and Analysis
In e iew audio eco ds we e ansc ibed acco ding o D esing
and Pehl(2018). The ansc ip s we e hen edac ed acco ding o
G opengieße (2008) o imp o e eadabili y and educe he con-
en in he ansc ip s conce ning he esea ch ques ions. The
ansc ip ion and edac ion ules a e p o ided in AppendixS3.
The edac ed da a we e analyzed in MAXQDA 2020 (Ve bi.2020)
using quali a i e con en analysis (Kucka z and Rädike 2019).
This was done o compa e he esponden s' concep ions wi h he
scien i ic con en . As ou sample was no ep esen a i e o ado-
lescen s in Ge many, we did no aim o make any gene alized
s a emen s; howe e , we used equency da a o illus a e ends
wi hin ou sample (Ame ican Psychological Associa ion2018).
Based on he esea ch ques ions and in e iew phases, a
deduc i e ca ego y sys em was de eloped wi h he ollow-
ing supe o dina e ca ego ies: “Concep ions o PBMAs” and
“Concep ions o AFM.” The wo supe o dina e ca ego ies
we e each subdi ided deduc i ely in o h ee subca ego ies,
“De ini ion PBMAs/AFM,” “Ing edien s o PBMAs/AFM,”
and “P oduc ion o PBMAs/AFM”. Wi hin each subca ego y,
deduc i e codes we e c ea ed based on he science con en
conce ning PBMAs/AFM, hei ing edien s, and he p oduc-
ion p ocess (Chap e s2.1 and 2.2). Induc i e codes (*) we e
de i ed om he s a emen s made by he pa icipan s du ing
da a analysis (Tables2 and 3).
To compa e he concep ions o adolescen s who consumed
cow's milk, PBMAs, o bo h, pa icipan s we e assigned o one
o h ee consump ion g oups (CMCs, n = 8; PBMACs, n = 4; and
BCs, n = 13) based on hei sel - epo ed consump ion habi s
(RQ3; Table1). The comple e ca ego y sys em can be ound in
AppendixS4.
To con i m he in e nal coding ag eemen , 20% o all ele an
s a emen s ha answe ed he RQs we e addi ionally coded by
he second au ho (Kucka z and Rädike 2019). To assess he
ag eemen be ween he code s, he kappa coe icien , acco ding
o B ennan and P edige (1981), was calcula ed in MAXQDA.
The esul ing kappa alue was 0.80, indica ing nea - pe ec in-
e code ag eemen (Landis and Koch1977).
4 | Resul s
4.1 | Concep ions o PBMAs
4.1.1 | De ini ion o PBMAs
All adolescen s in ou s udy we e amilia wi h a leas one
PBMA, wi h ce eal- based (n = 29), nu - based (n = 27), and
legume- based (n = 23) PBMAs being he mos men ioned. Oa
milk (n = 23) was he bes - known PBMA, ollowed by soy (n = 21)
and almond (n = 21).
Mos adolescen s pe cei ed PBMAs as a subs i u e o cow's
milk (n = 16), wi h Sophie, Mila, and Cha lo e emphasizing
he ole o PBMAs o people wi h a egan die o lac ose in-
ole ance (Sophie: “PBMAs a e de ini ely some hing ha you
can consume as a subs i u e o milk […] o i you a e lac ose
in ole an ”). Only Emma, Cha lo e, and Lucas p o ided mo e
de ails; speci ically, ha PBMAs a e a suspension o wa e and
plan componen s ha has a “[…] milk- like as e, consis ency
and colo […]” (Cha lo e). Fu he mo e, all adolescen s in ou
s udy e e ed o PBMAs as milk (e.g., oa milk) and no as
a d ink.
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8 o 17 Food Science & Nu i ion, 2025
4.1.2 | Ing edien s and he P oduc ion o PBMAs
Almos all he adolescen s in ou s udy named wa e (n = 25)
and aw plan ma e ial such as oa s (n = 23) as he main com-
ponen s o PBMAs (e.g., Isabella: “Oa s o almonds a e na u-
ally in i and wa e , o cou se, o make i liquid”); howe e ,
he pa icipan s had di e en ideas abou he p opo ion o
he wo main componen s. Fo some, hey belie ed he main
ing edien was he aw plan ma e ial, which is mixed wi h
“[…] a li le bi o wa e […]” (Lucas) o p oduce he liquid.
O he s belie ed wa e was he “[…] basic subs ance o plan -
based milk […]” (Amelia). The adolescen s hough he hi d
componen o plan milk was “[…] p obably suga /swee ene ”
(n = 14). O he ing edien s o PBMAs such as oil (n = 0), sal
(n = 2), mine als (n = 4), i amins (n = 1), and s abilize s (n = 0)
we e a ely men ioned (Table4).
Rega ding he p oduc ion p ocess o PBMAs, mos s udy pa -
icipan s en isioned wo s eps needed o p oduce oa milk:
soaking o mixing aw plan ma e ial wi h wa e (n = 19) and
d y o we g inding o aw plan ma e ial (n = 16) (Table4).
Emma desc ibed he p oduc ion p ocess: “Fi s , he oa s o al-
monds a e soaked in wa e , and hen e e y hing is mixed o
ge a smoo h liquid.” Pa icipan s p edominan ly sha ed he
idea ha he ing edien s (wa e and oa s) we e mixed, and hen
“[…] oa milk is p oduced by s i ing” (Ma hys). Oli ia's de-
sc ip ion p o ides insigh s in o he iew o he p oduc ion p o-
cess: “I hink wa e is he basis o oa milk. Then, I guess wa e
is mixed wi h oa s, and p obably he es , like sal and oil, is
added. I would say i 's all mixed.” Subsequen ly, only some pa -
icipan s en isioned how he oa - wa e mix u e would be u -
he p ocessed. They desc ibed ha , a e mixing he oa s and
wa e , he mix u e is il e ed (n = 6), and e en ually, “[…]some-
hing happens wi h hea ” (Mila) (n = 10). Mila s a ed: “You mix
he ing edien s in a po and hea hem up. Then oa milk comes
ou .” Only Benjamin explained he pu pose o hea ea men
in his con ex : “[…] PBMAs ha e o be hea ed so ha hey las
longe , as wi h pas eu iza ion.” None o he adolescen s imag-
ined ha echnical p ocesses such as homogeniza ion would
be ca ied ou on PBMAs o achie e he equi ed consis ency
and shel li e. Fu he mo e, some adolescen s exp essed unce -
ain ies abou he p oduc ion p ocess and said ha hey ei he
knew li le abou he p ocess o had no hough abou i . Fo
example, Emma men ioned: “I' e ne e ac ually hough abou
how exac ly plan milk is made.” Isabella ag eed, s a ing: “I 's
some hing I' e ne e eally hough abou .”
TABLE 2 | Ca ego y sys em o analyzing adolescen s' concep ions o PBMAs.
Concep ions o PBMAs
De ini ion PBMAs Ing edien s PBMAs P oduc ion o PBMAs
Aloe e a milk Addi i es*Cleaning aw plan ma e ial*
Banana milk*Binde s*Cul i a ion/Ha e s aw plan ma e ial*
Ce eal milk Chemicals*D y o we g inding
Coconu milk*Emulsi ie s*Fil a ion
Cow's milk al e na i e Fa *Hea ea men
Legume milk Fibe *Homogeniza ion
Nu milk Fla o enhance *Mixing ing edien s*
Oilseed milk Fla o s*Packaging
Smoo hie*Food colo ings*P oduc o mula ion
Mine als P essing aw plan ma e ial*
Nu ien s*Quali y es s/con ols*
Oil Soaking/Mixing wi h wa e
(Plan - based) p o eins*
P ese a i es*
Raw plan ma e ial
Sal
S abilize s
Swee ene s/Suga
Vi amins
Wa e
Abb e ia ion: PBMAs, plan - based milk al e na i es.
*Induc i ely coded ca ego ies.
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9 o 17
4.2 | Concep ions o AFM
4.2.1 | De ini ion o AFM
Nea ly all adolescen s in ou s udy concep ualized AFM as a
egan/PBMA (n = 24), which “[…] is ee om animal ing edi-
en s and no animals a e in ol ed in i s p oduc ion […] ” (Lucas).
They had di icul y di e en ia ing AFM om PBMAs, o en pe -
cei ing bo h as animal- ee p oduc s. Fo example, Mila s a ed:
I imagine ha AFM is some hing ha doesn'
con ain any animal ing edien s, so i 's no going o
be egula milk. I jus don' know wha he di e ence
is o PBMAs because hey don' con ain any animal
ing edien s ei he .
A e he adolescen s exp essed hei concep ions o AFM, hey
we e in o med ha AFM is no a PBMA. As a esul , some
imagined AFM as an a i icial (n = 9) o labo a o y milk (n = 7).
Howe e , he pa icipan s hen s a ed ha hey did no ha e
di e en ia ed concep ions o a i icial o labo a o y milk, as
Amelia and Cha lo e explained:
Well, i i 's no plan - based and no animal- based,
hen i can only be chemical and a i icial. Bu I don'
ha e any idea wha i 's like.
(Amelia)
I i 's no plan - based, i sounds e y a i icial o me,
a bi syn hesized.
(Cha lo e)
4.2.2 | Ing edien s and he P oduc ion o AFM
Mos o ou s udy pa icipan s had limi ed o no concep ions o
he ing edien s and p oduc ion o AFM (Table5). Lily, Benjamin,
Emmy, and Ma hys s a ed:
TABLE 3 | Ca ego y sys em o analyzing adolescen s' concep ions o AFM.
Concep ions o AFM
De ini ion AFM Ing edien s AFM P oduc ion o AFM
Animal- iendly milk*Addi i es*Copying milk*
A i icial milk*Binde s*Cul i a ing milk cells*
Cow's milk equi alen Ce eals*(Fu he ) p ocessing
Lab milk*Chemicals*Hea ea men *
Plan - based/Animal- ee*Di e en subs ances*Modi ica ion o mic oo ganisms
Fa *Mul iplica ion o milk glands*
Fla o enhance *P ecision e men a ion
Fla o s*P oduc ion in a bio eac o *
Food supplemen s*P oduc ion wi h bac e ia*
Lac ose*P oduc ion wi h gene ic enginee ing*
Milk cells*P oduc ion wi h yeas *
Milk p o eins Recycling o old dai y p oduc s*
Mine als
Nu s*
Oa s*
Oil*
Plan - based a s*
Plan subs ances*
Sal *
Soy*
Suga *
Wa e
Abb e ia ion: AFM, animal- ee milk.
*Induc i ely coded ca ego ies.
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16 o 17 Food Science & Nu i ion, 2025
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