Disse a ion
an de Uni e si ä Osnab ück
zu E langung des Dok o g ades Ph.D.
Thema
THE AFFECTIVE ARCHITECTURE OF EXTREMISM
Unde s anding Ex emism h ough Si ua ed A ec i i y
Hina Haq
Die Disse a ion wu de be eu du ch
P o . D . Achim S ephan
Uni e si ä Osnab ück
Fachbe eich Humanwissenscha en
Kogni ionswissenscha
Osnab ück, May 2025
2
Table o Con en s
Acknowledgemen s……………………………………………………….………………….....
E klä ung übe e waige ühe e P omo ionsgesuche……………………................……………
Decla a ion on he Independence o he Wo k P o ided…………………….…………….…….
Speci ica ion o Au ho Con ibu ions (in he o de o au ho ship)…………….……………….
Abs ac (English) ………....……………………………………………………...….................
Abs ak (Deu sch) ………...………………………………………………………....................
04
05
06
07
09
10
Chap e 1: In oduc ion…………………………………………………………...…………..
P ologue: A S o y o Encoun e s wi h Radicalized You h in Pakis an………………….
Wha Cons i u es Ex emism…………………………………………………
The A ec i e Dimension o Radicaliza ion: A C i ical Re iew o P ominen
Models…………………………………………………………………………………
Si ua ed A ec i i y: A B ie In oduc ion…………………………………….………..
A ec i e Mind Shaping: A Case S udy……………………………………….………..
A ec i e A angemen s and Religious Zealo y…………………………...….
A Clima e o Fea and Hos ili y…………………………………….................
Shaping O Women Image: Religious and Pa ia chal Con ol……………….
The Hudood O dinances: C ea ing and Main aining Gende Con ol
Th ough Fea …………………………………………………………..............
Re o m A emp s and Con empo a y Reali y……………………….................
Religion, Educa ion and Jihad: A ec i e Mind Shaping………………………
The Un o una e Con inua ion o A ec Shaping……………………………..
A ec i e A angemen s as P edic o s o Socie al Di ec ion…………………………...
Si ua ed A ec i i y, Socie y, and Ex emism………………………………………….
A B ie O e iew o Upcoming Chap e s……………………………………...............
Re e ences……………………………………………………………………...............
11
11
14
15
18
20
21
25
25
27
28
29
32
33
35
36
39
Chap e 2: Radicaliza ion Th ough he Lens o Si ua ed A ec i i y……………................
Abs ac ……………………………………………………………………...................
In oduc ion…………………………………………………………………………….
Si ua ed A ec i i y and A ec i e Sca olding……………………………...................
Mind In asion in Radicaliza ion………………………………………….…………….
Speci ic Tools P o ided o Mind In asion…………………………………………….
Sel -S imula o y Loops o A ec i i y In Radicaliza ion………………………………
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………..
Re e ences……………………………………………………………………………...
45
46
47
50
54
59
62
65
66
Chap e 3: Fo eg ounding A ec i i y in he Pa hways o Ex emism……………………...
Abs ac ………………………………………………………………………...............
In oduc ion…………………………………………………………………………….
A ec i i y and Si ua edness……………………………………………………………
A ec i e A angemen s……………………………………………………..................
Van age Poin s…………………………………...……………………………
The Case o B en on Ta an ……………………………………….…………………..
A angemen and Sca olds………………………………………...…...……..
A ec i e P ocesses………………………………………………..............…...
The Case o Ibn-E-Uma …………………………………………………...…………..
A angemen and Sca olds…………………………………………................
A ec i e P ocesses………………………………………………….................
Conclusions…………………………………………………………………………….
Re e ences……………………………………………………………………...............
76
77
78
81
85
87
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
3
Chap e 4: The Powe o Passion and Nos algia in Ex emism: A Case S udy o he
Ch is chu ch Mosque A ack…………………………………………………………………
Abs ac ………………………………………………………………………………...
In oduc ion………………………………………………………………….…………
Concep ual And Me hodological F amewo k……………………………….…………
Passions, Nos algia, And O he A ec i e Phenomena………………………...............
The Me hod o C i ical Phenomenology and he F amewo k o Si ua ed
A ec i i y……………………………………………………………………...............
Case S udy: The Ch is chu ch Mosque A acks………………………………………..
Religious-Racial Iden i y & Nos algia…………………………………………………
Sac ed Passion and Religious-Racial Violence………………………………………...
Digi al And Ma e ial Sca olds o A ec : O ches a ing Nos algia and Passion………
C ea ing A ec i e Templa es: The A chi ec u e o Ex emis A ec ………………….
Syn hesis o A ec And Ac ion: The Culmina ion o Passiona e Violence……………
A ec i e Chains: Enginee ing Ideological Inhe i ance………………………………..
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………..
Re e ences……………………………………………………………………...............
102
103
104
106
106
109
110
111
113
115
117
118
119
121
122
Chap e 5: Radicaliza ion om a Socie al Pe spec i e ………………..…………………….
Abs ac ………………………………………………………………………………...
In oduc ion…………………………………………………………………………….
Ex emism and Socie y…………………………………………………………………
Socie al s. Indi idual Na a i es: Te o is s o F eedom Figh e s?..............................
Social Repe cussions o Ma ginaliza ion……………………………………................
Phenomenology o Whi eness………………………………………………………….
T auma: A Facili a o in he Radicaliza ion P ocess………………..………………….
The Double Signal o Islamophobia…………………………………………................
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………..
Re e ences……………………………………………………………………………...
125
126
127
128
130
134
135
138
142
146
147
Chap e 6: Conclusion………………………………………………………………………...
A ec , Ex emism, and Socie al T ajec o ies………………………………………….
Chap e Insigh s and Connec ions…………………………………………..………….
Final Though s………………………………………………………………................
152
152
152
154
4
Acknowledgmen s
I would like o exp ess my deepes g a i ude o my ad iso , P o . D . Achim S ephan, o his
excep ional guidance, pa ience, and in ellec ual gene osi y h oughou my doc o al jou ney.
His wisdom and encou agemen ha e no only shaped his disse a ion bu also p o oundly
in luenced my g ow h as a pe son and a esea che .
To my husband, Saad: Thank you o being my ock, my pe sonal IT depa men , and my
ca eine supplie , I couldn' ha e comple ed his jou ney wi hou you! You unwa e ing belie
in me, e en du ing he mos challenging momen s, made his achie emen possible.
Mikail, my dea son, you boundless ene gy and lo e augh me he ue meaning o pa ience
and pe se e ance. You eminded me daily ha he e is joy beyond academia, and o ha , I am
endlessly g a e ul.
To my pa en s, who suppo ed me in e e y concei able way: Thank you o encou aging me
when I decided o emba k on a new jou ney in Ge many. You uncondi ional lo e and suppo
ac oss con inen s sus ained me h oughou his p ocess. And o he es o my amily especially
my b o he Ume and my bes iend Hi a Ume , hank you o you cons an encou agemen
and unwa e ing ai h in my abili ies. You s ood by me h ough e e y hing, and wo ds canno
exp ess my g a i ude.
My since e hanks go o he Reading Club A ec i i y, especially G ego Hö ze and Louis
Loock, o hei hough ul engagemen and in aluable eedback, which sha pened my hinking
and e ined my wo k. I am also deeply hank ul o he C i ical Emo ions Theo y g oup,
especially Imke on Mau and Ru h Rebecca Tie jen, o hei in ellec ual cama ade ie and
suppo . You insigh s and s imula ing discussions we e a cons an sou ce o inspi a ion.
This disse a ion s ands as a es amen no only o academic pu sui bu also o he powe o
communi y. I ep esen s he culmina ion o coun less con e sa ions, challenges o e come, and
g ow h expe ienced, all made possible by he ne wo k o suppo su ounding me. To e e yone
who con ibu ed o his jou ney, whe he named o unnamed, I o e my hea el app ecia ion.
5
Fachbe eich Humanwissenscha en
Fach Kogni ionswissenscha
E klä ung übe e waige ühe e P omo ionsgesuche
gem. § 6 de P omo ionso dnung
ANGABEN ZUR PERSON
Name und Vo name: Hina Haq
Ansch i (en): Po g aben 16, 49074 Osnab ück
Hie mi e klä e ich, dass ich kein ühe es P omo ionsgesuch an eine wissenscha lichen
Hochschule ges ell habe.
_________________________________________
Da um und Un e sch i

6
Decla a ion on he Independence o he Wo k P o ided
I a i m ha his wo k is my own, p oduced independen ly wi hou unau ho ized aid. All
sou ces—whe he quo ed di ec ly, pa aph ased, o concep ually e e enced—ha e been
p ope ly c edi ed in compliance wi h academic con en ions. The analysis, in e p e a ions, and
conclusions p esen ed he ein e lec my pe sonal unde s anding o he subjec ma e .
Whe e AI ools we e employed, hei ole was s ic ly auxilia y— o e ining syn ax,
s uc u ing ou lines, and e i ying ci a ions—and is documen ed anspa en ly. No gene a i e
AI was used o o mula e co e ideas o a gumen s.
Con ibu ions & Tools
1. Supe iso : P o . Achim S ephan p o ided i e a i e eedback on mul iple d a s,
p omp ing signi ican e isions.
2. Pee Re iew: Membe s o he Philosophy o Mind and Cogni ion Resea ch G oup and
he Reading Club—including Saad Shaheed, Lasse Be gmann, Jumana Mo ciglio,
Daniele Valen ini, G ego Hö ze , Imke on Mau , and Louis Loock—and Sab ina
Coninx o e ed subs an i e c i iques o some pa s o his hesis ha enhanced he
manusc ip ’s igo .
3. So wa e:
o Zo e o o ci a ion managemen .
o P oW i ingAid, Cha GPT, and Claude AI o g amma ical polish and s uc u al
cla i y.
Addi ional A es a ions
• No hi d-pa y se ices (paid o o he wise) con ibu ed o he wo k’s c ea ion.
• The disse a ion is o iginal and has no been submi ed elsewhe e o e alua ion.
• I assume ull esponsibili y o all claims and am p epa ed o de end hem academically.
_____________________________
(place, da e)
_______________________________
(Signa u e)
7
Speci ica ion o Au ho Con ibu ions (in he o de o au ho ship)
I he eby decla e ha he en i e y o his disse a ion has been independen ly w i en by me.
Chap e 2, 3, and 5 a e published while Chap e 4 is in Re iew o publica ion. The
con ibu ions o he au ho s in Chap e 2, 3, 4, and 5 a e speci ied acco ding o he Con ibu o
Roles Taxonomy (CRediT) as ollows:
Chap e 2 - Published A icle
Radicaliza ion Th ough he Lens o Si ua ed A ec i i y
Au ho ed by Hina Haq, Saad Shaheed and Achim S ephan
• Concep ualiza ion: [Hina Haq and Saad Shaheed] – De elopmen o esea ch goals and
aims.
• Da a Cu a ion: [Hina Haq and Saad Shaheed] – Collec ion, o ganiza ion, and
managemen o da a (e.g., in e iews, ansc ip s, no es).
• Fo mal Analysis: [Hina Haq] – Applica ion o analysis.
• Me hodology: [Hina Haq, Saad Shaheed and Achim S ephan] – Implemen a ion o
heo e ical amewo k.
• W i ing – O iginal D a : [Hina Haq and Saad Shaheed] – P epa a ion and c ea ion o
he ini ial d a .
• W i ing – Re iew & Edi ing: [Hina Haq, Saad Shaheed and Achim S ephan] – C i ical
e iew, commen a y, o e ision o he wo k, including p e- o pos -publica ion s ages.
Chap e 3 - Published A icle
Fo eg ounding A ec i i y in he Pa hways o Ex emism
Au ho ed by Saad Shaheed and Hina Haq
• Concep ualiza ion: [Saad Shaheed] – De elopmen o esea ch goals and aims.
• Da a Cu a ion: [Saad Shaheed and Hina Haq] – Collec ion, o ganiza ion, and
managemen o da a (e.g., in e iews, ansc ip s, no es).
• Fo mal Analysis: [Saad Shaheed] – Applica ion o analysis.
• Me hodology: [Saad Shaheed] – Implemen a ion o heo e ical amewo k.
• W i ing – O iginal D a : [Saad Shaheed] – P epa a ion and c ea ion o he ini ial d a .
• W i ing – Re iew & Edi ing: [Saad Shaheed and Hina Haq] – C i ical e iew,
commen a y, o e ision o he wo k, including p e- o pos -publica ion s ages.
8
Chap e 4 – Manusc ip In Re iew – Book Chap e
The Powe o Passion and Nos algia in Ex emism:
A Case S udy o he Ch is chu ch Mosque A ack
Au ho ed by Hina Haq and Ru h Rebecca Tie jen
• Concep ualiza ion: [Hina Haq and Ru h Rebecca Tie jen] – De elopmen o esea ch
goals and aims.
• Da a Cu a ion: [Hina Haq] – Collec ion, o ganiza ion, and managemen o da a (e.g.,
in e iews, ansc ip s, no es).
• Fo mal Analysis: [Hina Haq] – Applica ion o analysis.
• Me hodology: [Hina Haq and Ru h Rebecca Tie jen] – Implemen a ion o heo e ical
amewo k.
• W i ing – O iginal D a : [Ru h Rebecca Tie jen and Hina Haq] – P epa a ion and
c ea ion o he ini ial d a .
• W i ing – Re iew & Edi ing: [Ru h Rebecca Tie jen and Hina Haq] – C i ical e iew,
commen a y, o e ision o he wo k, including p e- o pos -publica ion s ages.
Chap e 5 - Published A icle
Radicaliza ion om a Socie al Pe spec i e
Au ho ed by Dela am Sha ieioun and Hina Haq
• Concep ualiza ion: [Dela am Sha ieioun and Hina Haq] – De elopmen o esea ch
goals and aims. (This pape d aws upon he hesis esea ch o Dela am Sha ieion, which
i sel e ol ed om a s udy p ojec o iginally concep ualized and supe ised by Hina
Haq)
• Da a Cu a ion: [Dela am Sha ieioun and Hina Haq] – Collec ion, o ganiza ion, and
managemen o da a (e.g., in e iews, ansc ip s, no es).
• Fo mal Analysis: [Dela am Sha ieioun and Hina Haq] – Applica ion o analysis.
• Me hodology: [Dela am Sha ieioun] – Implemen a ion o heo e ical amewo k.
• W i ing – O iginal D a : [Dela am Sha ieioun and Hina Haq] – P epa a ion and
c ea ion o he ini ial d a .
• W i ing – Re iew & Edi ing: [Dela am Sha ieioun and Hina Haq] – C i ical e iew,
commen a y, o e ision o he wo k, including p e- o pos -publica ion s ages.
_____________________________
(place, da e)
_______________________________
(Signa u e)
9
Abs ac
This disse a ion de elops a no el heo e ical amewo k o unde s anding adicaliza ion and
ex emism by cen e ing si ua ed a ec i i y—a pe spec i e ha econcei es emo ions no as
in e nal men al s a es bu as en i onmen ally sca olded, ela ional phenomena. D awing on
philosophy o mind, a ec heo y, and cogni i e science, he wo k a gues ha ex emis
engagemen is made possible h ough a ec i e a angemen s—socioma e ial con igu a ions
ha shape emo ional o ien a ions and no malize ideological commi men . These a angemen s
ope a e h ough embodied ou ines, ma e ial a o dances, and no ma i e p ac ices ha gi e ise
o a ec i e disposi ions capable o sus aining adical ideologies. The s udy shows how bo h
nega i e and posi i e emo ions— ea , humilia ion, p ide, nos algia—a e mobilized o o ge
du able a ec i e ies, which in u n ancho indi iduals o ex emis wo ld iews and p ac ices.
The disse a ion consis s o six chap e s, including h ee p e iously published a icles. Chap e
One o e s he concep ual g oundwo k and an ex ended case s udy om Pakis an, illus a ing
how eligious na ionalism, educa ional ins i u ions, and au ho i a ian s a ec a unc ion as
a ec i e in as uc u es ha o ien indi iduals owa d igid and hie a chical modes o
belonging. Chap e Two in oduces he key mechanisms o a ec i e sca olding, mind
in asion, and sel -s imula o y loops, showing how emo ions a e co-op ed and s abilized by
ex emis milieus. Chap e Th ee deepens he analysis by examining case s udies o digi ally
media ed adicaliza ion and he a ec i e pa e ns unde pinning online ex emism. Chap e
Fou p esen s a phenomenological analysis o he Ch is chu ch mosque a ack, highligh ing he
ole o sac ed passion and nos algic iolence in he o ma ion o ex emis subjec i i y. Chap e
Fi e c i iques dominan coun e e o ism app oaches by o eg ounding he ole o acialized
ma ginaliza ion and sys emic exclusion in c ea ing a ec i e p econdi ions o adicaliza ion.
Chap e Six summa izes he indings o his disse a ion, highligh ing how he amewo k o
si ua ed a ec i i y p o ides a p o ound unde s anding o he a ec i e a chi ec u e o
ex emism while demons a ing i s u ili y as a p edic i e ool o analyzing socie al ajec o ies
owa d adicaliza ion and au ho i a ianism. Ac oss all chap e s, he disse a ion a gues ha
emo ions a e no seconda y byp oduc s o ideological ans o ma ion bu essen ial s uc u ing
o ces ha enable and sus ain i . By aming adicaliza ion as a si ua ed a ec i e phenomenon,
he s udy o e s a philosophically igo ous and empi ically in o med accoun o he emo ional
a chi ec u es h ough which ex emism is no only jus i ied by hose d awn o i bu also
ende ed deeply el and p o oundly li ed.
Keywo ds: Si ua ed A ec i i y, Radicaliza ion, A ec i e A angemen s, Ex emism,
Emo ions
16
Simila ly, McCauley and Moskalenko's (2008, 2017) "Py amid Model" p esen s
adicaliza ion as occu ing a indi idual, g oup, and mass le els. Thei amewo k iden i ies
mechanisms anging om pe sonal ic imiza ion and poli ical g ie ance a he indi idual le el
o g oup isola ion and pola iza ion a he collec i e le el. Despi e i s mul i-le el app oach, he
model p edominan ly ocuses on nega i e emo ional dynamics such as ha e and e enge,
o e looking he po en ial ole o posi i e emo ions in sus aining commi men o ex emis
causes.
Wik o owicz's (2005) heo e ical amewo k o cogni i e adicaliza ion p esen s a ou -
s age p ocessual model ha delinea es he ajec o y h ough cogni i e opening, eligious
seeking, ame alignmen , and socializa ion. While he model makes signi ican con ibu ions
in concep ualizing he social-psychological mechanisms o adicaliza ion, i s p ima y emphasis
emains on cogni i e ulne abili y and c isis-induced suscep ibili y. Though i acknowledges
he signi icance o social-o ganiza ional dynamics, pa icula ly in he socializa ion phase, he
model's heo e ical a chi ec u e p edominan ly ocuses on cogni i e-beha io al
ans o ma ions. This limi a ion e lec s a b oade endency in ea ly adicaliza ion models o
p io i ize cogni i e-beha io al mechanisms o e he emo ional alence o ex emis
engagemen .
Silbe and Bha 's (2007) “Radicaliza ion in he Wes : The Homeg own Th ea ” also
e e ed as NYPD model (New Yo k Police Depa men model) p esen s a ou -phase model
acking he p og ession om p e- adicaliza ion h ough sel -iden i ica ion, indoc ina ion, and
jihadiza ion. While g oundb eaking in i s sys ema ic app oach o homeg own adicaliza ion,
he model p ima ily emphasizes obse able beha io al indica o s and ideological p og ession,
o e ing limi ed insigh in o he emo ional dynamics ha acili a e mo emen be ween s ages.
Each phase desc ibes speci ic beha io al signa u es, bu he unde lying emo ional mechanisms
ha d i e indi iduals om one s age o ano he emain unde explo ed.
Mo e ecen amewo ks o e iche pe spec i es on he emo ional dimensions o
adicaliza ion. Webbe and K uglanski's “3N Model” (K uglanski e al., 2014) examines he
in e play be ween indi idual Needs ( o signi icance and meaning), Na a i es ( ha jus i y
iolence), and Ne wo ks ( ha p o ide social alida ion). This model explici ly add esses how
posi i e emo ions like he ques o pe sonal signi icance in e ac wi h nega i e emo ions like
humilia ion and e enge (K uglanski e al., 2019). Simila ly, Ha ez and Mullins’ “Fou Fac o s
Model” (Ha ez & Mullins, 2015) in eg a es g ie ances, ne wo ks, ideologies, and enabling
en i onmen s, acknowledging how emo ional expe iences a e embedded wi hin b oade social
and en i onmen al con ex s. Thei amewo k examines how pe sonal and collec i e

17
g ie ances in e sec wi h suppo s uc u es and ideological na a i es o c ea e powe ul
emo ional mo i a o s o adicaliza ion (Ha ez, 2016). These newe models be e cap u e
emo ional ecology o adicaliza ion, ecognizing how bo h posi i e and nega i e emo ions
unc ion wi hin b oade social, ideological, and en i onmen al con ex s o acili a e ex emis
engagemen . They demons a e how ac o s like g oup belonging, ques o signi icance, and
sac ed alues c ea e complex emo ional a achmen s ha sus ain commi men o ex emis
causes beyond me e ideological ag eemen o g ie ance-based mo i a ion (A an, 2016;
K uglanski e al., 2018).
Recen de elopmen s in he ield, pa icula ly an S ekelenbu g's (2017) wo k, ha e
highligh ed how emo ions in adicaliza ion ope a e simul aneously a indi idual, g oup-based,
and collec i e le els. This mul i-le el app oach begins o b idge he gap be ween adi ional
models and a mo e comp ehensi e unde s anding o emo ional dynamics in adicaliza ion.
A an's (2016) concep o he “De o ed Ac o ” u he illumina es how sac ed alues and g oup
de o ion, undamen ally posi i e emo ional a achmen s, d i e indi iduals o ex eme ac ions,
explaining beha io s ha con en ional app oaches o en s uggle o comp ehend.
While he a o emen ioned heo e ical amewo ks ha e made subs an ial con ibu ions
o ou unde s anding o ex emism's psychological and social dimensions, a signi ican lacuna
pe sis s in he li e a u e conce ning he ole o posi i e a ec i e s a es in adicaliza ion
p ocesses. The p edominan ocus on nega i e a ec i e dimensions, while aluable, p o ides
only a pa ial iew o he complex emo ional apes y ha cha ac e izes pa hways o ex emism.
To comp ehend how indi iduals come o emb ace and ac upon ex eme ideologies, we mus
examine hei a ec i e in en ionali y
1
and i s ole in s uc u ing expe ien ial wo lds (Slaby &
S ephan, 2008). Fo his pu pose, we employ he amewo k si ua ed a ec i i y, which
concep ualizes emo ions as ac i ely coupled o he en i onmen a he han as me ely in e nal
men al s a es (G i i hs & Sca an ino, 2009). This amewo k emphasizes how indi iduals’
emo ional expe iences a e sca olded by hei ma e ial and social en i onmen s (S ephan e al.,
2014). Th ough his heo e ical lens, adicaliza ion eme ges as a complex in e play be ween
indi idual a ec and en i onmen al sca olding, whe e bo h posi i e and nega i e emo ions
1
A ec i e in en ionali y e e s o he undamen al di ec edness o emo ional expe iences owa ds objec s,
si ua ions, o s a es o a ai s, whe eby emo ions a e no me ely in e nal s a es bu cons i u i ely in ol e ways o
being o ien ed owa d and making sense o he wo ld (Slaby & S ephan, 2008). This concep emphasizes how
ou a ec i e s a es ac i ely s uc u e ou pe cep ion, unde s anding, and engagemen wi h ou en i onmen
a he han simply being esponses o i .
18
con ibu e o he de elopmen o an indi idual’s a ec i e o ien a ion (Slaby, 2014).
Unde s anding his dynamic equi es a en ion no only o isola ed emo ional s a es bu o he
en i e a ec i e ecosys em wi hin which an indi idual's adical pe spec i es e ol e and solidi y.
IV. Si ua ed A ec i i y: A B ie In oduc ion
This sec ion o e s a concise o e iew o he heo e ical de elopmen o si ua ed a ec i i y,
acing i s o igins in si ua ed cogni ion and es ablishing a comp ehensi e amewo k o
unde s anding he en i onmen al s uc u ing o emo ions. Beginning wi h he ounda ional
wo k in si ua ed cogni ion (Suchman, 1987; La e, 1988), and p og essing h ough he ex ended
mind hesis (Cla k & Chalme s, 1998) o con empo a y amewo ks o si ua ed a ec i i y
(S ephan e al., 2014), si ua ed cogni ion eme ged as a e olu iona y amewo k in cogni i e
science ha undamen ally challenged he adi ional compu a ional iew o he mind, which
ea ed cogni ion as abs ac in o ma ion p ocessing occu ing solely wi hin he b ain. The
amewo k's ounda ions can be aced o Suchman's (1987) g oundb eaking wo k on si ua ed
ac ion and La e's (1988) s udies on cogni ion in p ac ice, which i s demons a ed how
cogni i e p ocesses a e inhe en ly ied o speci ic social and en i onmen al con ex s. These
pionee ing insigh s we e u he de eloped h ough Cla k's (1997) in luen ial wo k on
embodied cogni ion and subsequen ly s eng hened by Cla k and Chalme s' (1998) ex ended
mind hesis. Ra he han iewing cogni ion as isola ed men al compu a ion, si ua ed cogni ion
emphasizes how ou hinking p ocesses a e inhe en ly ied o bodily expe iences,
en i onmen al esou ces, and social in e ac ions.
Building upon his heo e ical ounda ion, he si ua ed a ec i i y amewo k,
sys ema ically de eloped by S ephan, Wal e , and Wilu zky (2014), ex ends his
en i onmen ally embedded unde s anding o emo ional phenomena. Jus as si ua ed cogni ion
e ealed he en i onmen al sca olding o hough p ocesses, si ua ed a ec i i y demons a es
how a ec i e s a es a e cons i u i ely dependen on en i onmen al esou ces and social
dynamics. This amewo k concep ualizes emo ions no as disc e e in e nal s a es bu as
dynamic pa e ns o o ganism-en i onmen in e ac ion (G i i hs & Sca an ino, 2009). The
philosophical signi icance o his app oach lies in i s econcep ualiza ion o a ec i e
phenomena as inhe en ly ela ional and en i onmen ally cons i u ed a he han me ely
in e nally ealized.
Colombe i and K uege (2015) u he en ich his amewo k by in oducing he
concep o “a ec i e niches,” demons a ing how indi iduals ac i ely manipula e and s uc u e
hei en i onmen o suppo speci ic a ec i e s a es and egula o y p ocesses. This builds on
19
Gibson’s (1979/1986) ecological psychology, showing how emo ional expe iences a e shaped
by en i onmen al a o dances and he ac i e exploi a ion o en i onmen al esou ces. The
amewo k has been u he de eloped h ough Slaby’s (2019) wo k on a ec i e a angemen s,
which examines how speci ic socioma e ial se ings c ea e and main ain pa icula pa e ns o
a ec i e expe ience and beha io .
The si ua ed a ec i i y amewo k undamen ally challenges he adi ional in e nalis
iew o emo ions as me ely p i a e, in e nal s a es (G i i hs & Sca an ino, 2009). Building
upon he insigh s o si ua ed cogni ion, S ephan e al. (2014) econcep ualize emo ions as
ex ending beyond in e nal neu onal p ocesses o encompass h ee in e ela ed dimensions: a)
he mo phological and physiological cha ac e is ics o he body, b) embodied in e ac ion wi h
he en i onmen , and c) in eg a ion wi h na u al, echnological, and social con ex s. This
ipa i e s uc u e unde sco es how a ec i e li e depends on he in e play be ween he agen
and hei en i onmen , shaped by sca oldings, ha include ma e ial esou ces, social p ac ices,
and empo al s uc u es. As on Mau (2021) ou lines, sca olding ope a es ac oss h ee key
dimensions: he ole o he ma e ial en i onmen in emo ion o ma ion, he ways social
p ac ices ame and no malize a ec i e expe iences, and he empo al dynamics ha o ganize
and sus ain emo ion episodes o e ime. These insigh s e eal ha emo ions a e no me ely
in e nal p ocesses bu a e co-cons i u ed h ough cons an in e ac ion wi h en i onmen al
s uc u es ha ac i ely suppo and shape a ec i e expe ience.
Wi hin his amewo k, S ephan & Wal e (2020) u he dis inguish be ween wo
undamen al ways in which a ec i i y in e wines wi h he en i onmen . 1) The “use - esou ce
model” desc ibes how indi iduals use ex e nal esou ces o enable o egula e a ec i e s a es,
ea ing he en i onmen as a ool. In con as , 2) he “mind-in asion model” e lec s a deepe
in eg a ion, whe e ex e nal en i onmen al ac o s play a signi ican ole in shaping emo ional
p ocesses, blu ing he bounda ies be ween he indi idual and hei en i onmen . Toge he ,
hese heo e ical con ibu ions e eal how emo ions a e in ima ely en angled wi h he
en i onmen s in which hey a e enac ed, unde sco ing ha a ec i i y is undamen ally
ela ional and en i onmen ally si ua ed.
The heo e ical amewo k o si ua ed a ec i i y has p o ound implica ions o
unde s anding he na u e o emo ional expe ience and i s ela ionship o en i onmen al
con ex s. As Colombe i (2017) a gues, emo ions should be unde s ood as en i onmen ally
ex ended p ocesses a he han pu ely in e nal phenomena, challenging adi ional in e nalis
assump ions abou he na u e o a ec i e s a es. This econcep ualiza ion sugges s ha
unde s anding emo ions equi es a ending no jus o indi idual psychological s a es bu o he
20
b oade ecological con ex s in which hese s a es eme ge and a e main ained (S ephan &
Wal e , 2020).
Si ua ed a ec i i y is a wo king concep ha p o ides a de ailed amewo k o
examining he in e play o a ec i e p ocesses in any gi en con ex . Chap e Two, discusses
how si ua ed a ec i i y and i s key concep s, such as “use - esou ce in e ac ion” and “mind
in asion”, help explain why indi iduals adop adical ideologies. In he nex sec ion, I explo e
he b oade ele ance o his amewo k by analyzing he a ec i e dimensions o a socie y.
Pa icula ly he di ec ions a socie y has aken o is likely o ake in he u u e because o he
a ec i e shaping
2
o i s populace. I will use Pakis an as a case s udy, d awing upon my pe sonal
expe iences in my home coun y o illus a e how he si ua edness o indi iduals impac s hei
wo ld iew and shapes hei a ec i e in e ac ions wi h he b oade social en i onmen .
V. A ec i e Mind Shaping: A Case S udy
Ha ing le Pakis an in 2016 o s udy in Ge many, I wi nessed i s hand how my own
pe spec i es we e shaped by he socio-poli ical en i onmen I had g own up in, and how
dis ancing mysel om ha en i onmen allowed me o ques ion deeply ing ained belie s ha
I had p e iously aken o g an ed. This ealiza ion ein o ced my unde s anding o how an
indi idual’s en i onmen can p o oundly shape hei a ec i e expe iences and hough
p ocesses, o en wi hou hei conscious awa eness. In he con ex o Pakis an, his a ec i e
mind shaping h ough ca e ully a chi ec ed a ec i e a angemen s has con ibu ed o a g owing
endency owa d eligious ex emism—no o he ex en o A ghanis an’s s uggles, bu o a
deg ee whe e i has become ala mingly easy o jus i y ha assmen , iolence, o e en mu de
unde he guise o de ending eligious belie s. The ques ioning o eligious belie s and leade s
has become unaccep able, a phenomenon cemen ed by Pakis an's epea ed imposi ion o
ma ial law, mos no ably du ing he ule o Gene al Zia-ul-Haq (1918-1988). Zia’s egime,
cha ac e ized by policies now colloquially e med as “Ziaism,” employed eligious measu es
2
The e m “mind in asion,” as used by Slaby (2016), will be eplaced he e wi h he e m “a ec i e mind shaping”
o simply “a ec i e shaping,” as i be e cap u es he concep wi hou he conno a ions o he wo d “in asion.”
Th oughou his disse a ion, “a ec i e shaping” and “mind shaping” will be used in e changeably in discussions
whe e he concep o “mind in asion” is add essed.
21
o con ol he populace unde a guise o pie y, he eby os e ing a socie y mo e ecep i e o
ascism.
While o he na ions, such as I an and Saudi A abia, exhibi compa able pa e ns o
le e aging eligion as a cen al mechanism o go e nance o exe con ol o e hei
popula ions, Is ael p o ides a pa icula ly s iking example o how eligious he o ic is
s a egically deployed o se e poli ical ends. Is ael's poli ical leade s ha e con inuously
manipula ed eligious disco d o jus i y ac s o agg ession
3
, o en in oking ideologically
cha ged e ms such as ‘G ea e Is ael’ and ‘God’s p omised land o he Is aeli es’ eligious
no ion o a di ine p omise. Tha has been in oked by Is aeli poli icians like Bezalel Smo ich
4
and Benjamin Ne anyahu, who in public add esses has e e enced biblical jus i ica ions o
e aining e i o ial con ol o e dispu ed a eas such as he Wes Bank and Eas Je usalem
(Lus ick, 1993; Pappé, 2006) o legi imize e i o ial expansion and mili a y campaigns. This
he o ic has p o ided jus i ica ion o policies and mili a y ac ions, including he ongoing
a oci ies in Gaza, which amoun o ac s o genocide.
Howe e , he scope o his chap e will emain ocused on Pakis an: I will explo e how
dic a o s and uling eli e in Pakis an ha e manipula ed he socio-poli ical en i onmen o c ea e
an a ec i e a angemen which is cons an ly main ained and ueled wi h eligious he o ic.
This esul s in he a ec i e shaping o Pakis an populace and nudged hem u he owa d
ascism.
a. A ec i e A angemen s and Religious Zealo y
A ec i e a angemen s
5
a e dynamic con igu a ions o ma e ial, symbolic, and social elemen s
ha in e ac o modula e emo ions and a ec (Slaby, Mühlho , & Wüschne , 2019). These
3
He e a e some s udies o he e e ence: 1) S e nhell, Z. (1998). The ounding my hs o Is ael: Na ionalism,
socialism, and he making o he Jewish s a e. 2) Pappé, 2006, "The E hnic Cleansing o Pales ine", examines he
his o ical and ideological basis o Is aeli e i o ial expansion. 3) Lus ick, 1988, "Fo he Land and he Lo d",
speci ically add esses eligious jus i ica ions in Is aeli poli ics.
4
Recen poli ical he o ic om igu es like Bezalel Smo ich, as ci ed by epu able news ou le s, such as Smo ich
says “ he e’s no Pales inian people The e’s no such hing as a Pales inian people. This land belongs o he people
o Is ael—we a e ul illing he p omise o he To ah he e.” Magid & Be man, 20 h Ma ch, 2023 (The Time o
Is ael). Benjamin Ne anyahu’s s a emen s: “In ou ime we e u ned o Heb on. We did so because his is ou
pa imony. This is ou homeland, and i will always emain pa o he S a e o Is ael." (Je usalem Pos , 2017),
"Je usalem has been he capi al o he Jewish people o 3,000 yea s. I ’s men ioned in he Bible hund eds o
imes. Je usalem is ou capi al. I ’s men ioned in he Bible — he Bible" (PBS NewsHou , Decembe 6, 2017,
speech ollowing he U.S. ecogni ion o Je usalem as Is ael’s capi al).
5
Chap e 3 ho oughly explo es he concep o a ec i e a angemen s and i s ele ance o unde s anding
ex emism.

22
a angemen s do no simply eme ge o ganically bu a e in en ionally es ablished o guide
emo ional esponses, pe cep ions, and beha io s in ways ha se e speci ic goals. Religious,
cul u al, and poli ical con ex s can all se e as si es o hese a angemen s, embedding
p inciples in o collec i e consciousness in ways ha eel na u al bu a e deeply manipula i e.
When we look a he eligious zealo y in Pakis an, some a ec i e pa e ns eme ge which poin
owa ds he di ec ion he people has aken in e m o eligious ana icism.
Pakis an is a coun y ha came in o exis ence on eligious basis. Be o e he
independence in 1947, he Muslims o he Indian subcon inen belie ed ha i would be
di icul o main ain hei eligious eedom unde he Hindu-majo i y leade ship o uni ed
India. This ideology, commonly e e ed o as he Two-Na ion Theo y, posi ed ha Hindus and
Muslims we e wo dis inc na ions, wi h di e en eligions, cul u es, and social p ac ices,
necessi a ing sepa a e s a es (Razi, 2014; Ahmed, 1988). Du ing he s uggle o independence,
slogans and symbols based on eligion became allying c ies o he Muslim cause. One iconic
slogan was “Pakis an Ka Ma lab Kya? La Ilaha Illallah” (Wha does Pakis an mean? The e is
no god bu Allah). This slogan, coined by P o esso Asgha Sodai in 1944, became a powe ul
emo ional and a ec i e ool, uni ing Muslim masses in hei pu sui o a sepa a e homeland
(Ay es, A. 2009). I was no jus a poli ical s a emen bu a deeply emo ional and eligious
asse ion ha ied he e y exis ence o Pakis an o Islam.
This slogan, which once igni ed passion du ing he independence mo emen , con inued
o de ine he iden i y o Pakis an a e gaining independence in 1947. G owing up in Pakis an,
I hea d i equen ly, a na ional celeb a ions, in poe y, and in pa io ic songs, wi hou c i ically
e lec ing on i s implica ions. I was only a e mo ing o Ge many and engagemen wi h he
amewo k o si ua ed a ec i i y ha I ealized how deeply his slogan and o he s like i had
shaped my wo ld iew, as well as he collec i e mindse o an en i e na ion. Si ua ed a ec i i y
explains how en i onmen s and social s uc u es c ea e emo ional condi ions ha shape
indi iduals’ hough s, belie s, and iden i ies (Slaby, 2016). In his case, he slogan di ec ly ies
he iden i y o Pakis an o Islam, c ea ing an emo ional and cogni i e amewo k whe e being
Pakis ani is equa ed o being Muslim. This slogan was impo an and p o ided a s ong
a ec i e sca old o he Muslims in uni ed India o come oge he and igh o hei eedom.
Bu now a e 78 yea s o independence his slogan is s ill being used o de ine Pakis an.
This aises signi ican implica ions o mino i ies. I he meaning o Pakis an is equa ed
wi h Islam, wha space does ha lea e o he non-Muslim ci izens? Fo a mino i y pe son, his
23
slogan does no e oke p ide o inclusion bu exclusion
6
. Fo a non-Muslim ci izen, he slogan
“The meaning o Pakis an is: The e is no God bu Allah” di ec ly clashes wi h he eligious
belie s and iden i y o non-Muslims. While i se es as a powe ul emo ional allying c y o
he Muslim majo i y, i aliena es mino i ies by implici ly de ining he na ion h ough an
explici ly eligious amewo k. Though his exclusiona y he o ic con adic s he cons i u ional
p omise laid ou in A icle 20 o he 1973 Cons i u ion, which gua an ees ha non-Muslims in
Pakis an mus ha e he eedom o p o ess and p ac ice hei eligious belie s and enjoy equal
igh s as Muslim ci izens. Howe e , in p ac ice, his con adic ion lies a he hea o Pakis an’s
sys emic challenges o eligious mino i ies. The a ec i e a mosphe e shaped by slogans,
policies, and socie al no ms o en ma ginalizes hose who do no subsc ibe o he dominan
eligious iden i y.
The s a e's legal amewo ks u he compound his aliena ion. Fo example, Pakis an’s
cons i u ion explici ly es ic s he p esidency and p ime minis e ship o non-Muslims. Now
we ha e a eligious based slogan de ining a coun y’s iden i y, which is u he suppo ed by
he laws like limi ing he eligious mino i ies om achie ing highes anks in he coun y.
Measu es like hese embed s uc u al disc imina ion, ma ginalizing mino i ies and signaling
hei in e io s a us wi hin he s a e (Shah, 2014; Razi, 2014). This is jus one small pa o a
a he la ge a ec i e a angemen which Pakis ani uling eli es c ea ed o con ol and main ain
powe .
A e he end o go e nmen o Bhu o (1973-1977), who in oduced he law o limi ing
mino i y’s ole in go e nmen , he dic a o Zia ul Haq ook o e . One o he clea es examples
o eligious manipula ion comes om Gene al Zia-ul-Haq, whose “Islamiza ion” policies
p o oundly shaped Pakis an’s legal and poli ical amewo ks. Du ing his egime (1977–1988),
Zia implemen ed a se ies o amendmen s in he cons i u ion o he coun y. Embedding eligion
u he in o he legal sys em o consolida e his powe and s eng hen his Islamic c eden ials.
One example o his “Islamiza ion” a emp was he changing in blasphemy laws. P e iously,
blasphemy laws exis ed in colonial-e a legal codes bu we e a ely en o ced. Howe e , Zia
in oduced ha she penal ies and di ec ed hem speci ically owa d sa egua ding Islam,
signi ican ly changing hei scope and applica ion.
6
Chap e 5, “Radicaliza ion om a Socie al Pe spec i e,” del es deeply in o how socie y can sys ema ically
ma ginalize and exclude ce ain indi iduals, c ea ing en i onmen s o aliena ion and disen anchisemen .
24
Unde Zia’s egime, se e al p o isions we e inse ed in o he Pakis an Penal Code
(PPC), making he blasphemy laws a mo e se e e. Some o hese amendmen s include:
• Sec ion 295-B (1982): P esc ibed li e imp isonmen o de iling he Qu an.
• Sec ion 295-C (1986): Made de oga o y ema ks agains he P ophe Muhammad a
capi al o ense, punishable by dea h o li e imp isonmen .
He e Sec ion 295-C, which en ails ha any pe son who uses de oga o y ema ks,
spoken o w i en, o by isible ep esen a ion, o by any impu a ion, innuendo, o insinua ion,
di ec ly o indi ec ly, agains he Holy P ophe Muhammad, shall be punished wi h dea h o
imp isonmen o li e, and shall also be liable o a ine. Now his clause is de ined in a manne
which makes accusing anybody o blasphemy e y easy. Any ges u e o wo ds can be
ansla ed as blasphemy. These changes o malized s ingen measu es o punish any pe cei ed
insul owa d Islam o Islamic symbols. Os ensibly in oduced o p o ec he sanc i y o he
eligion, hese laws soon became ools o socie al pe secu ion.
Zia’s blasphemy laws, while a ge ing eligious dissen , cul i a ed hos ili y owa d non-
Muslims, ins i u ionalizing hei ma ginaliza ion. These laws disp opo iona ely a ec
eligious mino i ies, including Ch is ians, Hindus, and Ahmadis. Ahmadis a e a ge ed e en
mo e speci ically due o he O dinance XX o 1984, which c iminalized hei iden i ica ion as
Muslims o hei use o Islamic e minology in wo ship o eligious p ac ices (Shah, 2014).
False accusa ions equen ly spi al in o mob iolence, wi h people aking he law in o hei own
hands due o hei deep emo ional in es men in “p o ec ing” Islam. This a ec shaping is he
esul o yea s o sys ema ic manipula ion.
Howe e , he laws a e no only used o a ge non-Muslims. E en Muslims all ic im
o hese laws, o en in in acommunal dispu es, such as con lic s be ween di e en sec s.
Accusa ions o blasphemy a e used o supp ess c i ics, esol e poli ical di e ences, o se le
pe sonal ende as. The case o Salman Tasee , he Go e no o Punjab who was mu de ed by
his bodygua d in 2011, demons a es his s ikingly. Tasee was assassina ed o
de ending Asia Bibi, a Ch is ian woman alsely accused o blasphemy. His
bodygua d, Mum az Qad i, sho him and jus i ied he killing based on eligious g ounds. Qad i
was celeb a ed as a he o by segmen s o he popula ion, illus a ing he ex en o which
blasphemy laws ha e os e ed a cul u e accep ing o ex ajudicial iolence (Julius. 2016). This
public celeb a ion o mu de demons a es how deeply hese laws ha e shaped socie al
a i udes, c ea ing an en i onmen whe e iolence in he name o eligious p o ec ion is no
only accep ed bu glo i ied.
25
b. A Clima e o Fea and Hos ili y
Zia-ul-Haq’s blasphemy laws ep esen a key mechanism h ough which he s a e c ea es an
a ec i e a angemen designed o con ol socie al beha io and main ain powe . By
c iminalizing pe cei ed eligious o enses, hese laws ha e ins illed a pe asi e clima e o ea
and hos ili y. In his con ex , he law ope a es no only as a legal amewo k bu as an
ins umen o in imida ion, embedding ep ession wi hin he collec i e consciousness. The
d as ic inc ease in blasphemy cases ollowing Zia’s e o ms, which escala ed om a me e 11
cases ( esul ing in 3 dea hs) be ween 1947 and 1986 o 1403 cases (86 dea hs) om 1987 o
2021 (Na ees, 2021), unde sco es he e icacy o such a angemen s in quashing ee speech
and use ea as con olling agen .
Howe e , he impac o Zia’s egime ex ends beyond blasphemy laws; i encapsula es
a b oade agenda o Islamiza ion ha pe mea ed educa ional sys ems h ough he in eg a ion
o eligious con en in school cu icula. Unde Zia’s 1979 educa ion policy, ex books we e
signi ican ly e ised o glo i y Islamic ideology, p esen ing i as supe io and indispensable o
socie al ans o ma ion. This included he inco po a ion o Qu anic e ses and li e a u e ha
emphasized he i ues o Islamic go e nance and he his o ical iumphs o Islam.
The impac o his a ec i e a angemen is a shaping o indi idual ideologies h ough
he usion o eligious iden i y wi h ci ic du y, achie ed h ough zealous p onouncemen s, legal
amewo ks including blasphemy s a u es, and educa ion in used wi h ideological con en .
Toge he , hese elemen s os e a clima e o ea ha supp esses c i ical hough and ee
exp ession, ul ima ely encou aging eligious ana icism and p omo ing social obedience o e
independen hinking.
Consequen ly, his a angemen silences c i icism o bo h he laws and b oade s a e
policies, aming any dissen as an a on o eligion i sel . In a socie y whe e ques ioning
eligious au ho i y can lead o dea h h ea s, indi iduals lea n om a young age o in e nalize
his ea . This condi ioning pe pe ua es h ough gene a ions, ans o ming Pakis an’s legal and
social landscape in o one whe e eligious ascism p e ails unde he guise o ai h p o ec ion,
sys ema ically e oding he undamen al igh s and secu i y o all ci izens, ega dless o hei
eligious a ilia ions (Rumi, 2018; Khan, 2020).
c. Shaping o Women Image: Religious and Pa ia chal Con ol
Gene al Zia-ul-Haq’s egime (1977-1988) in Pakis an had a p o ound impac on he li es o
women, pa icula ly h ough he implemen a ion o conse a i e Islamic policies ha eshaped
32
cycles o iolence and opp ession, whe e claims o ai h jus i y ac ions as ex eme as a acks
on schoolchild en o he p ohibi ion o gi ls’ educa ion. The in e gene a ional ansmission o
such manipula ed a ec plays a signi ican ole in he no maliza ion o iolence and sys emic
disc imina ion in socie ies.
g. The Un o una e Con inua ion o A ec Shaping
Such un o una e a ec shaping and he e e e ol ing a ec i e a angemen s a e s ill going
on. The pe pe ua ion o a ec i e a angemen s in Pakis an mani es s mos powe ully in
con empo a y mili a y leade ship, whe e eligious he o ic and ins i u ional iolence c ea e
sophis ica ed mechanisms o con ol (Ahmed, 2014). Gene al Ha iz Syed Asim Muni ,
appoin ed Chie o A my S a in No embe 2022, embodies his con e gence o eligious
au ho i y and mili a y powe . His s a egic deploymen o eligious i les, ‘Ha iz’ and ‘Syed’,
cons uc s a dual legi imacy, combining mili a y au ho i y wi h claims o bo h Qu anic
knowledge and p ophe ic lineage. C ea ing powe ul a ec i e esonances in Pakis an's
eligiously sensi ized socie y, Muni pe sis en ly employed hese i les and his memo iza ion
o he Qu an o po ay himsel as someone o highe s anding compa ed o egula Muslims.
His equen in oca ion o Qu anic e ses in his speeches and his delibe a e use o A abic, a
language ega ded as sac ed in Pakis ani Islamic discou se, exempli ies how a ec i e
a angemen s oo ed in eligious linguis ics a e s a egically employed o consolida e au ho i y.
By quo ing Qu anic sc ip u e in A abic, a language e e ed o i s associa ion wi h di ine
e ela ion ye inaccessible o a majo i y o he popula ion beyond su ace unde s anding, Muni
le e ages bo h he au a o sac edness and he pe cep ion o in ellec ual au ho i y. A abic,
ca ies an in insic weigh ha anscends he immedia e seman ic alue o he wo ds
hemsel es, pa icula ly wi hin eligiously de ou socie ies like Pakis an (Gade, 2004). The ac
o eci ing e ses in A abic, ollowed by hei ansla ion in o U du, unc ions no me ely as a
communica i e ges u e bu as a pe o ma i e enac men o powe , one ha si ua es Muni as
bo h a essel o di ine knowledge and a guide o na ional mo al consciousness.
Muni ’s Decembe 2023 speech o e ed a compelling illus a ion o how eligious
discou se is manipula ed o quell mode n opposi ion. He s a ed ha “ hose dissemina ing
misin o ma ion abou s a e ins i u ions a e no only digi al e o is s bu also ad e sa ies o
Islam, gi en ha u h is undamen al o he ai h”. This decla a ion, suppo ed by selec i e
Qu anic e ses abou sp eading disco d ( i na), exempli ies he mili a y’s sophis ica ed
manipula ion o eligious sen imen o c iminalize c i icism. He also uses e ms like
“Khawa ij,” which e e s o hose who lea e Islam. In Pakis ani socie y, he e is a widely held

33
belie ha anyone who abandons Islam, an apos a e, should be killed. By in oking he e m
“apos a e” in a socie y al eady shaped by p e ious dic a o s and ci il go e no s who ha e
p omo ed he idea o de ending eligion h ough iolence, i is equi alen o places a boun y
on someone’s head. This he o ic no only inci es ea bu also legi imizes ac s o iolence
agains hose deemed o ha e s ayed om he ai h.
The immedia e ma e ial consequences o such he o ic mani es in iolen supp ession:
du ing he No embe 2024 p o es s in Islamabad, mili a y o ces deployed snipe s on oo ops
and used li e ammuni ion agains una med ci ilians, who we e p o es ing agains he egime.
This esul ed in mul iple dea hs. Be ween 2018 and 2023, o e 2,000 cases o en o ced
disappea ances we e epo ed, wi h jou nalis s, ac i is s, and social media c i ics pa icula ly
a ge ed (Pakis an P ess Founda ion, 2024). This is he same s a egy employed by Zia, who
implemen ed policies ha ad anced eligious ideologies in such a way ha supp essing
dissen e s no only ecei ed legal p o ec ion bu also gained socie al accep ance. Indi iduals
who engaged in ep ession we e o en iewed as de ende s o eligion and socie y,
sa egua ding agains hose pe cei ed as mo ally co up . This allowed o a cul u e o
in ole ance and iolence o lou ish unde he guise o igh eousness.
The a ec shaping ex ends beyond di ec iolence in o he ealm o digi al su eillance
and eligious egula ion. When Pakis ani ci izens a emp ed o ci cum en social media
es ic ions h ough Vi ual P i a e Ne wo ks (VPNs), Muni o ches a ed eligious
legi ima ion o digi al con ol. The Pakis an Sha ia Council’s subsequen a wa ( eligious
dec ee o uling ) decla ing VPN usage “un-Islamic” demons a es how a ec i e a angemen s
ope a e h ough mul iple ins i u ional laye s, c ea ing en i onmen s whe e echnological
esis ance becomes equa ed wi h eligious ansg ession. These mechanisms o con ol ope a e
wi hin wha we migh e m an “a ec i e ecology o ea ,” whe e eligious au ho i y, s a e
iolence, and social con ol in e wea e o c ea e sel - ein o cing sys ems o opp ession
(Massumi, 2015; Slaby, 2019). The ou come is a social s uc u e in which challenging au ho i y
becomes no jus haza dous bu also a sac ilege, he eby es ablishing signi ican psychological
obs acles o esis ance ha su pass me e poli ical epida ion.
VI. A ec i e A angemen s as P edic o s o Socie al Di ec ion
Socie ies do no d i in o ascism o au ho i a ianism ab up ly; hey a e se a ec i e jou neys
shaped by me iculously c a ed en i onmen s ha manipula e emo ions and sus ain hie a chies
o con ol. In Pakis an, decades o au ho i a ian ule ha e been masked unde he guise o
eligious mo ali y and bols e ed h ough ca e ully designed a ec i e a angemen s. These
34
a angemen s ely on ea , e e ence, and obedience as a ec i e agen s o egula e indi iduals’
emo ional landscapes and embed pa e ns o submission as no mal and i uous. This sys em
unc ions a mul iple le els: mino i ies and women occupy he base o pa ia chal hie a chies,
con olled by male membe s o socie y, who in u n a e subjuga ed by poli ical eli es, and
ul ima ely, hese eli es submi o he o e a ching au ho i y o Pakis an’s A my, whose powe
is amed as di inely sanc ioned. Such hie a chical con igu a ions a e con inually en o ced
h ough he i ualized in oca ion o eligion as an unques ionable mo al shield, p o iding wha
Foucaul (1980) concep ualizes as “ echnologies o domina ion” ha ans o m powe in o
some hing socially in e nalized and no ma i ely accep ed.
The deep en enchmen o such a ec i e sys ems explains why Pakis anis ha e
his o ically ole a ed au ho i a ian mili a ism wi h s iking ease. Since independence in 1947,
Pakis an has spen nea ly ou decades unde ma ial law, wi h only one democ a ically elec ed
go e nmen managing o comple e i s e m in o ice. This accep ance is oo ed in a ec i e
condi ioning ha begins in childhood. Socie al no ms each unques ioning e e ence o
au ho i y, whe he eligious, pa en al, o ins i u ional, ins illing a cul u e ha con la es
obedience wi h mo al pie y. The e usal o ques ion eligious au ho i y, en o ced in schools and
social in e ac ions, becomes a ounda ional a ec i e habi , which la e ex ends o poli ical and
mili a y au ho i y. Ul ima ely, hese a ec i e a angemen s p oduce a popula ion ha is no
only condi ioned o endu e au ho i a ianism bu ac i ely de ends i when amed as necessa y
o na ional o eligious secu i y (e.g., Ahmed, 2014; Slaby, 2019).
Li ing ou side Pakis an, I, like o he s who ha e expe ienced his a ec i e sys em
i s hand, ha e had he a e oppo uni y o c i ically obse e i s wo kings om a dis ance.
Si ua ed in con ex s less hegemonized by eligious he o ic, one begins o ecognize ha he
ajec o y o a socie y is o en pe cep ible long be o e i s a i al a a de ini i e s a e. The
amewo k o si ua ed a ec i i y, which e eals how emo ions and hough p ocesses a e no
jus p i a e bu s uc u ed by socioma e ial en i onmen s, o e s p o ound insigh s he e. By
s udying he a ec i e a angemen s o a socie y, one can ace he emo ional sca olding, i.e.
ea , e e ence, obedience, ha p edic s whe he he socie y is heading owa d
au ho i a ianism, eligious ascism, o a mo e libe al di ec ion. Fo example, he
in e gene a ional inculca ion o unques ioned obedience in Pakis an, coupled wi h he
glo i ica ion o eligious au ho i y, ope a es as a eedback loop ein o cing he popula ion's
emo ional disposi ion owa d accep ance, e en celeb a ion, o au oc a ic powe .
This p edic i e po en ial o a ec i e a angemen s highligh s hei p ac ical ele ance
beyond philosophical abs ac ion. By analyzing how no ms and alues a e socially embedded,
35
sus ained by ma e ial p ac ices (such as laws o educa ional cu icula) and symbolic i uals
(like he in oca ion o Qu anic e ses), one can iden i y pa e ns ha indica e whe he a socie y
is p og essing owa d g ea e inclusi i y o deepe exclusion. Fo Pakis an, his lens e eals a
chilling eali y: he na ion’s a ec i e jou ney o e decades has sys ema ically mo ed owa d
eligious ascism. The manipula ion o eligious sen imen o jus i y b u ali y and con ol,
whe he h ough mili a y coups, censo ship, o a ge ed iolence, has become mo e han a
pa e n; i is he ab ic o socie al expe ience. Each gene a ion, shaped wi hin his sys em,
inhe i s no only he no ms bu also he a ec i e con igu a ions ha make opp ession seem
ine i able and esis ance appea illegi ima e.
Ul ima ely, he s udy o a ec i e a angemen s, pa icula ly in he con ex o
hie a chical and au ho i a ian socie ies like Pakis an, shows us ha he ajec o y o a na ion is
nei he acciden al no unp edic able. Fo hose o us who ha e escaped hese en i onmen s,
his dis ance o e s cla i y and a lens h ough which o c i ique wha once seemed no mal. The
a ec i e shaping o a na ion is i s emo ional his o y, i s joys, ea s, e e ences, and b u ali ies,
and wi hin ha his o y lies he key o unde s anding i s collec i e u u e. In Pakis an’s case,
unless hese a ec i e a angemen s a e disman led, u u e gene a ions will emain caugh in a
loop o escala ing eligiosi y en wined wi h au ho i a ian ule, obli ious o hei own complici y
in ep oducing hese opp essi e sys ems.
VII: Si ua ed A ec i i y, Socie y, and Ex emism
The case o Pakis an, discussed he e, o e s a powe ul example o how he lens o si ua ed
a ec i i y can p o ide nuanced insigh s in o he ole o emo ions and a ec s in shaping socie al
no ms, adicaliza ion, and ex emism. Th ough his lens, we see how policies oo ed in
eligious in ole ance no only no malized ac s o iolence agains mino i ies bu also
pe pe ua ed a na ionalis and so-called “jihadi” na a i e cons uc ed by he uling eli es. These
na a i es we e no simply byp oduc s o domes ic go e nance bu delibe a e ools used o
consolida e powe and achie e poli ical goals. In Pakis an’s case, eligious zeal and in ole ance
we e sys emically cul i a ed o se e as a mo al amewo k o policies like Zia-ul-Haq’s
Islamiza ion, embedding ideas o eligious and cul u al supe io i y in o he na ional psyche.
Religious in ole ance, along wi h s a e-app o ed eligious he o ic, e ec i ely pushed he
majo i y popula ion owa d ideological con o mi y and aligned hem wi h he uling eli e’s
objec i es.
These dynamics we e u he ueled by he geopoli ical alliance be ween he Uni ed
S a es and Pakis an du ing he A ghan-So ie con lic , which ac i ely p omo ed mili a ized
36
eligiosi y. By po aying jihad as no only a mo al du y bu a eligious obliga ion, he U.S. and
Pakis an encou aged he adicaliza ion o indi iduals and no malized mili an ideologies,
which we e sus ained by igid a ec i e a angemen s ein o ced in educa ional sys ems,
mosques, and media campaigns. While hese e o s achie ed hei immedia e goal o
coun e ing So ie expansion in A ghanis an, hey also had ca as ophic long- e m
consequences: he ise o domes ic e o ism in Pakis an i sel . G oups like Teh ik-i-Taliban
Pakis an (TTP), which ca ied ou elen less iolence in he name o eligion, eme ged as
p oduc s o he same a ec i e and ideological machine y ha had once jus i ied mili ancy in
A ghanis an. This shows how he delibe a e manipula ion o collec i e emo ions can spi al ou
o con ol, c ea ing en i onmen s whe e ex emism h i es no only ab oad bu also
domes ically.
We see how he manipula ion o collec i e emo ions h ough s a e policies has
no malized iolence unde he guise o eligion, leading o a socie y whe e ex emis ac s a e
pe pe ua ed and jus i ied. Religious na a i es en o ced h ough media, educa ion, and public
he o ic c ea e an en i onmen in which in ole ance becomes embedded wi hin he cul u al
ab ic, enabling ac s o iolence o be iewed as mo ally accep able. This widesp ead
indoc ina ion, oo ed in he policies o Zia-ul-Haq and u he ueled by he U.S.-Pakis an
alliance du ing he A ghan-So ie wa , highligh s how delibe a e a ec i e a angemen s shape
socie al alues and align hem wi h ideological goals.
VIII. A B ie O e iew o Upcoming Chap e s
The ollowing chap e s o m he ounda ion o his disse a ion, each con ibu ing o a deepe
unde s anding o how emo ions shape pa hways o ex emism and adicaliza ion. Chap e s 2,
3, and 5 we e o iginally published as s andalone pee - e iewed a icles in academic jou nals,
while Chap e 4 has been submi ed o e iew as a book chap e in he 7- olume se ies by
Ox o d Uni e si y P ess, i led "Ex eme Belie and Beha io Se ies". Toge he , hese chap e s
in eg a e seamlessly o build a comp ehensi e explo a ion o he a ec i e dimensions o
adicaliza ion and ex emism.
This disse a ion aims o ad ance ou unde s anding o he a ec i e p ocesses in
adicaliza ion and ex emism cases by employing he amewo k o si ua ed a ec i i y, which
o e s esh insigh s in o how indi idual and collec i e emo ions a e manipula ed o uel
ex emis belie s and beha io s. The in-dep h examina ion o a ec i e manipula ion no only
p o ides a be e unde s anding o indi idual adicaliza ion jou neys bu also highligh s how
poli ical and eligious eli es c a a ec i e a angemen s a a socie al le el o cons uc
37
na a i es and guide popula ions owa d speci ic ideological di ec ions. In his way, he
amewo k o si ua ed a ec i i y se es as a powe ul ool o in es iga e he ole o emo ions
and a ec s in bo h indi idual and collec i e adicaliza ion, while also unco e ing he
unde lying poli ical and social mechanisms ha pe pe ua e ex emism. As we con inue in he
ollowing chap e s, his lens will allow us o explo e no only he inne wo kings o ex emis
g oups bu also how a ec i e dynamics in e sec wi h b oade sociopoli ical s uc u es o shape
adical ideologies.
Chap e 2 ad ances si ua ed a ec i i y as a heo e ical amewo k o unde s anding
he complex a ec i e p ocesses o adicaliza ion and ex emism. The chap e ocuses on bo h
indi idual and o ganiza ional le els o adicaliza ion. On he indi idual le el, we examine how
ce ain a ec i e expe iences such as ulne abili y, aliena ion, and ange can c ea e openings
o ex emis ideologies o ake hold, in luencing indi iduals o join adical g oups o emb ace
lone-ac o ex emism. On he o ganiza ional side, we analyze how g oups like ISIS, he
Taliban, and Al-Qaeda s a egically manipula e emo ions o ec ui and e ain membe s. These
ex emis o ganiza ions c ea e powe ul a ec i e pla o ms whe e eelings o belonging, p ide,
and e en lo e a e weaponized o d aw ulne able indi iduals in o hei ideolog. The heo e ical
ounda ion es s on h ee key concep ual elemen s:
a) A ec i e Sca olding: How ex e nal en i onmen s and s uc u es suppo and sus ain
emo ions ha p edispose indi iduals o ex emis ideologies.
b) Mind In asion: How ex emis na a i es in il a e indi idual consciousness, c ea ing
deep emo ional en anglemen wi h adical wo ld iews
c) Sel -S imula o y Loops o A ec i i y (SSLA): How emo ional cycles a e pe pe ua ed
and ein o ced wi hin ex emis en i onmen s, keeping indi iduals a ached o he
ideology o e ime.
Th ough hese h ee concep s, he chap e a gues, how adical ideologies pene a e indi idual
consciousness h ough emo ional pa hways and how hese emo ional bonds pe sis o e ime.
The analysis p o es pa icula ly inno a i e in e ealing he delibe a e s uc u ing o ex emis
en i onmen s o os e emo ional a achmen , and he subsequen imme sion o indi iduals
wi hin hese a ec i e se ings. By examining adicaliza ion h ough bo h o ganiza ional and
pe sonal pe spec i es, he chap e cons uc s a comp ehensi e unde s anding o how emo ional
and en i onmen al ac o s in e ac in he adicaliza ion p ocess.
Building upon he ounda ional amewo k o si ua ed a ec i i y in oduced in Chap e
2, Chap e 3 expands on his app oach by ocusing on he concep o a ec i e a angemen s.

38
The chap e explo es how hese a angemen s ope a e ac oss mul iple scales, by employing
case s udies o bo h lone ac o s and g oup-a ilia ed ex emis s. This analysis demons a es how
emo ions and a ec s a e s a egically manipula ed o sus ain adical ideologies and acili a e
iolence.
The chap e c i ically examines h ee ex emis case s udies. B en on Ta an se es as
he case s udy o lone ac o ex emism, wi h his mani es o and weapon insc ip ions showing
how digi al spaces and objec s unc ion as a ec i e sca olds o whi e sup emacis ideologies.
In con as , Hoda Mu hana and Ibn-e-Uma ep esen g oup-a ilia ed ex emism. These la e
cases explo e how adicaliza ion jou neys a e shaped h ough pe sonalized a ec i e bonds and
how collec i e a ec i e a angemen s a e weaponized o indoc ina e and con ol indi iduals
wi hin ex emis g oup se ings.
Th ough hese di e se cases, Chap e 3 unde sco es he signi icance o a ec i e
a angemen s, he dynamic in e play o spaces, objec s, discou ses, and beha io s, in shaping
pa hways o ex emism. I b idges indi idual mo i a ions wi h b oade socie al dynamics,
demons a ing how a ec i i y unc ions as bo h a pe sonal and s uc u al o ce wi hin
adicaliza ion p ocesses, helping o unco e he emo ional unde pinnings o seemingly
incomp ehensible ac ions like commi ing e o , emb acing iolence, o sac i icing one's li e
o a cause.
Building on he mul i-scala explo a ion o ex emism in Chap e 3, chap e 4 in eg a es
si ua ed a ec i i y wi h c i ical phenomenology o in es iga e he ole o es o a i e nos algia
and eligious- acial passions in sus aining ex emis commi men . Re isi ing he case o
B en on Ta an , he chap e unpacks how a yea ning o an idealized pas , coupled wi h in ense
emo ional de o ion, gene a es a ec i e economies ha ampli y ex emis ideologies.
Res o a i e nos algia, wi h i s longing o absolu e u h and adi ion, is shown o in e sec
wi h e en zealo y, c ea ing an emo ional landscape ha alida es and sus ains ac s o
iolence.
This chap e highligh s how ma e ial a i ac s, digi al pla o ms, and ideological
na a i es ope a e as a ec i e sca olds, enabling hese emo ions o h i e wi hin ex emis
se ings. Th ough he lens o c i ical phenomenology, he li ed expe ience and subjec i e
s uc u e o hese in ense a ec s a e examined in dep h, e ealing how posi i e emo ional
s a es, such as nos algia and passion can be cen al o ex emis engagemen . By acing he
in e play be ween hese powe ul emo ions and hei socio-poli ical con ex s, his analysis
o e s esh insigh s in o how ex emis s use such a ec i e dimensions o jus i y iolence and
sus ain ideological commi men .
39
Chap e 5 shi s he analy ical lens om indi idual-le el pa hways o he b oade
socie al dynamics ha uel adicaliza ion, o e ing a c i ical in e oga ion o commonly held
coun e - e o ism app oaches. I challenges he o e - eliance on indi idual p o iling and a gues
ins ead o a mo e nuanced unde s anding o how sys emic disc imina ion and ma ginaliza ion
c ea e a ec i e en i onmen s conduci e o ex emism. By examining pos -9/11 go e nmen al
policies and he pe asi e Islamophobia in Wes e n con ex s, he chap e e eals how
ins i u ional acism and social auma shape he emo ional ajec o ies o ma ginalized
communi ies. Using Ahmed’s concep o “phenomenology o whi eness,” i exposes how
s uc u al inequi ies, and exclusiona y p ac ices c ea e a ec i e condi ions like shame,
humilia ion, and aliena ion, ha push indi iduals owa d adical ideologies.
The chap e u he c i iques he media’s ole in cons uc ing na ow e o ism
na a i es ha o e look he socio-poli ical unde pinnings o ex emism. Th ough in e iews
wi h ISIS ec ui s, he analysis highligh s he in e play be ween socie al “push” ac o s and
ex emis ec ui men s a egies, illus a ing how collec i e auma is weaponized o sus ain
adical engagemen . The discussion emphasizes how social s uc u es o ches a e emo ional
dynamics, ei he pe pe ua ing iolence o os e ing esilience. As he inal con ibu ion o his
disse a ion, i si ua es ex emism wi hin a wide a ec i e ecosys em, demons a ing he u gen
need o add ess hese mac o-le el dynamics o dis up cycles o adicaliza ion e ec i ely.
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48
2018). They a e usually combined wi h mo al ou age and eelings o e enge (e.g., McCauley
& Moskalenko, 2008; Sageman, 2008; Schmid, 2013). Radical g oups make use o he ac o s
men ioned abo e o hei ad an age in o de o in luence hei ollowe s o build an a ec i e
bond wi h he g oup and i s ideology, which esul s in mobilizing he ec ui s o ac ex emely
and iolen ly.
In sociology, Social Mo emen Theo y (SMT) is an impo an heo e ical amewo k
which is applied o explain adicaliza ion. SMT ocuses on b oade dynamics and p ocesses o
poli ical mobiliza ion leading o adicaliza ion, in which indi iduals and g oups a e d i en by
poli ical goals and a ional agen s (e.g., Della Po a, 1992; Wik o owicz, 2005; Dalgaa d-
Nielsen, 2008; an S ekelenbu g & Klande mans, 2010; Beck & Schoon, 2018). Social
mo emen heo y, in he con ex o p o es e en s and campaigns, explain he oles o emo ions,
which can be gene ally applied o adicaliza ion and p o ides an impo an con ibu ion o
unde s anding emo ions in adicaliza ion. O ganiza ions and social mo emen s speci ically
a ouse and use mul iple emo ions in social ne wo ks ha play a key ole in enabling o
inhibi ing mobiliza ion o hei causes and also sus ain a commi men o a cause (e.g., Lo land
& S a k, 1965; Khawaja, 1993; Neps ad, 2004; Benski, 2010; Jaspe & Owens, 2014; Van Ness
& Summe s-E le , 2018).
We ag ee wi h se e al o he a o emen ioned app oaches ha emo ions play an
impo an ole in adicaliza ion. In pa icula , hey a e key elemen s in es ablishing a dynamic
a ec i e bonding be ween a adical g oup and i s ollowe s. I is ou goal o be e unde s and
how adical g oups use a a ie y o ex e nal ools o a ac new membe s, e ain hem, and
di ec hem o iolen ac ions. To do so we will apply he amewo k o si ua ed cogni ion and
a ec i i y (see nex sec ion) which is a ecen de elopmen in cogni i e science. In con as o
olde (in e nal) app oaches o he human mind i explici ly comp ises en i onmen al ac o s as
key componen s o (cogni i e and) a ec i e p ocesses. When we ocus on he i al ole
a ec i i y plays in he p ocess o adicaliza ion, we do his wi hou downplaying o he ac o s
ha d i e ec ui men s, such as he psychological, social and poli ical ac o s men ioned abo e.
Bu we ake i as deside a um o in es iga e pa icula ly he emo ional bond be ween
adicalized pe sons and he g oups hey belong o, o in es iga e how such a ec i e bonds
be ween ec ui s and adical o ganiza ions de elop and how his suppo s adicaliza ion, which

49
migh p o e o be help ul o de eloping coun e adicaliza ion measu es.11 Ou analysis will
help o unde s and bo h how adical g oups use emo ions o in luence people and wha kind o
emo ional ulne abili y and ecep i i y makes a pe son eady o join a adical g oup and s ay
commi ed o i . In ha sense, he a ec i e bonds ha adical g oups de elop wi h hei ec ui s
can be accoun ed o om wo main pe spec i es, ha is, an o ganiza ional pe spec i e, and a
pe sonal pe spec i e.
F om he o ganiza ional pe spec i e, adical o ganiza ions s uc u e hemsel es o
p o ide a ec i e and social pla o ms o young indi iduals o connec wi h he o ganiza ion
and i s ideology. Such o ganiza ions p o ide hei ec ui s wi h a well-de eloped s uc u e and
sys em, which acili a e hem o gene a e posi i e eelings such as s eng h, us , p ide, and
belongingness wi hin he g oup, and o gene a e nega i e eelings such as ha e, ange , and
disgus owa ds an ou g oup, o men ion he impo an ones.
F om he pe sonal pe spec i e, a ec ui joining he o ganiza ion de elops an a ec i e
bonding wi h he o ganiza ion i sel . The mo e ha he ec ui s a e exposed o he ideology and
objec i es o he adical g oup, and he mo e hey s a ela ing o i , he mo e hei emo ions
de elop in line wi h he goals o he g oup. The same holds ue o aining i uals and o he
ac i i ies wi hin an o ganiza ion, which gi es a u he boos o he a ec i e bonding. This
bond keeps he ec ui in a speci ic and long-las ing a ec i e s a e, which leads hem owa ds
a deepe in ol emen in ha o ganiza ion.
In con as o al eady es ablished iews ha mainly add ess nega i e emo ions such as
humilia ion, ea , ha e, ange , guil , con emp , and disgus (e.g., Lindne , 2001; Ba -Tal e al.,
2007; W igh -Ne ille & Smi h, 2009; Feddes, Mann & Doosje, 2012; Baele, S e ck, & Meu ,
2014; Ma sumo o, F ank & Hwang, 2015; Baele, 2017; an S ekelenbu g, 2017), we would
like o also s ess he impo ance o posi i e emo ions, which in combina ion wi h nega i e
emo ions play a i al ole in pa ing he pa h o adicaliza ion. A adical o ganiza ion in i s
ideology p o ides i s ollowe s wi h a ious posi i e emo ions such as hope o a be e u u e,
p ide o belonging o a ce ain g oup o eligion, eeling o powe as being membe o a s ong
and ea ed g oup, and lo e o he adical ideology and hose who ollow i , os e ing a sense
o b o he hood among he membe s o he g oup. These posi i e emo ions se e as s ong pull-
ac o s in ec ui men . The manipula ion o emo ions in di e en combina ions, including bo h
11
This mo e inds backing also by esea ch in indus ial-o ganiza ional psychology, whe e esea che s ha e
ound ha a ec i e commi men , which is he s onges ype o bonding, suppo s an endu ing a achmen o a
company (Allen & Meye , 1990; Me cu io, 2015).
50
he posi i e and he nega i e, by adical g oups di ec he hough s and ac ions o ollowe s and
ec ui s. The e o e, lo e o he adical g oup and ha e o he ou g oup goes side by side (e.g.,
B ewe , 1999). I we look a he case s udies o adicalized indi iduals, posi i e emo ions a e
also a wo k and may e en occu be o e he ise o nega i e emo ions which lead owa ds
iolen ac ions.
Fo example, a o me igh e o ISIS named Younes (Michael) Dele o ie came back
o Belgium om Sy ia. Acco ding o a epo on a se ies o in e iews wi h adicalized
indi iduals by Speckha d, Shajko ci and Yayla (2018), Dele o ie was aised by an alcoholic
and iolen mo he . He was in oduced o Islam by second-gene a ion Mo occans se led in
Belgium, ha ing s ong amily ies. Dele o ie el i appealing ha he eligion bans alcohol.
He la e joined a adical Sala i o ganiza ion named ‘Sha ia o Belgium,’ whe e he el
encou aged o unde ake comple e Sala i li es yle, including ha o Jihad. E en ually he
a elled o Sy ia in 2013 o p ac ice Islam. Howe e , he e u ned o Belgium a e spending
i e weeks in Sy ia o escape ba leg ound and euni e wi h his wi e. A e he e u n, he el
disillusioned wi h his oubled li e in Belgium and exp essed his desi e o e u n o Sy ia in his
in e iew wi h he au ho s. Dele o ie idealized he ISIS ‘Calipha e’ and hoped o i o ex end
o B ussels (Yayla & Speckha d, 2016; Speckha d, Shajko ci, & Yayla, 2018). His case
illus a es how adical g oups a e success ul in ins illing hope, p ide and ing oup lo e in hei
ollowe s in he i s place, and c ea ing a s ong a ec i e bonding wi h hei ec ui s by
p o iding a ec i e suppo which was no a ailable in o he socie ies.
Be o e we s a analyzing he ec ui men and e en ion s a egies o adical g oups,
mainly he ISIS and he Taliban, and how membe s bond o hem, we in oduce he heo e ical
amewo k o si ua ed a ec i i y, in pa icula he no ions o a ec i e sca olding, mind
in asion, and sel -s imula o y loops o a ec i i y. These h ee no ions help us o unde s and
how en i onmen al s uc u es e ec emo ions in gene al, and, in pa icula , hey highligh he
a ec i e se ings in ended by ec ui ing o ganiza ions, and also he imme si e in luence hese
se ings ha e on he indi iduals.
SITUATED AFFECTIVITY AND AFFECTIVE SCAFFOLDING
In o de o unde s and he in luence o en i onmen al s uc u es on indi iduals and hei
ecip ocal in luence, philosophical accoun s which a e ex apola ions o so-called ‘si ua ed’
cogni ion (Wal e , 2014) o e a p omising amewo k. The cen al hesis o si ua ed cogni ion
is ha cogni i e p ocessing is no solely an in ac anial a ai , bu ha i can be, and o en is,
suppo ed by ex ac anial ‘ ools’ which ease and simpli y cogni i e asks. These ools can be,
51
o example, he mo phological and physiological cha ac e is ics o ou body (embodied
cogni ion), bu also ou embodied in e ac ions wi h an app op ia ely s uc u ed na u al,
echnological o social en i onmen (embedded o ex ended cogni ion). Du ing ecen yea s,
esea che s ha e expanded he deba e abou si ua ed cogni ion o he a ec i e domain o
in es iga e o wha ex en ex abodily ac o s con ibu e o ou a ec i e li e— hough no in he
i ial sense ha mos o ou emo ions a e igge ed by en i onmen al s imuli in a ce ain
con ex (e.g., G i i hs & Sca an ino, 2009; Colombe i, 2014; K uege , 2014; S ephan, Wal e ,
& Wilu zky, 2014; Colombe i & K uege , 2015, Colombe i & Robe s, 2015, Wilu zky, 2015;
Slaby, 2016).
The idea o en i onmen al sca olding,12 which can be aced back o he wo k o Le
Vygo sky, was ein oduced by Andy Cla k o comp ise as sca olds all so s o en i onmen al
s uc u es ha can be used o enabling o acili a ing ce ain cogni i e asks (Cla k, 1997). In
his b oad sense, i also applies o a ious a ec i e p ocesses. We will p incipally dis inguish
wo di e en , albei in e connec ed, ypes o a ec i e sca olding—ways in which ou
a ec i e li e is essen ially a ma e o mo e o less in ima e dependencies and
in e dependencies be ween us and ou na u al, echnological, and social en i onmen . The i s
ype a e so-called use - esou ce in e ac ions; hey ha e been in he cen e o a en ion in he
ea ly con ibu ions o si ua ed a ec i i y, he second ype is so-called mind in asion (c .
S ephan and Wal e 2020, §§ 3 and 4), which en e ed philosophy o emo ions a he ecen ly,
whe eas social psychologis s s udied such phenomena unde di e en e minology be o e (e.g.,
Pa kinson 1995).
Among he use - esou ce in e ac ions, we dis inguish cases
(a) wi h unidi ec ional ma e ial ools o emo ing, which a e used when we exploi
en i onmen al esou ces in o de o egula e ou a ec i e li e (e.g., isi places ha mean
some hing o us, choose music, u nish ou apa men )—a s ong and ela i ely pe manen
example would be he decision o li e in a calipha e,
12
Fo hose al eady amilia wi h he amewo k o si ua ed cogni ion and a ec i i y, i migh su ice o say ha
we use he e m „a ec i e sca olding“ ins ead o “embedded” and “ex ended a ec i i y”, he dis inc ion o which
we no longe ake o be p omising in empi ical con ex s (c . S ephan 2018; S ephan and Wal e 2020). Ou mo e
is also suppo ed by Kim S e elny’s claim ha he mos plausible cases o he ex ended mind hypo hesis a e
me ely “limi ing special cases o sca olded minds,” hus dep i ing he ex ended mind pa adigm o i s heu is ic
po en ial, since i “obscu es a he han highligh s bo h he con inui ies and he di e ences amongs ex e nal
esou ces and hei con ibu ions o cogni i e compe ence” (S e elny 2010, p. 473).
52
(b) wi h s ongly coupled and in eg a ed ma e ial ools o emo ing, which a e used
o enac some kind o sel -s imula ing ac i i y ha has been se in place and main ained o e
ime in o de o mo e in o a ce ain emo ional p ocess (e.g., a deeply mou ning musician whose
playing se s up a mu ually cons aining cycle o a ec i e esponding and exp ession)—many
ac i i ies aken by membe s o adical g oups a o d such kinds o sel -s imula o y a ec i e
loops (e.g., lis ening o nasheeds, a o m o ocal music ha is used o enhance ha e owa ds
an ou g oup, imme sing in social media suppo ing ex eme ideology, engaging in aining
i uals and lea ning he use o weapons),
(c) wi h ansien ly coupled social ools o emo ing, which a e used when ac o s
choose o he people as ‘ ools’ o li ing ou o egula ing hei emo ions (e.g., agg esso s who
p o oke o he s o en e in o a igh , con esso s who aim a elie ing hei so ows h ough
in e ac ion wi h a p ies )— he li e o adicals o e s se e al occasions o such a ype (e.g.,
aking conque ed women as sex sla es, gi ing young ec ui s an ou le o agg essi e impulses
by allowing hem o punish p isone s),
(d) a ec i i y ins an ia ed by s ongly coupled social sys ems, when hey enac
ce ain ypes o emo ional dynamics o e and o e again (e.g., old couples enac ing cycles o
mu ual soo hing and lo ing, o cycles o one pa ne sulking, he o he ying o econcile)—
s ong social couplings de elop bo h in e nally among membe s o adical g oups and
ex e nally ia social media be ween membe s o adical g oups and ollowe s ab oad,
(e) wi h coupled social ools o changing he emo ional mind-se , whe e someone
is in en ionally looking o ano he pe son as a ‘ ool’ o modi ying he li e and mood in o de
o ans o m he a ec i e esponse epe oi e in gene al (e.g., seeking a psycho he apis o
wo k wi h)—when, o example, someone explici ly olun ee s a adical g oup o ge
o ien a ion o changing his o he mind and li e.
The a ious ypes o use - esou ce in e ac ions, which in he case o adicaliza ion
suppo he a ec i e bonding be ween a g oup and i s membe s, p esen co esponding
ins an ia ions o he pe sonal pe spec i e. O en i is he g oup ha p o ides a a ie y o
possibili ies o looping e ec s ha enhance he a ec i e bonding o membe s o hei g oups
h ough s ong social couplings. In ha sense he g oups pe o m a ious so s o mind
in asion.
53
Among he cases o mind in asion, we dis inguish13
( ) a ec i e encul u a ion h ough s ongly coupled social sys ems, which a ec s
all human being in ea ly and la e li e spans wi h pa icula beha io s yles, g oup no ms and
emo ion egimes (e.g., in ea ly childhood, pee g oups, companies)— his holds ue o
e e ybody who joins a adical g oup, and pa icula ly o hei child en,
(g) a ec i e ans o ma ion h ough social media by p o iding possibili ies o
in e ac and keep in ouch o e long dis ances, bu also by sp eading ha e speeches wi h all
hei consequences, o allowing c iminal exchanges in he da kne —social media play an
impo an ole in he ec ui men o new membe s om ab oad, and in di ec ing speci ic
ac i i ies including he building o bombs; hey also o e lone ac o s acili ies o de elop
dynamic ela ionships wi h o he adicals,
(h) ools o manipula ing people, which a e delibe a ely launched in o de o
diach onically modi y he a i udes and he emo ional se up o he membe s o a a ge g oup
(e.g., ad e ising, poli ical campaigns,)— ec ui men and e ainmen o people o ex emis
g oups.
In pa icula , ype (h), which co esponds o he o ganiza ional pe spec i e, will be
ele an o ou analysis o he a ec i e sca olds p o ided by adical g oups. Whe eas some
e y s ong ins an ia ions o (h) migh esul in wha is also known as b ain washing, no all
ypes o mind in asion a e such cases, no e en all (h)-cases. As long as he human acul y o
c i ical hinking and dis ancing om ce ain posi ions is no endange ed o unde mined, we
should no ea all kinds o mind in asion as kinds o b ain washing. E en i some ac i i ies
o adical g oups can be ea ed as cases o b ain washing, i does no ollow ha all kinds o
mind in asion hey p o ide a e ins an ia ions o b ain washing; in many in e ac ions wi h he
g oup we can ind olun ee ing aspec s on he side o he membe s.
We now in oduce he no ion o mind in asion in mo e de ail by i s ollowing Slaby,
who coined he e m, and hen use his pe spec i e o p esen wha ex emis g oups p o ide o
in ade he mind o ec ui s and membe s.14 He ea e , we o e se e al ools ha a e used as
a ec i e sca olds by he ex emis g oups o success ully in ade he mind o hei a ge s.
13
Fea u e (g) a ec i e ans o ma ion h ough social media is no independen om ea u es ( ) and (h); i can be
pa o a ec i e encul u a ion and i can be used o manipula ing people; we in oduce i he e as a sepa a e ea u e
o analy ical easons.
14
Fo hose coming om si ua ed a ec i i y he concep o mind in asion is use ul, because i shi s he
a en ion away om he use / esou ce model and i ocuses ins ead on how he use can be “used” (o
“in aded”) by he esou ce (o sca old). On he o he hand, schola s coming om sociology o psychology

54
MIND INVASION IN RADICALISATION
Slaby (2016) illus a es he concep o ‘Mind In asion’ wi h he example o an in e n a he
new wo kplace. She has o lea n a lo abou he ac i i ies in he new wo k en i onmen , how
he colleagues in e ac on di e en wo k- ela ed hie a chies, and how hey add ess each o he .
She lea ns how showing ce ain cha ac e is ics in he wo kplace bene i s he , and how
exhibi ing o he cha ac e is ics does no . She e en ually habi ua es he sel o become a
p o essional in he ield and p og esses o become a ull- ime employee whe e she adhe es o
he wo kplace cul u e in a mo e na u al manne . Some hing which migh ha e el alien when
she i s joined he o ganiza ion now eels na u al o he : o example, he long hou s a wo k,
con inually s aying online, answe ing e-mails e en a e o ice hou s, eeling anxie y o alling
behind on wo k- ela ed communica ions e en ou side he o ice hou s, he ways in which one
is expec ed o show en husiasm and eage ness o he wo k, e c. The o ganiza ion, as Slaby
e ms i , ‘hacks he mind’ o he new employee, o he ex en ha she will come o eel as a pa
o he o ganiza ion. He habi s and ambi ions me ge wi h, and change, acco ding o he
o ganiza ion’s objec i es.15
Acco ding o Slaby (2016), o ganiza ions s uc u e hemsel es in a way ha in luences
he a ec i e se up o he indi iduals wo king wi hin i ; some o ganiza ions do his
in en ionally, while o he s c ea e his a ec i e en i onmen acciden ally. Humans who a e
inclined o hink ha hey a e in p e y good con ol o hei a ec i e li e can, he e o e, easily
unde es ima e he powe o he en i onmen on hei emo ional epe oi e. As i becomes
e iden om he examples Slaby p esen s, indi iduals wo king wi hin an o ganiza ional se up
can ha e hei subjec i i y hacked h ough he in asion o hei minds by he s uc u ing o he
o ganiza ion.
Fo he con ex o adicaliza ion, i is impo an o no e ha en i onmen al s uc u es
can be shaped by adical o ganiza ions (as ools o mind in asion), o g adually ans o m he
a i udes and he emo ional esponses o a a ge g oup. Acco dingly, ia social media adical
g oups a ac ollowe s and in luence he mindse o indi iduals (by (g)), o no only join he
(who he e o e a e amilia wi h concep s such as encul u a ion) bene i om mind in asion, because his
concep co ec ly ames he en i onmen as some hing made o sca olds and niches.
15
Al hough wha Slaby in oduces he e as mind in asion, is o en e e ed o as ‘company socializa ion’ in
indus ial-o ganiza ional psychology (Coope -Thomas and Ande son, 2006), he e m ‘company socializa ion’
could no easily be ex apola ed o co e cases o ec ui men and e ainmen as o ganized by adical g oups.
55
g oup bu also o be d awn o hei mo e ex eme and adical ideas. In ha sense, mind in asion
acili a es wha is desc ibed as Iden i y Fusion (Swann, Gómez, Seyle, Mo ales, & Huici, 2009;
Pa edes, B iñol, & Gómez, 2018), he phenomenon o an indi idual eeling ‘ used’ o ‘one’
wi h a g oup, and i plays a majo ole in he s uc u ing o ec ui men and e en ion s a egies
o adical g oups. One o such ec ui men s a egies is called he unnel (Ge weh & Daly,
2006). As he e m indica es, po en ial ec ui s a e unneled h ough a ca e ully s uc u ed
ans o ma i e p ocess (see (e) and (h) abo e). They eme ge om he p ocess as dedica ed
membe s o he adical g oup. This ca e ully s uc u ed and in ended p ocess consis s o using
he iden i y (Swann e al., 2009) o he ec ui wi h he adical g oup, hazing i uals,
commi men o he adical ideology, and suppo o achie ing he desi ed goals h ough
iolence. These p ocesses esul in ans o ming a i udes and adical pola iza ion in hose who
success ully ollow he whole p ocess along he lines as de ined by he adical g oups. No all
po en ial ec ui s ollow he whole p ocess. E en i hey d op ou be o e hey comple e he
en i e p ocess, he minds o he d op-ou ec ui s may s ill ha e been in aded o he ex en ha
hese ec ui s will p o ide bene i s o he adical g oup h ough, o example, endo sing a
posi i e image o he g oup among o he po en ial ec ui s and e en na iga e o he s o en e
he p ocess o adicaliza ion (acco ding o ( )).
Mind in asion by adical g oups is no limi ed o a ac and e ain new membe s.
Radical g oups sp ead hei ideology and shape ulne able indi iduals o adop he ex emis
wo ld- iew in many ways. Fo example, in some a eas o Pakis an and A ghanis an, he adical
g oup who calls i sel Taliban has access o in luence people di ec ly ia gi ing eligious
se mons o unning he eligious educa ional ins i u es, mo e commonly called Mad assah (pl.
Mada is). This access gi es ec ui e s a pla o m o di ec ly in ade minds du ing ea ly phases
o encul u a ion (see ) wi h he ex eme ideology and na a i e which is based on ha ed and
ange owa ds he ou g oup. One ins ance o sp eading iolence-based ideology was he use o
an elemen a y U du language book, which was co e ly being used as a pa o he syllabus in
some local (and low-income) schools in Pakis an. These books we e also mean o be sen o
Mada is and schools in he no h-wes e n egion o Pakis an which had some adical
ideological p esence. The book was published be ween 2005 and 2010. Unlike he English
alphabe books whe e he le e A is ep esen ed by an apple and B by a ball, he con en o he
elemen a y U du alphabe s book (being augh o e y young child en), howe e , a e all abou
implan ing adical jihadi image y in he young minds. Fo example, he wo d and image used
o explain he U du alphabe ب ‘bey,’ consis s o an illus a ion o a Kalashniko and he wo d
‘bandooq’ (gun). Fo he le e ٹ ‘ ay,’ he wo d used is ‘ ak ao’ (impac ) and an illus a ion
56
o a plane hi ing he Twin Towe s in New Yo k is shown. Fo he le e ج ‘jeem,’ an image o
a whi e jihadi lag and he wo d ‘jihad’ is used. Fo he le e خ ‘khay,’ an image o a hun ing
kni e (wi h blood d ipping om i ) and he wo d ‘khanja ’ (kni e) is used. Fo he le e ح
‘hey,’ an image o a woman ully co e ed in black clo h and he wo d ‘hijab’ is used. Fo he
le e ذ ‘zey,’ he wo d used is ‘zunoob’ (sin) and he illus a ion is ha o a bon i e made om
a pile con aining a TV se , a sa elli e dish, a boa d game, and a gui a (Pa acha, 2011).
Educa ion and cu icula based on ex eme ideology aim o expose and no malize
child en o ca ego ical hinking and iolence, and esul s in an us- e sus- hem mindse .
Th ough epea ed lessons based on he ex eme syllabus augh in some o he Mada is, he
Taliban in en ionally imme se child en in o an en i onmen ha eaches hem ha ed, ange ,
and disgus owa ds he ou g oup ( hose who do no ollow hei in e p e a ion o eligion, and
a e pe cei ed as h ea o he sanc i y o he eligion). In hese en i onmen s, a child is
in oduced o he alphabe le e ح‘hey,’ an image o a woman ully co e ed in black clo h and
he wo d ‘hijab’ along wi h an illus a ion o a woman co e ed comple ely in black clo hs. Fo
he child, he only accep able way o a woman is when she d essed in a hijab, and any o he
o m o d essing is no accep able. Along wi h his kind o adical educa ional ma e ial, he
child is also p o ided wi h he explana ion o how i is sin ul o a woman o no p ope ly co e
he sel , and ha she dese es o be punished i she e uses o wea a hijab. Th ough he
Taliban’s in e p e a ion o Islamic law, a woman showing he ace o a man who is no ela ed
o he is he sou ce o co up ion (Goha i, 2000). In a simila manne , he bu ning image o a
gui a in i e is in oduced o he child wi h he wo d ‘zunoob’ (sin). The child is augh ha i
is no only bad o lis en o o play gui a (o any o he kind o music), bu a he ha he music
is a o bidden and punishable sin. This kind o ea ly-age in oduc ion o he adical concep s
c ea e a di e en kind o eali y wi hin he minds o child en unde going educa ion in adical
o ganiza ions. I implies ha o cing someone o wea hijab o punishing someone o lis ening
o o playing music is he only accep able way o li e a li e. This ea ly encul u a ion changes
he way a child looks a he wo ld.
The same holds o he concep o Jihad. The adical milieu (Mal hane & Waldmann,
2014) makes i na u al o he child o adop ex emis iews. When he child g ows up, he o
she migh no join a adical g oup, bu he adical g oup has al eady in aded he child’s mind
o he ex en ha he o she accep s and/o suppo s he ex emis ideology. I can also be seen
in he child en ge ing educa ion in ISIS e i o ies (e.g., Olido , 2016). Child en who a e
exposed o his kind o educa ion migh no ye be ec ui s o he adical g oup, bu hei
li es yles and ambi ions a e al eady de eloping in alignmen wi h he pa ame e s o he adical
57
g oup’s ideology (e.g., Ande son, 2016; Al Bayan Cen e , 2016; NCTV & AIVD, 2017), which
aises addi ional p oblems o he coun ies hei pa en s come om, i hey e u n wi h hei
mo he s o amilies and join schools in Wes e n coun ies.
Di e en adical g oups use di e en s a egies o shape ulne able indi iduals,
depending on hei o ganiza ional s uc u e and aims. Whe e he Taliban mainly use hei easy
access o he eligious schools and mosques as a ool o mind in asion, ISIS uses mo e di e se
en i onmen al ools o in ade he minds o i s ollowe s. One such s a egy o ISIS is using
di e en social pla o ms o c ea e an en i onmen which helps hem o sp ead hei ideology
(see (g) and (h)). They in ade he minds o young people by showing hem a glo i ied and
ad en u ous ace o ISIS and by epea edly p o iding i s ollowe s glimpses o i s ideology
h ough a ious means, including i s mass media p opaganda (e.g., Win e , 2015b). The use o
social media, nasheeds, and ideo games, o example, as ools o mind in asion, o e ime
acili a es he ans e o ollowe s om a i ual calipha e o an ac i e ec ui ei he as igh e
in ISIS claimed e i o ies o as ‘lone ac o ’ igh e s in o he coun ies. Fo example, one
Bi mingham-bo n ISIS membe compa ed his so-called Jihad in Sy ia wi h a amous i s -
pe son shoo e ideo game, ‘Call o Du y’ by wee ing; “you can si a home and play call o
du y o you can come he e and espond o he eal call o du y. The choice is you s” (Kang,
2014). A B i ish o eign igh e o ISIS wee ed ha “I ’s ac ually qui e un. I ’s eally eally
un. I ’s be e han ha game Call o Du y. I ’s like ha bu i ’s in 3D whe e e e y hing is
happening in on o you” (Klausen, 2015).
These wee s wi h he e e ences o amous ideo games a e ein o ced by s a emen s
om people who ha e expe ienced li e unde ISIS and desc ibe how ad en u ous hei li e
seems o be. ISIS uses ideo games as an ex e nal ool o b and i sel as being a un and
ad en u ous o ganiza ion o join. Th ough social media pos ings like hese, ISIS membe s
po ay he image o he adical g oup as a powe ul and ‘cool’ o ganiza ion (Vale, 2018). To
a young indi idual looking o o ien a ion, his migh look like li ing he li e o a he o
pa icipa ing in a eal-li e ad en u e and sa ing he opp essed om in idels. This also p o ides
a chance o ollow an ideology which can ans o m hei p osaic li e in o a cosmic s uggle
be ween good and e il (Kang, 2014). Mind in asion wo ks because i dis ac s wi h one hing
( o ins ance, as being a he o) while accomplishing ano he ( ha is guiding owa ds iolen
adicaliza ion). In addi ion, ISIS s a egically app oached young people by p o iding hem a
pla o m o ed ess he g ie ances hey hold agains an ou g oup, as well as play hei pa in
building an Islamic communi y. I p o ided an oppo uni y o become a he o and a chance o
achie e glo y while igh ing in a eal-li e game. Wi h mind-in ading s a egies like hese (e.g.,
64
Ano he esou ce p o ided by ISIS is he p opaganda ma e ial published and ai ed om
ime o ime, including i s newsle e s, ideos, and audio eco dings in he o m o speeches o
leade s and nasheeds (Islamic hymns). These e oke he hope o li ing in a calipha e and a
desi e o help hose who a e al eady li ing he e. The p opaganda glo i ies ma y dom and is
also ocused on he dehumaniza ion o he ou g oup. An in e es ing aspec in his p opaganda
is he use o numbe s in he newsle e s and ideos, speci ically he ‘Hasaad ul Ajnaad (Ha es
o he Soldie s)’ epo s which indica e he a ack me ics o ISIS, e.g. hey ell which subg oup
killed how many in idels (Bilge , 2014; Ca a ella e al., 2019). This epo no only se es as
mind in asion bu also as SSLA o compe i ion, designed o mo i a e i s ollowe s, inspi e
hem and keep he ea ele a ed among he ou g oup.
Fo lone ac o e o is s, SSLAs can also de elop as hey in en ionally subsc ibe o
i ual en i onmen s p ojec ing ha e, ange , and disgus owa ds an ou g oup. Vi ual
en i onmen s, acili a ed by i ual ne wo king wi h o he ex emis s in cha ooms, such as
ha o ISIS’s ‘ i ual calipha e’ speci ically in he Teleg am social ne wo k websi e, can
ul ima ely lead o mobiliza ion o membe s owa ds adicaliza ion (Bloom, Ti la i, & Ho gan,
2019). We ind simila pa e ns in igh wing e o ism, whe e a ec i ely s uc u ed i ual
en i onmen s lead ulne able minds owa ds de eloping loops o nega i e emo ions, which
e en ually lead hem owa ds iolen ac ions, such as Ta an ’s a ack in New Zealand on
Ma ch 15, 2019.
An example o Bangladeshi immig an Roshona a Choudh y, om he epo o
Speckha d & Shajko ci (2018), shows how SSLA wo ks in so called lone ac o s. She was a
s uden a Kings College London. She came ac oss he se mon o Anwa al Awlaki (Yemeni-
Ame ican p eache and ec ui e o Al-Qaeda) on in e ne (see (g)) and she s a ed ela ing o
Awlaki’s adical ideas o indi idual Jihad and his ange agains US coali ion’s in asion o I aq.
She ac i ely sea ched o his ideos and s a ed wi hd awing om he “unbelie e s” a ound
he (see (e)). She de eloped he own a ec i e loop o ha e agains in idels and how wes e n
coun ies a e disc imina ing Muslims. She e en qui uni e si y on he claim ha one o he
school depa men s is w ongly suppo ing Is aeli b u ali y agains Pales ine. A e conduc ing
esea ch on which local pa liamen a ians o ed o he I aq wa , she pe o med he “jihad” by
s abbing Labou MP S ephen Timms in his o ice, wice. This example shows how a pe son
de eloped he own SSLA. She ela ed o he se mons o Awlaki u ging e enge, ha e and ange
agains so-called enemies. She on pu pose s a ed a oiding people a ound he o eed he loops
o ange and ha e in isola ion o he ex en ha i led he o a emp mu de . In his pa icula
case, none o he adical o ganiza ions was in ol ed, no was she con ac ed by any e o is

65
o ganiza ion o hei membe s. In many o he lone ac o cases, howe e , adical g oups a e in
con ac wi h he ac o s, and use media as an en i onmen al ool o sp ead hei messages and
manipula e ulne able minds o ac acco ding o he g oup’s ideology. They in ade he minds
o he ex en ha he pe son de elops he desi ed a ec i e loops own hei own.
The ca e ul manipula ion o en i onmen al ools by adical g oups o gene a ing
cus omized SSLAs explain how ec ui s a e e ained in he g oup o a e inclined owa ds he
g oup’s ideology, while main aining he desi ed emo ional s a e which helps hem o o m a
s ong a ec i e bond wi h he g oup and i s ideology.
CONCLUSION
Radicaliza ion is a mul i- ac o p ocess, and one o he mos impo an o hese ac o s is he
a ec i e aspec o adicaliza ion. To unde s and adicaliza ion, i is impo an o unde s and
how adical g oups o adical o ganiza ions manipula e a ec i e aspec s o human na u e and
con ince hei ec ui s o willingly commi b u al and iolen ac s o e o ism. This
manipula ion o human emo ions is no es ic ed o nega i e emo ions such as ange , disgus ,
bu also includes posi i e emo ions, including powe , lo e, eelings o belongingness. Du ing
he p ocess o adicaliza ion, di e en emo ions a e add essed in a ec ui a he same ime; o
ins ance, ha e owa ds an ou g oup and lo e o he ing oup os e ing he eelings o
belongingness and powe wi hin he adical g oup. Such emo ions e ol e wi h ime and c ea e
a e y complex emo ional web. In his pape , we ha e ied o p o ide he i s glimpse o how
he amewo k o si ua ed a ec i i y (especially he no ions o a ec i e sca olding, mind
in asion, and sel -s imula o y loops o a ec i i y) can help us o unde s and he a ec i e
s uc u ing o adicaliza ion. The amewo k o si ua ed a ec i i y highligh s how adical
g oups p o ide a ec i e sca olding, wo k on he minds o hei ec ui s, and help ec ui s o
de elop ce ain emo ions, which deeply en ench indi iduals in o he ideology o a adical
g oup. The amewo k o si ua ed a ec i i y p o ides a b oade ange o iew on he a ec i e
aspec s in ol ed in adicaliza ion. I also helps us o unde s and how adical g oups c ea e an
en i onmen a ound hei po en ial ec ui s ha de e mines who and wha hese po en ial
ec ui s will be when hey go h ough con inuous, ecip ocal, dynamical in e ac ions wi h he
adical g oups and i s a ec i e en i onmen . De ailing he a ec i e p ocesses gi e us an
oppo uni y o a ge hose en i onmen al ac o s and ools which adical o ganiza ions a e
using o lu e ulne able minds owa ds he iolen ex emism, and helps in de eloping coun e
adicaliza ion measu es.
66
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Indi iduals who engage in ex emism a e no solely mo i a ed by ha ed, ange , o
disgus . The e o e, ex eme ideas and ac ions should no be associa ed only wi h nega i e
emo ions. Resea che s need o b ing a en ion o he posi i e emo ions in ol ed in he pa hways
o ex emism. Posi i e emo ions and eelings, such as p ide, lo e, exci emen , in e es , and
hope, play i al oles. A sense o belonging and pu pose ha comes wi h being pa o an
ex emis g oup can be e y appealing, p o iding indi iduals wi h a much-needed sense o
iden i y and meaning in hei li es. We can look a suicide bombe s as an example. Suicide
bombe s may be mo i a ed by hei belie ha hei ac ions se e a g ea e good and pu pose.
This mo i a ion may include he de ense o hei g oup, hei igh s, and he pu sui o hei
poli ical goals. The sac i ice o li e is no based only on ha ed o ange . I can also be based
on posi i e emo ional expe iences and hope when unde s ood h ough he ideology and mindse
o he bombe . The ac o engeance can also se e as an illus a ion o he complexi y o
ex emism and a ec , whe he on a pe sonal, g oup, o s a e le el. Vengeance in ex eme o ms
could be pe cei ed as d i en by nega i e emo ions. Howe e , he e may also be posi i e
emo ions associa ed wi h he objec los o inju ed o he pe son, g oup, o s a e seeking
engeance. This can be obse ed in he case o B en on Ta an who ca ied ou mass shoo ings
a wo mosques on 15 h Ma ch 2019, in Ch is chu ch. Acco ding o him, one eason o
ca ying ou he shoo ing was o s and up o he de ense o he ‘whi e’ ace, and ano he was
o a enge he dea h o a Swedish child, Ebba Åke lund, who was killed in a e o is a ack in
S ockholm in 2017.
Depending on he en i onmen in which an indi idual li es, i may e en be he case
ha he indi idual does no display any in ense o dominan emo ions a all a he beginning,
bu ha such emo ions de elop as he indi idual in e ac s wi h a a ie y o elemen s and
indi iduals. I is possible o some emo ions o emain do man o a long pe iod, and hen
become ex eme and ola ile a o he imes. I is, he e o e, c ucial o explo e he whole
spec um o emo ions and a ec i e p ocesses which may in luence an indi idual and d i e
hei in e ac ion wi h mul iple elemen s, and in mul iple engaging en i onmen s (Haq e al.,
2020). We need o dissec such in e ac ions, emo ions, and explain exis ing a ec i e p ocesses,
how hey e ol e on he pa hways o ex emism, wha unc ions hese a ec i e p ocesses play,
and how en i onmen al s uc u es and ools acili a e an indi idual o del e deepe in o
ex emism.
Designing and applying amewo ks ha only ocus on “ e o is ” beha io is no
su icien . I is essen ial o unde s and in dep h he ansi ion om non-ex emism o ex emism
and on o iolen ex emism. Consequen ly, one can unde s and why some o dina y people

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sympa hize, ollow, endo se, ac o become engul ed in ex emis iews. I can also help
explain why some indi iduals a e hesi an abou endo sing ex emis iewpoin s ini ially and
end up accep ing ex emis iewpoin s la e . Ou esea ch aims o apply a amewo k ha is
able o add ess bo h he ansi ion owa ds ex emism and he complexi y o a ec .
To emphasize his desi ed ichness and dep h, and b ing a ec o he o eg ound, we
employ he amewo k o Si ua ed A ec i i y in analyzing ex eme cases. The si ua ed
a ec i i y amewo k helps us in dissec ing he a ec i e bond be ween an indi idual and hei
in e ac ion wi h elemen s in hei en i onmen . This dema ca es he si ua edness o a ec and
helps o b oaden he ocus o encompass he en i onmen al elemen s ha con ibu e o an
indi idual’s decision o adop ex emis hough and ac ion. Using he si ua ed a ec i i y
amewo k, his pape b ings a ec in o he o eg ound while main aining compa ibili y wi h
con ibu ions on emo ions and a ec om di e en disciplines.
In wha ollows, we i s p o ide an explana ion o a ec i i y and he si ua edness o
a ec . The la e sec ion o he pape hen elabo a es wi h he help o wo di e en examples
on how a ec i i y can be analyzed om di e en an age poin s, and how a ec i e in e ac ion
exis s in a angemen s ha acili a e indi iduals o adop ex emis iews.
AFFECTIVITY AND SITUATEDNESS
A ec is complex and canno be educed o one emo ion, eeling, o mood. The e o e, i is
essen ial ha in he con ex o ex emism, a ec should also no be limi ed o a single
expe ience o o nega i e emo ions. We ake a ec as an inclusi e e m, e e ing o mul iple
eelings, emo ions, and moods ha an indi idual has. In his pape , we explo e a ec in he
con ex o elemen s, en i ies, and ac o s such as agen s, ma e ials, space, and ime, as opposed
o jus being a b ain-based phenomenon. In a mul i ude o ins ances, a ec is in e wined wi h
he a ious elemen s ha a e p esen wi hin an en i onmen . Indi iduals a e bo h impac ed by
and ha e an impac on ac o s and o he pa icipa ing elemen s concu en ly (Slaby & Mühlho ,
2019, p. 31). The a ec is mu ual, bu no necessa ily p opo iona e. Thus, an indi idual does
no exis in a acuum; ins ead, hey a e pa o a la ge sys em whe e hei ac ions impac he
en i onmen , which in u n impac s ha indi idual.
A pe son’s decision o adop ex eme hough s and ac ions is de e mined by se e al
push and pull ac o s. The e o e, i becomes p oblema ic o assume ha ex emism can only
esul om nega i e emo ions. Posi i e and nega i e emo ions bo h in luence an indi idual’s
o e all a ec i e s a e. Mul iple emo ions a e esponsible o ei he d i ing hem o engage in
ex emism o causing hem o wi hd aw om i . The a ec can be explo ed om he s andpoin
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o he indi idual by conside ing hei ulne abili ies and disposi ions (e.g., K uglanski e al.,
2009, 2014, 2019; Webbe & K uglanski, 2017). E e y indi idual has a unique ‘a ec i e’
biog aphy ha is buil upon hei socio-cul u al and his o ical p ac ices and li es yles, as well
as hei socio-economic and cul u al backg ounds ( on Mau , 2021). Combined wi h an
indi idual’s a ec i e biog aphy, disposi ions con ibu e o he o ma ion o u he a ec i e
in e ac ions wi h elemen s o hei en i onmen s. This socio-cul u al and his o ical backg ound
and he disposi ions ha indi iduals possess in luence hei a ec i e expe iences and how hey
in e ac wi h he en i onmen . As a esul , no only does his in luence he indi idual’s a ec i e
biog aphy bu also he manne in which he o she pe cei es and in e ac s wi h he wo ld, which
in luences hei esponse on he pa hway o o away om ex emism.
I is he e ha we come o he concep o he ‘si ua edness’ o a ec . The cen al hesis
and emphasis o si ua ed a ec i i y is ha a ec i e p ocessing is no simply an indi idual’s
in e nal s a e, eeling, o emo ion. An indi idual’s en i onmen can play an impo an ole in
suppo ing o acili a ing he p ocessing o a ec (K uege & Szan o, 2016; S ephan e al.,
2014; S ephan & Wal e , 2020). An elemen in he en i onmen ha acili a es o egula es
a ec has also been called a sca old (e.g., Coninx & S ephan, 2021; S ephan & Wal e , 2020;
S e elny, 2010; Valen ini, 2022). Si ua ed a ec in his con ex is he ela ional dynamics
be ween an indi idual and elemen s in hei en i onmen (Slaby & Mühlho , 2019). O en,
hese en i onmen al elemen s also con ibu e o ou a ec i e li es wi hou ou ull awa eness
o in en ion (Coninx & S ephan, 2021; Slaby, 2016). An indi idual’s agen i e abili ies may be
enhanced o diminished by hese elemen s bo h in he sho - and long- e m (Slaby & Mühlho ,
2019). The mos gene al examples o si ua edness a e using a mobile phone o call you lo ed
ones, lis ening o a song, o wa ching a a o i e ideo clip o egula e you eelings. The mobile
phone is, hence, he elemen used as a sca old o gene a e o egula e an a ec i e expe ience.
The use o a mobile phone be o e bed ime, howe e , may unin en ionally dis up he quali y
and hygiene o ou sleep.
The pu pose o his pape is o examine he a ec i e ela ionship, o simply he
a ec i e bond be ween an indi idual and di e en en i onmen al elemen s. I is his complex
a ec i e bond ha , when explo ed and elabo a ed, o eg ounds a ec i i y in cases ela ed o
ex emism as well. These a ec i e bonds can be unidi ec ional o bidi ec ional and can also be
ca ego ized as use - esou ce in e ac ion bonds, o as mind-shaping bonds (e.g., Coninx &
S ephan, 2021; Haq e al., 2020; S ephan & Wal e , 2020).
An example o a unidi ec ional in e ac ion would be lis ening o music wi hou a
ecip ocal e ec on wha kind o music is played nex . The lis ene has no di ec con ol o e
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he music ha will be played nex on he adio, o ins ance. Howe e , he a ec i e bond
becomes bi-di ec ional i he e is a ecip ocal e ec on wha music one chooses nex , and his
in u n helps one o become mo e deeply engaged in an a ec i e expe ience. Essen ially, a
choice o music enables and deepens an a ec i e expe ience, which in luences he choice o
music ha ollows (Colombe i & Robe s, 2015). Fo ins ance, lis ening o music on a
s eaming pla o m, such as Spo i y, whe e ei he he lis ene has selec ed a pa icula playlis
o he s eaming pla o m’s algo i hm de e mines based on he lis ene ’s choices and likes.
An example o a use - esou ce in e ac ion is he indi idual eaching ou o in e ac wi h
an en i onmen al elemen . A simple example o his is heading o he lib a y o s udy. This
esul s in an indi idual being able o limi dis ac ions and enhance hei abili y o s udy by
using he lib a y’s space, a ailable ele an educa ional ma e ials, and quie ness.
Con e sely, mind-shaping (o speci ically a ec shaping) is an a ec i e phenomenon
in which he e ec s o he en i onmen al elemen s eaches inwa ds o a ec he indi idual.
The e a e se e al ways in which his mind-shaping in luence may a ec us, bo h wi hin and
ou side o ou awa eness (Slaby, 2016). Mili a y academies and camps, o example, use i uals
and s uc u es o ain soldie s in speci ic ways. The aining ha ec ui s unde go du ing hei
aining is designed o p epa e hem o speci ic asks and missions, b inging abou skills such
as leade ship, discipline, and eamwo k. A ec ui , in his scena io, is awa e ha he mili a y
camp is exe ing an in en ional in luence on he . Rec ui s a e, howe e , o en unawa e ha
hei aining has also had o he e ec s on hem. This is because hey a e exposed o s ic
ou ines, iolence and agg ession (e.g., Haq e al., 2020). I is impo an o no e ha
o ganiza ions o ins i u es can delibe a ely design en i onmen al s uc u es o g adually
ans o m he a i udes and he emo ional esponses o a a ge g oup. Educa ional ins i u es a e
also an example o his. In o de o enhance o suppo he lea ning o s uden s, eache s use
eaching aids, s udy aids, oom se ings, and o he s udy- ela ed ools. The con en o educa ion
as well as he manne in which i is deli e ed ha e a signi ican impac on wha and how
s uden s lea n. On he nega i e and ex eme spec um, one can obse e how ec ui s om
ex emis g oups, o indi iduals wi h a ulne abili y o ex emism, will seek ex eme se ings
wi h ele an indi iduals, ma e ials, spaces, and ideologies. Ano he ins ance o mind-shaping
can be ha some go e nmen s o agencies use hei poli ical powe o e he media o limi he
amoun o in o ma ion hey dissemina e o people o ame i in a ce ain way o ein o ce a
pa icula na a i e.
I he con en augh o indi iduals o consumed by hem is ex eme, hen hey a e a a
heigh ened isk o de eloping ex emis hinking and commi ing ex emis ac s. An
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un o una e example is ha o school child en being exposed o ex eme con en and ideas
h ough ex books. Du ing he g owing Russian in luence, a he end o he 1970s, educa ional
con en glo i ying communis ideology in he A ghan cul u al con ex was published and
dissemina ed. As a coun e -measu e agains communis in luence and o build suppo o he
igh agains he Russian in asion, educa ional ex books we e published in Peshawa ,
Pakis an, glo i ying jihad and an i-Russian sen imen . These books we e sanc ioned and
inanced by Ame ican g an s a he ime, and we e dissemina ed in egions o Pakis an and
A ghanis an. Howe e , e en in he 2000s, almos 20 yea s a e he Russian wi hd awal,
ex books wi h ex emism- ela ed ma e ial emained in s o es un e ised, and sold as eshly
p in ed copies (Da is, 2002). These ex books glo i y ma y dom, celeb a e jihad, and speak o
he execu ion o “ he enemy”. Conside he ollowing ma hema ical p oblem as s a ed in a
ex book o ou h-g ade s uden s.
“The speed o a Kalashniko bulle is 800 me e s pe -second. I a Russian is a a
dis ance o 3,200 me e s om a mujahid, and ha mujahid aims a he Russian’s head,
calcula e how many seconds i will ake o he bulle o s ike he Russian in he o ehead.”
This ma hema ical p oblem glo i ies killing and p omo es ex emism by shaping how a
ou h g ade may hink abou such cases. Ex eme and dis u bing as i is, i we ake a close
look, he e is one missing wo d he e ha gene alizes ex emism u he . The missing wo d is
“soldie ”. I does no say how a mujahid should aim a a Russian soldie , bu only says
“Russian”. While i glo i ies killing, i also gene alizes wha a ou h g ade should hink like.
17
This is a clea example o mind-shaping o a ec -shaping owa ds ex emism. E en hough
indi iduals may no join an ex emis g oup, hei exposu e o ex eme con en may lead hem
o sympa hize wi h he alues and belie s o he g oup. Consequen ly, hey may suppo he
g oup’s ac ions o engage in beha io consis en wi h i s ideology, which can be jus as
dange ous as joining he g oup. This emphasizes he need o unde s and he consequences o
mind-shaping owa d ex emis ideas, ac ions, and how such exposu e can os e suppo o
ex emis g oups.
17
A ecen example o his is he ‘No h Rhine-Wes phalia Colo ing Book’ gi eaways in K e eld, o which he
poli ical pa y A D (“Al e na i e o Ge many”) was accused o sponso ing (Silk, 2020). The colo ing book
showed people wi h guns and holding Tu kish lags. This was highly c i icized by o he poli ical pa ies in
Ge many.
85
AFFECTIVE ARRANGEMENTS
An indi idual on he pa hway o ex emism is su ounded by mul iple and o e lapping
elemen s in o line as well as online en i onmen s which may in luence a ec (e.g., Valen ini
e al., 2020). As such, wi hin he amewo k o Si ua ed A ec i i y, we d aw upon he concep
o A ec i e A angemen s (Slaby e al., 2019)
18
. Essen ially, wha we a e e e ing o is he
assembly o se e al elemen s in an ‘a angemen ’ o cons ella ion, which ac as sca olding and
impac an indi idual’s a ec . A ec exis s in unique a angemen s in ou daily li es, and
in ol es indi iduals, ma e ials, spaces, discou ses, and beha io s coming oge he in o a
coo dina ed o ma ion o mu ual a ec ing and being a ec ed. By ocusing on he local
elemen s in an a angemen , he concep assis s in analyzing he a ec i e ela ionali y. Wi hin
an a angemen and in he ela ionali y, he e a e mul iple ypes o p ocesses ha gene a e and
in ensi y a ec . Addi ionally, each o i s a ec i e agen s has a his o y ha in luences and
suppo s he a angemen . The a ec i i y o an a angemen is also suppo ed by mul iple
o ganiza ional and echnical elemen s. These elemen s include he people, ools, and esou ces
ha a e a ailable o he a ec i e agen s, he con ex and en i onmen o he a angemen , and
he unde lying s uc u es and p ocesses ha shape he a angemen . All o hese elemen s wo k
oge he o suppo he a ec i i y. The concep o A ec i e A angemen allows o he
conside a ion o he di e se composi ion o elemen s wi hin an indi idual's en i onmen , as
well as he indi idual's biog aphy ( on Mau , 2021), in ol emen , and disposi ion (Slaby e
al., 2019).
Slaby, Mühlho , and Wüschne (2019) discuss how a wo kplace eam is suppo ed
cogni i ely and emo ionally by o he employees, echnological de ices, space, and ools. This
wo k a angemen en ails he collabo a ion o mul iple a ec i e agen s and en i onmen al
esou ces o accomplish speci ic goals. Mo eo e , he e exis s a sense o in e connec edness
among he eam membe s. Th ough hese connec ions, he eam may encoun e bo h nega i e
and posi i e emo ions in di e en scena ios, such as h ough emo ional con agion p ocesses.
We apply he a angemen model by explo ing a ec in ex emism. Mul iple online and
o line en i onmen al ac o s a e analyzed in di e en cases o unde s and how hey in luence
an indi idual’s a ec i i y. A case in poin is Hoda Mu hana (Speckha d, 2019), a Yemeni-
Ame ican gi l who joined he so-called Islamic S a e (ISIS) and became an ex emis . Ini ially,
18
A ec i e Milieus (Schue ze, 2021) is ano he wo k ex ending he scope o A ec i e A angemen by
b inging in o ocus he e e yday and common a ec i e engagemen s o indi iduals wi h elemen s in hei
en i onmen . In o de o main ain cla i y, we adhe e o he o iginal e m a angemen .

86
she was no d i en by nega i e emo ions owa d o he s o emba k on a pa h o ex emism.
Among he ac o s ha con ibu ed o he joining ISIS we e he anxie y ega ding he u u e,
he eligious belie s in hell i e and hea en, and he di icul ela ionship wi h he mo he .
Ul ima ely, i was he in e ac ions wi h ISIS, as well as he ime spen wi h hem, ha led o
he ex eme belie s. In Mu hana’s case, she used a sma phone, speci ically Twi e , as an
ini ial poin o con ac wi h ‘ eligious’ people, in o de o eel belonging. Du ing his ime
pe iod, he ISIS g oup was a i s peak in i s exploi a ion o mains eam social media pla o ms.
As she desc ibes i , she ini ially joined he g oup o people in he ‘Twi e sphe e’ who we e, as
she s a es, ‘jus being ou sel es.’ Some membe s o he g oup hen became mo e se ious abou
hei eligious p ac ices and in i ed o he s o join hem. She epo s i was on Twi e whe e
she i s hea d abou he hen-newly c ea ed ‘calipha e’ and el ‘obliga ed’ o go in acco dance
wi h he belie s. The ac ha she ound an op ion o choose he own u u e, a he han being
guided by he amily, also appealed o he . A e li ing o some ime in ISIS, she s a ed he
Twi e handle and s a ed inci ing iolen ex emism. In one o he wee s, she encou aged
lone-s yle a acks on Ame ican ci izens (Speckha d, 2019).
Conside ing Mu hana’s case, we a e able o ske ch ou he a ec i e a angemen ,
be o e he joining he ISIS, i.e. he beginning o he ansi ion o ex emism. By obse ing each
in e ac ion be ween Mu hana and an elemen in he a angemen , we gain a ich desc ip ion o
a ec , allowing us o analyze i . He decision o join a calipha e appealed o he ulne abili y,
allowing he o choose o he sel a he han ha ing o succumb o he decisions o he amily.
Conside ing his ulne abili y, she consciously engages wi h he a ious elemen s p esen in
he en i onmen . The e a e a numbe o ac o s ha in luence he , including indi iduals (i.e.,
ec ui e s/inci e s and o he people wi h simila ideas as he s), he spaces (i.e., Twi e sphe e,
whe e she seeks alida ion o he belie s), and na a i es (i.e., li ing in a calipha e, and he
belie s ega ding he a e li e). The use o he mobile phone o his pu pose se ed as
sca olding o he a ec i i y. She s a ed o be a ec ed in he Twi e sphe e, because she
ound a niche ha esona ed wi h he anxie y in he belie s and ideas. Social media algo i hms
p omo ed mo e ele an pos s and membe s in he Twi e sphe e o he . I obse ed h ough
he p ope y o ‘mu ual a ec ’ o an a ec i e a angemen , his is an ins ance o Mu hana’s
being a ec ed. In he a ec ing di ec ion, he online p esence o ISIS was acqui ing momen um
and ge ing mo e widesp ead. One o he bigges gains o ISIS was he in lux o o eigne s,
hei endo semen , and sympa hies. The e was an in lux o igh e s, job seeke s, and
oppo uni y seeke s joining ISIS. Howe e , some we e jus inspi ed by he no ion o a calipha e
87
and joined o his eason alone. In e ms o social media, i was ‘ ending’, as was he
exploi a ion o ISIS ec ui e s.
This is jus one case elabo a ing he a ec i e a angemen o an indi idual. O he
elemen s like he in ol emen o amily o iends wi h an ex emis ideology, he media
con en a ailable, he space a pe son is li ing in (e.g., a wa - o n a ea), no job o secu i y,
wi nessing he dea hs o lo ed ones, e c., all hese elemen s, e en s and many mo e ac o s can
be in ol ed in an a angemen which con ibu es in o shaping he a ec o a pe son.
We ecognize ha each case o ex emism is unique and has i s own complexi ies and
peculia i ies. Fu he mo e, a ec i e a angemen s may be cul u ally in luenced, asymme ical,
o e lapping, and empo ally con olu ed. Ske ching he a ec i e a angemen o each and e e y
case may be imp ac ical. The e o e, ou ocus is less on indi idual disposi ions and he ac o s
ha d i e an indi idual o ex emism. Ou conce n is a he wi h a ec i e bonds and p ocesses,
which a e applicable no only o cases o ex emism bu also o ou daily li es. Using he
amewo k o si ua ed a ec i i y, we can dissec he a ec i e bonds be ween an indi idual and
di e en elemen s o he en i onmen . I is also possible o obse e hese dynamics o a ec
om di e en pe spec i es o an age poin s, which a e discussed in he ollowing sec ion. We
a e able o analyze he ea u es and p ocesses o a ec ha a e gene a ed o modula ed
(pe pe ua ed, in ensi ied, exploi ed, e c.). Speci ically, we a e e e ing o how ce ain a ec -
cen ic ea u es (such as emo ional con agion, signi icance, e c.) can se e as a basis o an
indi idual's expe ience o a ec . I is possible, o example, ha he in e ac ion wi h an elemen
gene a es o he emo ions, in ensi ies o pe pe ua es exis ing emo ions. This amewo k can
ul ima ely be in eg a ed wi h insigh s on emo ions om o he disciplines, such as poli ical
science, psychology, sociology, and c iminology. This will p o ide a mo e comp ehensi e and
holis ic unde s anding o a ec . Pa icula ly, he ocus o a ec will con ibu e o he
imp o emen o policies and p og ams ela ed o p e en ing and coun e ing ex emism.
Van age Poin s
Wi h he help o concep s such as a ec i e a angemen s and he amewo k o si ua ed
a ec i i y, we a e able o examine a ec om a a ie y o pe spec i es o an age poin s.
These an age poin s enable us o examine emo ions om mul iple pe spec i es, encompassing
indi idual and socie al dimensions, empo al aspec s, spa ial con ex s, and a ious physical and
linguis ic elemen s. Hence, his me hodology o e s a comp ehensi e g asp o he in ica e
na u e o a ec . As a esul o hese an age poin s, a ec can be analyzed in e ms o i) single
elemen in e ac ions, ii) pe sonal a angemen s, iii) g oup a angemen s, and i ) socie al
88
a angemen s. When we analyze a ec om hese an age poin s, and a a ious poin s in ime,
we a e also able o obse e a ec changing o e ime. Addi ionally, he i s and second an age
poin s highligh he impo ance o he use - esou ce a ec i e bond in an indi idual’s a ec i e
expe ience. Fo ins ance, a pe son may ha e a posi i e a ec i e expe ience wi h a pa icula
esou ce, leading o an inc ease in he pe son’s mo i a ion and engagemen wi h ha esou ce.
This may hen lead o u he engagemen wi h ha esou ce. Fo ins ance, in Mu hana’s case,
we see ha engagemen on Twi e . The hi d and ou h an age poin s emphasize he
impo ance o mind-shaping a ec i e bonds. Fo example, o ganiza ions can shape he
a ec i e expe ience o indi iduals by designing use expe iences ha os e posi i e a ec i e
bonds be ween use s and o he esou ces. This oo can be seen in he case o Mu hana on
Twi e , whe e ec ui e s and Twi e ‘schola s’ a e able o pe suade he o join ISIS
(Speckha d, 2019).
We can begin wi h a de ailed analysis o he a ec i e bond o an indi idual a he le el
o single elemen in e ac ion. F om his an age poin , we can obse e how a single elemen
can egula e a ec when i is in e ac ed wi h. A common example would be how we use ou
mobile phone as a sca old o in luence ou a ec . In he case o Mu hana, we can obse e he
in e ac ion on Twi e . Twi e is he medium ( he online space) h ough which she
communica es wi h o he people who sha e simila in e es s. This con ibu es o he
s eng hening and shaping he belie s abou he calipha e, hea en, and hell i e, which leads o
u he in e ac ions wi h he online ISIS ec ui e s and communi y. As epo ed in Mu hana’s
in e iew, she explains ha p io o commi ing he sel o ex eme and ISIS-p esc ibed
in e p e a ions, she el she had people who unde s ood he on Twi e (Speckha d, 2019). We
can obse e in de ail how in e ac ions on Twi e shaped he a ec a he beginning, and hen
la e once she was in ISIS e i o y.
We can examine how one o mo e elemen s can impac he a ec i i y o an indi idual,
and ice e sa. The simul aneous in e play o a ec i i y be ween an indi idual and elemen s
in hei online and o line en i onmen s can be unde s ood when we obse e hei pe sonal
a angemen s. This an age poin helps us examine he a ec i i y o lone-ac ing ex emis s as
well as hose o membe s o an ex emis g oup. A gene al example is how s uden s a e
in luenced by hei eache s, pee s, ex books, online and o line educa ional spaces, and s udy-
ela ed beha io s du ing di e en imelines, such as a he beginning and end o he semes e .
In a speci ic example ela ed o Mu hana’s case, i was he belie in he calipha e, hea en and
hell i e, he online Twi e space, news ela ed media, he in e ac ions wi h o he indi iduals
on Twi e , and he ollowing ISIS in i a ions. All hese elemen s had hei ole in in luencing
89
he a ec i i y and decisions o Mu hana. Once she en e s ISIS e i o y, he a angemen al e s
and so does he a ec i i y.
F om a g oup a angemen an age poin , we can see how a ec is buil up and shaped
in o ganiza ions, g oups, and mo emen s. O ganiza ions, o example, ope a e as a angemen s
o shape employee beha io s and a ec i i y. Among hese ac o s may be d ess codes, ypes
o o ices, echnological de ices, bes p ac ices, e c. A company’s employees en ich i s o e all
e ec i eness, o example, h ough hei educa ional backg ounds, skill se s, and di e si y. In
Mu hana’s case, we see how ISIS pene a ed he li e, ini ially h ough Twi e . Du ing his
pe iod, ISIS’s lu e and seduc ion on social media was a i s peak. Once Mu hana en e ed ISIS
e i o y, she was expec ed o ollow he dic a es o he g oup. Fo ins ance, he only way she
could ge ou o a madha a (gues house) was o ma y an ISIS igh e , ei he o eign o local.
A e some ime, she oo s a ed inci ing ISIS ollowe s on Twi e
19
. We can u he dissec
ISIS as an o ganiza ion o see ha i had mul iple councils. The councils played speci ic oles
in he o ganiza ion's managemen , and each a ec ed he g oup’s ope a ions. Some o hese
councils we e he media council, he inancial council, he mili a y council, and he o eign
igh e s’ council (e.g., Mil on, 2021). Pe haps he mos e ec i e council du ing ec ui men
was hei media council, which made he c ea ion o he so-called calipha e, and mig a ion o
an Islamic s a e, “glamou ous” and “ ending”. The media council handled he c ea ion o
ideos, blogs, and o he o ms o p opaganda ha glo i ied he calipha e. The ideos made i
seem like an ideal place o people o li e and p ac ice hei ai h. I ga e po en ial membe s
he imp ession ha joining ISIS was he only way o li e a ue Islamic li e and be pa o a
u opian socie y. The p opaganda ci cula ed a ac ed nume ous sympa hize s and ollowe s o
ISIS. As mo e and mo e membe s joined ISIS, i s popula i y and esou ces inc eased. In he
online communi ies o he a - igh and in he mo emen s o whi e sup emacy, we can obse e
simila pa e ns. These a - igh and whi e sup emacis o ganiza ions ely on a sha ed se o
alues and belie s ha uni e membe s and guide hei beha io . They also ely on
o ganiza ional s uc u es, such as hie a chies and codes o conduc , o ensu e ha membe s
ollow he same se o ules. In addi ion o his, hey o en use physical symbols ( lags, logos,
e c.) o iden i y hemsel es and dis inguish hemsel es om o he g oups. One example is he
Reichsbü ge mo emen . The Reichsbü ge mo emen is a a - igh , an i-go e nmen
19
Howe e , Mu hana claims ha i was he husband a ha ime who wee ed om he Twi e handle
(Speckha d, 2019).
96
ac i i y was o inc ease child en’s abili y o pe o m in a wa like en i onmen . This was made
o look like an ad en u e. This shows aming as a mind-shaping ea u e o a ec . ISIS-
con olled camps a e he e o e a ec -exploi ing and a ec -pe pe ua ing en i onmen s.
When he kids we e shown how he mujahideen a e igh ing on he on -lines, hey el
mo i a ed o s ay wi h ISIS. ISIS’ eligious discou se was coupled wi h he exci emen o hese
young ec ui s. The si ua ion was p esen ed in such a way ha he kids el op imis ic abou i :
o ins ance, hey we e made o belie e ha ISIS is doing good o socie y. These can be
conside ed he con agion and aming ea u es o a ec . Addi ionally, he e is a ea u e ha
can be desc ibed as ca ego iza ion, i.e., ‘us e sus hem’, which c ea es cohesion among ISIS
membe s and sympa hize s agains all hose opposed o ISIS’s objec i es. These ea u es o
a ec can be classi ied as a ec -exploi ing, a ec -pe pe ua ing, and a ec -in ensi ying
p ocesses.
Fo he con usion o a ec ha Ibn-e-Uma had du ing imes o iolence and
beheadings, he o he kids se ed as sca olds, in he sense ha he should eel how hey eel.
Money, weapons, he mili a y camp, he augh na a i e, and p ac ices (such as aking
happiness) se ed as sca olds. The p ocesses o a ec shaping in such an a angemen a e
obse able. We can see ha , whe e Ibn-e-Uma shows signs o being con used by beheadings,
his iend who pe o ms he execu ion eels happy, powe ul, and e en ‘close o God’. Fo
some, we see desensi iza ion o iolence, o o he s, we see ea and panic. Fea u es o
con agion and desensi iza ion a e obse able in his ins ance. Fo he younge ec ui s,
si ua ions o iolence we e amed acco ding o a eligious na a i e and p esen ed as a win o
good o e e il. These p ocesses can be ca ego ized as a ec -gene a ing, a ec -in ensi ying,
and a ec -pe pe ua ing. In he minds o many young ec ui s, he jus ice o hei sha ia
p e ailed, and he socie y was ee o e il.
CONCLUSION
By employing he amewo k o si ua ed a ec i i y and i s concep o a ec i e a angemen ,
he examina ion o he men ioned cases in his pape b ings o he o e on he a ec i e
dynamic, con ibu ing o a comp ehensi e unde s anding o a ec ac oss indi idual and
socie al domains, empo al and spa ial con ex s, and physical and linguis ic modali ies. They
emphasize he ac ha ou emo ions a e no solely indi idual expe iences bu a e in luenced
by ou in e ac ions wi h o he s and he su oundings. This app oach p esen s a holis ic
unde s anding o he in ica e dynamics o emo ions. Fu he mo e, i aids in ou unde s anding

97
o he in ica e p ocesses associa ed wi h he in e ac ion among mul iple elemen s o he
a angemen , u he elucida ing he unc ions ul illed by hese p ocesses.
Si ua ed a ec i i y and he concep o a ec i e a angemen may hold c i ical insigh s
o cu en p e en i e and coun e iolen ex emism (P/CVE) p og ams as well. As we ha e
analyzed and explained wi h examples, he e is always an a ec i e a angemen comp ising
mul iple elemen s ha con ibu es o an indi idual ansi ioning o ex emism. Simila ly, wi h
ca e ul conside a ions in P/CVE p og ams, a ec i e a angemen s can be designed o
indi iduals ha can assis hem in ansi ioning away om ex emism. Counseling and
emo ional suppo should no be he only ocus o P/CVE p og ams. Adding sca olds ha a e
capable o gene a ing, in ensi ying, o pe pe ua ing a ec would acili a e he ansi ion om
ex emis ideas and belie s. I is impo an o inc ease exposu e o indi iduals o ma e ials,
including coun e na a i es, educa ional ma e ials, and spaces, ha can assis hem in inding
a sense o pu pose, iden i y, and belonging. All sca olds mus include he possibili y o
a ec i e engagemen , i.e., indi iduals mus be able o ela e emo ionally o he p o ided
elemen s. Mo eo e , sca olds should p o ide oppo uni ies o in e pe sonal ela ionships wi h
non-ex eme indi iduals h ough empa hic and compassiona e communica ion.
To conclude, we conside ha si ua ed a ec i i y and concep s like a ec i e
a angemen s p o ide us wi h ich analy ical ools, which assis us in gi ing a e y de ailed
a ec i e map, s a ing om a single elemen analysis o mul iple elemen s wo king in an
a angemen . I can con ibu e o a mo e comp ehensi e unde s anding o ex emism by
in eg a ing exis ing li e a u e om a ious disciplines, such as poli ical science, psychology,
sociology and c iminology. By examining cases o ex emism h ough his lens, we can
o eg ound a ec -cen ic ea u es and p ocesses. The allows us o unde s and no only he
pa hways leading o ex emism bu also he pa hways leading ou o i .
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102
Chap e 4
The Powe o Passion and Nos algia in Ex emism:
A Case S udy o he Ch is chu ch Mosque A ack
Hina Haq & Ru h Rebecca Tie jen
This chap e is based on a co-au ho ed book chap e wi h Ru h Rebecca Tie jen, i led “The
Powe o Passion and Nos algia in Ex emism: A Case S udy o he Ch is chu ch Mosque
A ack.” The piece is o hcoming in he edi ed In Ex emism and Subjec i i y: Ex emis ,
Academic, and P ac i ione Pe spec i es” o be published by Ox o d Uni e si y P ess and
edi ed by Rik Peels and Quassim Cassam.
Ru h and I co-au ho ed he o iginal d a , in eg a ing ou espec i e expe ise in
phenomenology and a ec heo y. I led he empi ical da a cu a ion and case econs uc ion,
while Ru h con ibu ed signi ican ly o he heo e ical amewo k.
This chap e o e s a c i ical phenomenological analysis o iolen ex emism
h ough he lens o Si ua ed A ec i i y, emphasizing how sac ed emo ion and nos algic
longing a e weaponized wi hin adicalized subjec i i ies. I a gues ha adicaliza ion is
d i en no only by nega i e emo ions like ea o ha ed, bu also by aspi a ional a ec s—
such as hope, anscendence, and edemp i e pu pose—sanc i ied wi hin ideological
sys ems. D awing on he concep s o a ec i e niches, a ec i e empla es, and a ec i e
chains, he chap e analyzes how digi al and ma e ial en i onmen s o ches a e nos algia and
collec i e passion. The Ch is chu ch case exempli ies how acial and eligious iden i y,
sac ed alues, and media ed memo y con e ge o shape a powe ul a ec i e o ien a ion
owa d iolence. Ra he han iewing such a acks me ely as ideological up u es, he chap e
concep ualizes hem as he culmina ion o a si ua ed a ec i e ajec o y, u ging in e en ions
ha add ess no only belie sys ems bu he emo ional ecologies ha nu u e ex emis
commi men s.
Re e ence
Haq, Hina, and Ru h Rebecca Tie jen. Fo hcoming. "The Powe o Passion and Nos algia
in Ex emism: A Case S udy o he Ch is chu ch Mosque A ack." In Ex emism
and Subjec i i y: Ex emis , Academic, and P ac i ione Pe spec i es, edi ed by Rik
Peels and Quassim Cassam. Ex eme Belie and Beha io Se ies, ol. 5. Ox o d
Uni e si y P ess.
125
Chap e 5
Radicaliza ion om a Socie al Pe spec i e
Dela am Sha ieioun & Hina Haq
This pape , co-au ho ed wi h Dela am Sha ieioun and published in 2023 in F on ie s in
Psychology (Resea ch Topic: Powe , Disc imina ion, and P i ilege in Indi iduals and
Ins i u ions), o e s a c i ical socio-a ec i e pe spec i e on adicaliza ion.
This pape d aws upon he hesis esea ch o Dela am Sha ieion, which i sel e ol ed
om a s udy p ojec o iginally concep ualized and supe ised by me. Sha ieioun led he
de elopmen o he heo e ical aming, and we collabo a ed closely on esea ch design, da a
collec ion and o ganiza ion. I con ibu ed subs an i ely o he o mal analysis, in e p e i e
syn hesis, and co-au ho ed he ini ial d a . Bo h au ho s we e ac i ely engaged in he e iew
and e ision p ocess, ensu ing concep ual cohe ence and analy ical dep h in he inal
manusc ip .
This chap e ad ances a shi om psychological indi idualism owa d a s uc u ally
embedded accoun o adicaliza ion, a guing ha ex emis ajec o ies a e shaped no only by
ideological exposu e bu also by pe sis en expe iences o sys emic exclusion, a ec i e inju y,
and social de alua ion. D awing on he concep s o a ec i e injus ice, phenomenology o
whi eness, and acialized auma, he pape explo es how he li ed expe iences o Muslim
mino i ies in Wes e n con ex s a e media ed by disc imina ion, aliena ion, and he e osion o
belonging. Th ough quali a i e analysis o in e iews wi h ISIS ec ui s, he s udy unco e s
how ma ginaliza ion becomes a ec i ely ans igu ed in o a sense o mo al ou age and
exis en ial signi icance wi hin ex emis ideologies. I u he c i iques p e ailing
coun e e o ism amewo ks ha ocus on beha io al p o iling and indi idualized
su eillance, con ending ha such app oaches obscu e he deepe sociopoli ical o ces ha
s uc u e ulne abili y o adicaliza ion. The chap e concludes by ad oca ing o a mo e a ec -
sensi i e, socially embedded s a egy o in e en ion—one ha acknowledges he emo ional
economies o exclusion and he s uc u al condi ions ha shape how ex emism is el ,
in e nalized, and enac ed.
This pape ecei ed ecogni ion and an in i a ion o egis e ou p ojec wi h MOTRA
(Moni o ingsys em und T ans e pla o m Radikalisie ung), a esea ch ne wo k unded by he
Fede al Minis y o Educa ion and Resea ch and he Fede al Minis y o he In e io and
Communi y o ci il secu i y esea ch.
Re e ence
Sha ieioun, D., & Haq, H. (2023). Radicaliza ion om a socie al pe spec i e. F on ie s in
Psychology, 14, 1197282. h ps://doi.o g/10.3389/ psyg.2023.1197282
126
ABSTRACT
S udies on adicaliza ion end o ocus on he dynamics o ex emis g oups and how hey
exploi g ie ances o ulne able indi iduals. I is impe a i e, howe e , o also unde s and he
socie al ac o s ha lead o such ulne abili ies and g ie ances. Ou social en i onmen plays
a key ole in how we iew he wo ld and shape ou belie s. By unde s anding he social
dynamics, we can gain insigh in o he mo i a ions ha d i e people o ex emism. Th oughou
his pape , we examine he socie al ac o s and p ocesses such as disc imina i e ins i u ional
s uc u es and social no ms/p ac ices ha can make an indi idual ulne able and se e as a
d i ing o ce o hem o join a adical g oup. To do ha , we use he p ocess-o ien ed
psychology o A nold Mindell and he phenomenology o whi eness o Sa a Ahmed as ou
heo e ical amewo k. These amewo ks help us map ou he socie al dynamics causing
indi iduals o ca e social niches ou o hei cu en social g oup and in o an ex emis g oup.
We use in e iews wi h ex-mili an s o he adical g oup, Islamic S a e o I aq and Sy ia, o
show how ce ain socie al dynamics, such as social injus ice, misuse o powe , ma ginaliza ion
and disc imina ion, se ed as key ac o s ha led hese indi iduals o iden i y and sympa hize
wi h adical ideology. The aim o his pape is o emphasize ha , o de elop e ec i e
p e en a i e measu es agains ec ui men in o ex emis g oups, i is impe a i e o ha e a
p o ound unde s anding o he social dynamics ha make an indi idual suscep ible o
adicaliza ion in he i s place.
Keywo ds: e o ism, adicaliza ion, disc imina ion, ma ginaliza ion, social injus ice, powe ,
socie y
127
INTRODUCTION
As social beings, humans li e in socie ies ha a e shaped by sha ed no ms, alues, and belie s.
Membe s o socie y in e ac wi h each o he and wi h he wo ld a ound hem o c ea e a sense
o iden i y and pu pose. Howe e , he e can always be an elemen o social inequali y in
socie y. Do ling (2010) explains ha social inequali y pe sis s in a socie y in such a way ha i
becomes he pa o e e yday no mal li e. As a esul o social injus ice, p ejudice and
disc imina ion may become no malized. A pa e n o disc imina ion and s igma iza ion can
esul in eelings o ejec ion, sel -s igma iza ion, in e nalized shame, and lowe ed sel -es eem
(Bu ke & Pa ke , 2007), leading o e en ual eac ion. This eac ion can ake a a ie y o o ms.
As a g oup, he eac ion may ake he o m o p o es , which, i p o oked u he , may lead o
io s. One ecen example o his is he Black Li es Ma e mo emen , which was igge ed by
ange ollowing he mu de o Geo ge Floyd in Minneso a on May 25, 2020, by a whi e police
o ice .
Indi iduals a e also a ec ed by sys emic disc imina ion and ma ginaliza ion.
Ma ginaliza ion and disc imina ion may lead o eelings o aliena ion, exclusion, and
dep i a ion. These eelings can change an indi idual’s pe spec i e on socie y. In such a case,
she may choose o lea e he said socie y o join an ideology o g oup ha o e s he a chance
o ge he g ie ances add essed. In ecen yea s, adical g oups like Islamic S a e o Sy ia and
I aq (ISIS) ha e also exploi ed socie al injus ices o ec ui ma ginalized people. In his pape ,
we will discuss his a ec . This is especially ue in he case o people who join ex emis
g oups o ex eme ideologies. Acco ding o he Re ised EU S a egy o Comba ing
Radicaliza ion and Rec ui men o Te o ism (2014) epo “Viola ions o human igh s can
gi e ise o g ie ances and he e y condi ions conduci e o he sp ead o adicaliza ion and
ec ui men o e o ism”. The e o e, i is i al o ensu e ha human igh s a e espec ed and
p o ec ed in o de o educe he isk o ex emism.
This pape aims o emphasize ha unde s anding he social dynamics ha make
indi iduals suscep ible o adicaliza ion in he i s place is c i ical o de eloping e ec i e
p e en a i e measu es agains ec ui men in o ex emis g oups. A e iew o adicaliza ion
s udies will be p esen ed in he ollowing sec ion, along wi h a discussion o why we mus ake
a s ep back o unde s and he social imbalance o powe in a socie y in o de o unde s and he
easons ha make i ine i able o someone o mo e owa d ex emism.
134
iolence and c imes bu ying o unde s and he ange and us a ion which can esul in
iolen io s.
Mindell u he elabo a es ha he poli ical leade s supp ess people who a e ang y in
o de o keep hei popula i y and show poli ical success. In he i s encoun e , his posi ion
migh seem easonable, bu i o ally igno es whe e ange and iolence come om. Why a e
some people ang y? P i ileged people, in e ms o belonging o he majo i y and belonging o
he cen e o he socie y, ge ang y when hei wo ld and i s cul u al no m is no ec ea ed. Fo
ins ance, how some conse a i e and a igh go e nmen s a ge mino i ies. They condemn
ac ions o mino i ies such as io s and e alia ion and supp ess hem wi hou aking a peek a
he oo s (Mindell 1995). As a esul , supp ession leads o e en mo e e ol s, mo e
unhappiness, and does no make con lic and iolence disappea (Mindell, 1995).
To unde s and he ange and us a ion o supp essed g oups in mo e de ail, in he nex
sec ion, we will discuss he powe imbalance ha enables one g oup o supp ess ano he ,
esul ing in an a ec i e push owa d adicaliza ion. To do so, we ely on Mindell’s idea o
ank. Which e e s o he imbalance o powe in a socie y. The concep o ank helps us o
unde s and ha when p i ileged g oups abuse hei powe , hey c ea e an en i onmen ha
no malizes disc imina ion and u he ma ginalizes ulne able g oups. This esul s in ange
and us a ion among hem.
SOCIAL REPERCUSSIONS OF MARGINALIZATION
Mindell a gues ha issues such as “ io s” o “mino i y c ime” a e ela ed o hei so-called
“ ank”. He de ines ank as “ he sum o he pe son’s p i ileges” in he socie y, o ins ance,
colo o skin, educa ion, social class, e c. (Mindell, 1995, p. 28). He a gues ha p oblems do
no necessa ily s a om he me e exis ence o anks, a he hey de elop when he ank, o in
o he wo ds he p i ileges, ge o go en by he ones who ha e a highe ank. Fo ins ance, an
educa ed pe son migh assume ha people wi h less educa ion a e igno an and ha hey a e
he ones who cause he p oblems. On an in e na ional le el, powe ul coun ies migh blame
he coun ies wi h less powe o being iolen and suppo ing e o ism because p i ileged
na ions, e en i hey do he ac o in e na ional killing in less powe ul coun ies, a e always
associa ed wi h being “ ic ims o e o ism” (Mindell, 1995, p. 90). One ecen example is he
e usal o he Uni ed S a es o Ame ica o le he In e na ional C iminal Cou (ICC) in es iga e
he cases o e he alleged wa c imes (in ol ing o u e and c uel ea men , dehumanizing

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abuses, and ape and o he o ms o sexual iolence) commi ed by U.S. A my and CIA
pe sonnel du ing he in asion o A ghanis an (Sche e , 2020).
In di e en socie ies, people wi h a speci ic p o ile ha e a highe ank. As a esul o
ha ing a highe ank, hey o m he cen e o ha socie y. People who do no ep esen he
mains eam p o ile a e pushed o he ma gins. Along his line o hough , Aya a (2019) sugges s
ha he a ec i e dimension o ci izenship helps o unde s and how a ec s and emo ions a e
used o ein o ce di e ences and di e en ial ea men s among he membe s o a socie y:
... while wo indi iduals may be equal ci izens om a legal poin o iew, hei
pe cei ed di e ence in e ms o eligion, ace, sex, gende , o class may esul in
iden i ying one indi idual as he p ope , ue ci izen who is na u ally en i led o he
p i ileges and s a us o ci izenship, whe eas he o he may be iden i ied as a “quasi” o
“ echnical” ci izen, whose belonging o he poli ical communi y emains in ques ion
despi e holding ci izenship. (Aya a, 2019, p. 332)
When powe is abused, no only people a e pushed o he ma gins, bu he e is also a
endency o ma ginalizing hese people’s p oblems because wha is expe ienced in he cen e
is deemed o be mo e impo an and needs o be ocused on. The ones in he cen e migh ake
an a i ude and send an unin ended message o he ma gin: “S op nagging, qui complaining
and ix you p oblem on you own” (Mindell, 1995). Rejec ing people and hei p oblems om
he cen e and accep ing ha hey and hei p oblems belong o he ma gin is a o m o
opp ession. Mindlessly opp essing and ma ginalizing indi iduals has consequences. The ones
who a e opp essed ei he become silen o gain engeance by becoming he opp esso s
(Mindell, 1995). The o e all a ec i e en i onmen c ea ed by he ‘ uling class’ o ‘cen e ’
esul s in clea disc imina ion, which may lead o os e ing us a ion in he quasi ci izen and
esul in con lic s. In o de o unde s and how powe imbalance in he socie al s uc u es a ec s
indi iduals, in he ollowing sec ion, we would like o use Sa a Ahmed’s idea abou he
‘phenomenology o whi eness’. Ahmed’s ideas abou he “whi e wo ld” and i s a ying impac s
on non-whi e indi iduals p o ide a powe ul con ex o Mindell’s wo k, demons a ing how
hei pe spec i es can be u he en iched.
PHENOMENOLOGY OF WHITENESS
Phenomenology a ends, in gene al, o he ac ile, es ibula , kines he ic, and isual cha ac e
o embodied eali y. Howe e , unde lying all o hese cha ac e s, as F an z Fanon says, we
should conside and hink o a “his o ic- acial” scheme (1986, p. 17). Ahmed (2006) desc ibes
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ou socie ies as con aining a his o ical and acial dimension. In he iew, hese dimensions
o m indi iduals’ expe iences in socie y di e en ly. As we a i e in his wo ld, we a e bo n
in o an en i onmen ha con eys a ec i e, his o ical, and acial aspec s ha a ec and di ec
ou way o being in he wo ld. The his o y o he g oup o na ion o which we belong p o ides
us wi h ou i s a ec i e en i onmen . This p o ides an in o ma i e pe spec i e on why, and
how, ce ain g oups and indi iduals may eel opp essed, o socially excluded, om adi ional
mains eam socie y.
Sa a Ahmed (2007) e e s o he idea o whi eness no as a biological cha ac e is ic o
he body ha we a e bo n wi h. Ra he , she de ines whi eness as an ongoing his o y and
backg ound o expe ience which make he li ed expe iences o humans dis inc om one
ano he . This his o y can enable some humans while disabling he o he s. This concep o
“whi eness” hus e e s no only (o e en p ima ily) o he colo o skin, i a he deno es an
o ien a ion ha pu s people in di e en ca ego ies and c ea es di e en expe iences. The e o e,
we conside i o be a p omising concep o an in-dep h explo a ion o he pe cei ed injus ice
by mino i ies. Whi eness is a de e mining elemen o ank i we conside whi eness as a ea u e
o “ he p i ileged”, a ea u e ha ma ginalized popula ions lack. In his ega d, “whi eness” is
no only ele an o he Muslims in Eu ope and he Uni ed S a es, bu also Muslims in mino i y
sec s in o he Muslim coun ies e.g., Sunnis in I aq.
Ahmed a gues ha , because o he his o y o colonialism, we li e in a whi e wo ld. The
wo ld o whi eness is he wo ld which we inhe i . The wo ld which is designed and has o de s
in a speci ic way. When we come o his wo ld, we al eady ha e a place in which we can dwell,
ha e access, and each ce ain objec s. This wo ld o whi eness is a wo ld in which ce ain
hings a e wi hin each o ce ain bodies, allowing hem o success ully each hose objec s
while making i di icul o o he s o do he same. As Ahmed s a es: “The ‘ma e ’ o ace is
e y much abou embodied eali y; seeing onesel o being seen as whi e o black o mixed
does a ec wha one ‘can do’, o e en whe e one can go, which can be desc ibed in e ms o
wha is and is no wi hin each” (Ahmed, 2006, p. 112).
Ahmed a gues ha he e a e some bodies which a e seen as “alike”; since hey a e
“sha ing whi eness” and ha e simila objec s wi hin each. By ha ing a common di ec ion, no
only does i gi e he bodies ha ha e he same di ec ion a sense o communi y, bu i also
makes hem dis inc om hose wi h di e en di ec ions. A we eme ges as an e ec o sha ing
a common o ien a ion and a hey eme ges as an e ec o cohe ing in a di e en di ec ion.
Ahmed s a es ha he o he side o he wo ld is associa ed wi h acial o he ness, meaning ha
we a ibu e all he o he ness which we do no ecognize as ou common cha ac e is ics o he
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o he side o he globe (Ahmed, 2006, p. 121). We a e we and hey a e hey. The ollowing
s a emen om p ime minis e o Hunga y, Vik o O bán, is a good illus a ion o wha Ahmed
e e s o as “ acial o he ness” and “o he side o he wo ld”: “We mus s a e ha we do no
wan o be di e se and do no wan o be mixed: we do no wan ou own colo , adi ions, and
na ional cul u e o be mixed wi h hose o o he s. We do no wan his. We do no wan ha a
all. We do no wan o be a di e se coun y” (Bay akli & Ha ez, 2019, p. 42).
In O ban’s s a emen abo e, an eno mous wish o a dis inc ion be ween “us” and
“ hem” is isible. The dis inc ion based on he colo o skin, adi ions and wha one calls
“na ional cul u e” which in The Fundamen al Law o Hunga y is e e ed o as “Ch is ian
Cul u e” (Bay akli & Ha ez, 2019, p. 48), clea ly igno es and de alues he indi iduals who do
no sha e hei mains eam no ms.
Ahmed (2006) claims ha sha ing “o he ness” comes a he cos o being s opped.
Ha ing a body ha is no aligned wi h “whi e bodies” can cause wo p oblems. On he one
hand, he di icul y o accessing objec s because hey a e a away. On he o he hand, he body
i sel does no coope a e in ailing behind he ac ion. A good example o no ha ing he objec s
wi hin each is he concep o ‘glass ceiling’. The non-whi e body does no only lack access o
ce ain objec s due o li ing in a whi e wo ld, bu when i a emp s o each o he objec s, he
non-whi e body aises agains i sel and p e en s he body om eaching i . The non-whi e
body canno go unno iced in he sea o whi eness because he spaces a e made in a way ha
makes he non-whi e body no iceable. Non-whi e bodies eel uncom o able, exposed, and
isible as hey y o ake up space because hey do no sha e a ce ain likeness wi h whi e
bodies. Whi eness is he pe mission o some bodies o pass o e epe i i ely, while he o he s
a e being s opped (c . also Bajwa e al. 2023). Whi eness is in isible o he whi e bodies
because hey can ade in he backg ound, whe eas he non-whi e bodies canno pass and
become hype - isible. Non-whi e bodies appea o be “ou o place”, and he e o e being
s opped when c ossing he line. No being awa e o he in isibili y o whi e bodies o hem
could be wha Mindell e e ed o as a o m o ank abuse and, as al eady discussed, his could
lead o iolen esponses in he socie y. Being iewed as an ou side and a cons an ailu e is
auma izing. Being cons an ly s opped and pushed away can cause a o m o social auma,
which could mo i a e iolence om he opp essed g oup (e.g., Williams, Osman, & Hyon,
2023).
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TRAUMA: A FACILITATOR IN THE RADICALIZATION PROCESS
In gene al, a cul u al auma may be desc ibed as a physical and psychological assaul in lic ed
by a g oup ha is dominan . This assaul is on he cul u e o a g oup o people who sha es a
speci ic iden i ying cha ac e is ic o a ilia ion (e.g., e hnici y, eligion) (e.g., E ans-Campbell,
2008; S amm e al., 2004). This auma can mani es i sel in e e yday li e, o en lea ing
indi iduals eeling like hey a e no capable o a aining he same oppo uni ies as hose wi hou
“o he ness”. I can be u he compounded when hose in posi ions o powe and p i ilege
e use o acknowledge his injus ice, ampli ying he eeling o ma ginaliza ion and exclusion.
The “ eelings o com o , unease, ange , empa hy, (mis) us , (dis) espec , lo e, and ha e
owa d an imagined ‘us’ and ‘o he s’ a e egula ed and ep oduced in o icial policies,
discou ses, and p ac ices” (Aya a, 2019). This sys ema ic disc imina ion can lead o eelings
o deep us a ion and esen men , which can lead o u he aliena ion. This plays an impo an
ole in he case o young people being ec ui ed o g oups like ISIS.
The in e iews wi h o me ISIS membe s and hei amilies conduc ed by Speckha d
& Yayla (2016) indica e a common s o yline o he o eign igh e s who joined ISIS om
Eu ope, especially Belgium. Many o hem we e encou aged by eache s om a young age o
pu sue he (mo e basic) echnical ack in school, and hen la e aced di icul ies inding a ull-
ime job. Howe e , e en when hey ha e been o he uni e si y, hey s ill ha e o ace
disc imina ion in inding jobs and ge ing hi ed
25
. One mo he desc ibed he si ua ion o he
son, a second-gene a ion immig an , like his: “He was sma and spoke mul iple languages,
bu high school eache s discou aged him and made him eel like he could only be a ac o y
wo ke o ga bage collec o , so inally he d opped ou o school. Then, o cou se, he could only
ge hose ypes o jobs, so he el o ally humilia ed. The e o is ec ui e p omised him much
mo e” (Speckha d & Yayla, 2016).
In one o he in e iews done by ICSVE (2018) which we al eady e e ed o, Salma,
he 22-yea -old Belgian, alks abou he expe ience o joining ISIS. She s a es: “[In Belgium],
some imes you eel a ge ed. You eel wa ched upon as i you’ e no he same like hem. I
you head is co e ed, you’ e wea ing a hijab his big and e e y hing, you’ e wa ched upon.”
(A Belgian Family in The Islamic S a e, 2018). Ano he in e iew (Geo ges he Belgian
Jihadis , 2018) wi h Geo ges M., a 25-yea -old om Belgium, who in ended o join he
25
Pape s ha elabo a e on immig an wo ke s' disc imina ion on he Eu opean job ma ke , see Weichselbaume ,
2017; 2020; and Ball e al., 2022.
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up ising in Sy ia bu ne e succeeded, po ayed he common s o y o being s opped, becoming
hype - isible and no being able o mo e upwa d. He con e ed o Islam when he was in high
school and aced his pa en s’ disag eemen and disappoin men . He was suspended om high
school o p osely izing, and he ul ima ely d opped ou o he school. “I knew ha i I s ayed
in ha es ablishmen o ano he , hings would ge wo se” (Geo ges he Belgian Jihadis , 2018).
He began wo king in jobs below his in ellec and, because o he lack o high school inal
ce i ica es, he could no ge a uni e si y educa ion. He explains ha a e wa ching ideos
om Sy ia, he and his iends el he u ge o go o Sy ia and help Muslims igh agains Basha
al-Assad. They had o e u n home because he a he o a iend ook hem back. He e is a
snippe demons a ing his pe cei ed he disc imina ion:
I wish e e yone could p ac ice his eligion as he wan s o like i ’s been done o a long
ime. No only o Muslims, bu also o Ch is ians and Jews. [Bu , he e in Belgium] I
canno p ay a wo k like I wan . I I wea a bea d, he e a e p ejudices. I my wi e wan s
o wea he hijab, she’ll ace disc imina ion. [A my job], I asked o do my p aye s.
E e ybody goes ou o smoke ciga e es. Why can’ I go ou o do my p aye ha doesn’
ake mo e han i e minu es? I am no in an Islamic land, bu in a so-called ‘democ a ic’
coun y. [He e] he e is no us in he o he . (Geo ges he Belgian Jihadis , 2018)
When socie ies and ins i u ions ail o p o ide spaces o some indi iduals and g oups
o ac eely as compa ed o he o he g oups o socie y, auma is gene a ed. A e 2001,
iden i ies o Muslim ci izens in Ame ica we e pu unde su eillance and many we e pe cei ed
as dange ous o h ea ening. This c ea ed a compa able a ec i e egis e ha highligh s he
wo ca ego ies o ci izens, one (who we e no Muslims) au oma ically shi o he na u ally
en i led ci izens, and o he s (Muslims) whose ci izenship became condi ional and elega ed o
a o mali y i hey do no ac , eel and beha e in a desi ed way. This equi ed addi ional
emo ional and a ec i e e o s o con i m he igh ul poli ical belonging (Slaby & on Sche e,
2019). Ha ing he w ong name, he w ong colo o skin, he w ong na ionali y, he w ong
eligion, obs uc he pa h o indi iduals, some imes empo a ily and some imes o e e . I
ceases hem and hei mo emen s. E en i hey ha e he igh passpo wi h a w ong body, hei
way is blocked. The e o e, i ou na ionali y does no ma ch ou body, i my name does no
ma ch my na ionali y, i my na ionali y does no ma ch my eligion, hen we a e held as suspec
and should answe hose inconsis encies and misma ches. Some bodies eel mo e a home, and
some eel he discom o o being s ange s. Some bodies a e ecognized mo e as “s ange s”

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and “ou o he place” han o he s (Ahmed, 2006). Being a s ange is being suspec ed o
sha ing o he ness.
Wha non-whi e bodies a e acing is a o m o social auma iza ion, since i a ge s he
en i e g oup, and i is implemen ed in a socie al con ex . Ano he ac o ha agg a a es his
socially embedded auma is ha he public ails o acknowledge o e en ac i ely denies he
auma. A amous example is he deba e abou A menian Genocide. E en in auma- ela ed
li e a u e, his a oidance o acknowledging opp essi e auma ic expe iences as auma exis s.
Holmes e al. (2016) c i icized DSM 5 o no including di e en o ms o opp ession (e.g.,
acism o sexism) as po en ially auma ic e en s. They elabo a e ha empi ical e idence has
shown ha ma ginalized g oups expe ienced highe PTSD le els in compa ison o he majo i y
(see Holmes e al., 2016). Despi e es ablished empi ical e idence, he cu en de ini ion o
auma ails o include ins i u ional, sys emic and psychological o ms o iolence as
po en ially auma ic expe iences. This kind o psychological iolence which is usually
“in isible” is a o m o social neglec o auma. As men ioned be o e, social auma is an
impe a i e elemen in he ec ui men o young people by g oups like ISIS. On he one hand,
no being able o mo e o wa d, eeling hype - isible, being s opped and in e oga ed, and
being conside ed as an ou side and on he o he hand, he d eam ha ISIS sells, he d eam o
ha ing a home whe e you can be ee and belong o. This can c ea e a powe ul con as
be ween he eelings o hopelessness and he p omise o secu i y and belonging ha ISIS o e s,
making he g oup pa icula ly a ac i e o ulne able young people.
When hie a chies and he di e ences in ank a e ins i u ionalized, people wi h highe
ank usually eel ha hey do no ha e o bea wi h he p oblems o people wi h less ank.
Hence, all he p oblems ge associa ed wi h he ank and he ank sys em ge s in e nalized
(Mindell, 1995). In e naliza ion o opp ession is so s ong ha people om mino i ies eel
auma ized. The e is no doub ha he poli ical p ocess in each coun y is di e en , bu he e
a e simila elemen s in all o hese p ocesses: he s uc u e o p ocesses be ween cen e and
ma gin. Conside ing ha almos all o ou sou ces a e linked o cul u es p ac iced in he cen e
o he socie y and ou embeddedness in cul u al sys ems, how we eel, and hink is also an
e ec o ha cul u e. Subsequen ly, ou sense o sel -wo h and he wo h o o he s is linked o
wha we ecei e om ha cul u e. As a esul , i is unde s andable ha ma ginalized g oups
may lack con idence. “Un ul illed needs”, “ ep essed eelings”, and “ he sea ch o he
meaning o li e” o ma ginalized g oups, play a c ucial ole in o ming a mass us a ion
(Mindell, 1995, p. 24).
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Some imes people do suppo social o de and le i con inue as i is; as i by na u e,
some a e supe io o o he s. Fo ins ance, when people see ha a conside able p opo ion o
immig an s is unemployed, hey s a doub ing immig an s’ abili ies and in elligence ins ead
o asking wha would ha e happened i hey would ha e go en he same amoun o
oppo uni ies o un old hei alen as he mains eam popula ion (Mindell, 1995). This
disc imina o y app oach pe sis s e en in esea ch li e a u e. Jason Richwine, o example,
ecei ed a doc o a e in public policy om Ha a d in 2009. In his disse a ion i led “IQ and
Immig a ion Policy”, he a gues ha immig an s ha e lowe IQs han na i e whi e Ame icans,
and ha hese low IQs a e likely o pe sis o gene a ions o come (Richwine, 2009). In
addi ion, he book “The Bell Cu e” by poli ical scien is s Cha les Mu ay and Richa d
He ms ei ayn can be ci ed as an example. They a gued in he book ha poo people, especially
poo black people, we e in insically less in elligen han whi e people (He ns ein & Mu ay,
1996). Mindell (1995) men ions ha mass us a ion o mino i ies can igni e a e olu ion. In
o he e ms, hey aim a he eplacemen o exis ing s uc u es, i.e., a e olu ion ha eplaces
he cu en social, economic, o poli ical s uc u es. Re olu ions a e mo e adical han e o ms.
Re o ms a e some al e na ions in he exis ing sys ems, whe eas e olu ions aim o change he
en i e sys em. I s uc u es do no change enough wi h e o m, e olu ion ollows (Mindell,
1995, p. 225). The up- ise o ISIS as a g oup migh be a case in poin . “I is no coincidence ha
ISIS and i s ex eme jihadi message ook oo in a egion ha was expe iencing socio-poli ical
uphea als a guably o a ‘one in a cen u y’ kind” (Oos e eld e al., 2017, p. 9). A e he a acks
o 9/11, he Ame ican go e nmen s a ed he wa in A ghanis an and I aq agains Al-Qaeda.
In he ime o I aq’s in asion, Al-Qaeda was no ye g ounded in I aq, bu ollowing yea s o
chaos, he ci cums ances became ideal o hem o expand in I aq and beyond. The e a e wo
conc e e a al decisions on behal o Coali ion P o isional Au ho i y (CPA), which assis ed he
ise o ISIS, namely he de-Baa hi ica ion o I aq’s go e nmen and disbanding he I aqi a my.
These decisions played an impo an ole in p omo ing and inc easing I aq's sec a ian con lic s
ha played o Sunni agains Shia. Since he CPA’s decision had an exclusi e impac on Sunni
popula ion, Al-Qaeda which la e became he Islamic S a e o I aq (ISI), ound an oppo uni y
and used he massi e us a ion o he Sunni popula ion agains he Shia and Wes e n o ces
(Oos e eld e al.,2017). No o mince wo ds, he mass us a ion o he Sunni popula ion wi h
hei go e nmen s and Wes e n coun ies o he ma ginaliza ion, he help o o me I aqi
Baa his o icials as a signi ican pa o ISIS’ leade ship, high goals o li ing in a socie y
wi hou disc imina ion unde Islamic laws, he ailu e o he go e ning powe s in Sy ia and
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I aq, and las ly he unin en ional suppo om he ou side by Wes e n coun ies and ebels in
Sy ia and I aq, con ibu ed o he ise and de elopmen o ISIS.
In he ollowing sec ion, we highligh how he inc ease in Islamophobia migh ha e an
impe a i e ole in con ibu ing o a heigh ened sense o pa anoia and ea o Muslims, adding
o he appeal o he ulne able indi iduals o join he ex emis g oups like ISIS.
THE DOUBLE SIGNAL OF ISLAMOPHOBIA
Acco ding o Mindell (1995), being unawa e o one’s ank could be a igge o con lic s in
he socie y. He ele a es his a gumen and in oduces he concep o “sending mixed signals”
as one o he mos oublesome consequences o unawa eness o ank. In ou communica ion,
wi hin amilies, g oups, communi ies, and e en on an in e na ional le el, wo ypes o signals
a e sen . “P ima y signals” a e he ones ha a e in ended, and “seconda y signals” a e he
signals which a e unin ended and indica e ano he le el o a pe son’s eeling and unconscious
sense o powe and ank. O en we send he p ima y message o “Le ’s alk” accompanied by
a seconda y message o “I am supe io and wha I say does no come in deba e” o “s ay whe e
you belong” (Mindell, 1995, pp. 49–60). Despi e he p ima y signal abou “ espec o eligious
di e si y” he inc ease o Islamophobia no jus among he people, bu also among poli icians
is a seconda y signal ha is con as ing wi h he p ima ily in ended message and he eby
s igma izes Muslims in gene al. As an example o he con a y signals, Canada can be ci ed.
While Canada emphasizes mul icul u alism as a p ima y message, i also con eys a seconda y
message h ough ins i u ional policies such as Bills 21 and 62. Policies like hese a ge Muslim
women and ma ginalize hem (Williams e al., 2022). In his sec ion, we explain how he a ising
issue o Islamophobia, p ejudice agains Muslims and he policies o comba hese issues could
send such seconda y signals.
The e has been an inc ease in Islamophobia and p ejudice agains Muslims in ecen
yea s. Muslim iden i y has been po ayed as an incompa ible iden i y wi h mode ni y and
democ acy (Wike & G im, 2010). Muslims, and especially second-gene a ion immig an
Muslims, can ha e a s enuous li e in Wes e n socie ies. The e is un o una ely li le esea ch
on he ma e o “Wes e n iews owa ds Muslims” bu esea ch by Wike and G im (2010) has
shown ha Wes e n socie ies pe cei e Muslims as bo h a secu i y and a cul u al h ea which
causes nega i e a i udes owa ds Muslims and he e o e people end o be mo e in ole an
owa d hem. Wike and G im ci e om Cesa i (2004) ha Sep embe 11 was a s a ing poin
o a “Bin Laden e ec ” which caused disc imina ion and e en iolence agains Muslims in
Wes e n socie ies. “The ‘Bin Laden E ec ’, acco ding o Cesa i, ‘consis s mainly o cas ing all
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Muslims wi hin he U.S. and Eu ope in he ole o The Enemy, ans o ming hem in o
scapegoa s o he en i e socie y’” (Cesa i, 2004). The e o e, he pe cei ed h ea iden i ied
wi h Muslims u ns he majo i y (non-Muslims) agains he mino i y. The esul s o his
esea ch ha e shown ha in he in es iga ed coun ies (Spain, he U.S., B i ain, F ance, and
Ge many) Muslims a e ega ded no only as a cul u al bu also as a secu i y h ea . Nega i e
a i udes ega ding Muslims do no p ima ily a ise because o Wes e ne s being wo ied abou
he incompa ibili y o Islam wi h democ acy and mode ni y, a he hey lie in he pe cep ion o
ex emism wi hin Muslim communi ies. Ce ainly, he e a e ex emis g oups bo h in Muslim
coun ies and in he Wes . Resea ch has con inuously shown ha in mos Muslim communi ies,
only a small mino i y holds ex emis iews, and he majo i y a e agains ex emism (Wike &
G im, 2010). Fo ins ance, in 2015 Pew Resea ch Cen e collec ed da a abou how he coun ies
wi h signi ican Muslim popula ion hold nega i e iews abou ex emis o ganisa ions like ISIS
(Poush e , 2015). Pe cei ing Muslims as a secu i y h ea can lead o ex eme eac ions agains
hem and a sense o exclusion om socie y.
The Eu opean Islamophobia Repo 2018 (Bay akli & Ha ez, 2019) was published wi h
he inancial suppo o he Eu opean Union on he ma e o Islamophobia in Eu ope. This
epo was an in es iga ion on he dynamics ha suppo an i-Muslim acism in Eu ope in a
di ec o indi ec way. A simple example would be he inciden s in which Muslims a e he
a ge . These a e usually desc ibed as ha e c ime, whe eas in o he cases, hey would be e e ed
o as e o is a acks (e.g., Co bin, 2017). In he ollowing pa ag aphs, we will p o ide an
o e iew o his epo .
Du ing he las decades, a - igh mo emen s, na ionalis s, and populis s s a ed ising
in Eu ope, in coun ies such as I aly and Aus ia hey e en ha e been in powe and in coali ions
o a while. Conside ing ha only 12% o Muslims who ha e been expe iencing disc imina ion
epo o he au ho i ies (Ha ez e al. 2019), Islamophobia inciden s happen oo equen ly o
be igno ed. Aus ia epo ed 540 cases o Islamophobic inciden s in 2018, which shows a 74%
inc ease in compa ison o 2017 in an i-Muslim acis a acks. In Belgium, 84% o epo ed
disc imina ions a wo kplaces we e ela ed o Islamophobia. F ance documen ed a 52% ise o
Islamophobic inciden s in 2018 in compa ison o 2017, wi h a o al numbe o 676 inciden s
(which include 20 physical a acks). Acco ding o he police s a is ics in Ge many, he e we e
678 a acks on Ge man Muslims; 40 a acks on mosques, and 1775 a acks on e ugees in 2018.
In he Ne he lands, 91% o a o al o 151 inciden s o eligious disc imina ion epo ed o he
police we e ela ed o Muslims. Violen ac s agains Muslims happened in di e en o ms, o
150
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Chap e 6
Conclusion
A ec , Ex emism, and Socie al T ajec o ies
This disse a ion con ibu es o he unde s anding o ex emism and adicaliza ion by
p io i izing a ec h ough a no el applica ion o si ua ed a ec i i y, he eby es ablishing i s
u ili y as bo h an analy ical amewo k and a p edic i e model o socie al ends. Th ough i e
in e connec ed chap e s, his wo k analyzes he mul i ace ed na u e o a ec i i y in ex emism,
encompassing indi idual adicaliza ion and socie al shi s, while b inging a ela i ely less
s udied a ec i e dimension o he o e on o explana o y models adi ionally domina ed by
nega i e emo ions o g ie ance-based app oaches.
A key con ibu ion is he explo a ion o posi i e emo ions in ex emis engagemen , an
aspec o en o e shadowed in adicaliza ion esea ch. By analyzing cases om eligious
ex emism o igh -wing mo emen s, he s udy demons a es how emo ions such as passion,
p ide, and nos algia a e powe ul d i e s o commi men , sus aining bo h indi idual and
collec i e dedica ion o ex emis ideologies. These insigh s unde sco e he need o conside
posi i e a ec as a cen al ac o in unde s anding he dynamics o adicaliza ion.
Chap e Insigh s and Connec ions
Each chap e o his disse a ion con ibu es unique insigh s while building upon he
ounda ional amewo k o si ua ed a ec i i y, demons a ing a cohesi e and p og essi e
de elopmen o he o e all hesis.
Chap e 1: In oduc ion and Theo e ical Founda ion
This chap e in oduces he cen al a gumen : si ua ed a ec i i y se es as bo h an analy ical
and p edic i e amewo k o unde s anding ex emism and socie al shi s. The case s udy o
Pakis an demons a es how sys ema ic a ec i e mind-shaping can p edic b oade poli ical and
ideological ans o ma ions, pa icula ly a socie y's mo emen owa d au ho i a ianism. This
chap e se s he s age by highligh ing he impo ance o unde s anding a ec i e a angemen s
and hei po en ial o shape socie al ajec o ies.
Chap e 2: Radicaliza ion Th ough he Lens o Si ua ed A ec i i y
He e, he disse a ion del es in o he mic o-le el p ocesses o indi idual adicaliza ion,
in oducing key heo e ical concep s such as a ec i e sca olding, mind in asion, and Sel -
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S imula o y Loops o A ec i i y (SSLA). These concep s explain how ex emis o ganiza ions
delibe a ely s uc u e en i onmen s o acili a e ec ui men and main ain membe ship h ough
emo ional manipula ion. This chap e connec s o he o e all hesis by illus a ing how
indi idual a ec i e expe iences a e shaped by b oade en i onmen al con ex s and a anged o
os e ex emis commi men s.
Chap e 3: Fo eg ounding A ec i i y in Pa hways o Ex emism
Building upon Chap e 2's mic o-le el analysis, his chap e de elops a mul i-le el analy ical
amewo k examining ex emism h ough a ious an age poin s. Th ough de ailed case
s udies, pa icula ly B en on Ta an 's Ch is chu ch mosque a acks, i analyzes how digi al
pla o ms and physical spaces unc ion as a ec i e sca olds. Ta an 's mani es o "The G ea
Replacemen " and his delibe a e insc ip ion o whi e sup emacis symbols on weapons
demons a e how physical objec s and digi al spaces a e weaponized o c ea e and main ain
a ec i e bonds. The case illus a es how online o ums like '8chan' and he li es eaming o
a acks se e o ampli y emo ional con agion and c ea e empla es o u u e ex emis ac ions.
The chap e also examines he case o Ibn-e-Uma , a 15-yea -old ISIS de ec o , e ealing how
di e en a ec i e a angemen s ope a e a pe sonal and g oup le els. Th ough hese cases, he
analysis connec s indi idual adicaliza ion p ocesses o b oade socie al dynamics,
demons a ing how a ec i e a angemen s unc ion simul aneously ac oss mul iple scales -
om pe sonal in e ac ions o socie al s uc u es.
Chap e 4: The Powe o Passion and Nos algia
Building on Chap e 3's mul i-scala analysis, his chap e combines si ua ed a ec i i y wi h
c i ical phenomenology o examine how es o a i e nos algia and eligious- acial passions
d i e ex emis commi men . Th ough a e-examina ion o B en on Ta an 's case, i
illumina es how es o a i e nos algia, a longing o absolu e u h and adi ion in e ac s wi h
in ense o ms o de o ion and zealo y o c ea e powe ul a ec i e economies. The
me hodological syn hesis e eals how ma e ial objec s, digi al spaces, and na a i es unc ion
as a ec i e sca olds, while c i ical phenomenology helps unpack he li ed expe ience o hese
in e wined a ec s. This dual analy ical app oach p o ides no el insigh s in o how posi i e
a ec i e expe iences—pa icula ly he combina ion o nos algic longing and passiona e
de o ion—ope a e wi hin b oade socio-poli ical con ex s o jus i y iolence and main ain
ex emis engagemen .
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Chap e 5: Radicaliza ion om a Socie al Pe spec i e
The concluding chap e shi s he ocus o mac o-le el dynamics, challenging con en ional
coun e - e o ism app oaches by e ealing how sys ema ic disc imina ion and ma ginaliza ion
c ea e en i onmen s conduci e o ex emism. The examina ion o pos -9/11 policies and
Islamophobia in Wes e n con ex s demons a es how ins i u ional acism and social auma can
unc ion as ca alys s o adicaliza ion. This chap e is c ucial o he o e all hesis because i
unde sco es he impo ance o unde s anding socie al-le el a ec i e a angemen s and hei
po en ial o ei he mi iga e o exace ba e ex emis endencies.
Final Though s
Si ua ed a ec i i y p o ides unp eceden ed insigh in o he in ica e a ec i e a chi ec u es o
adicaliza ion and ex emism. On he one hand his amewo k e eals in de ail, how indi idual
pa hways owa d ex emism a e sca olded h ough ca e ully enginee ed a ec i e
en i onmen s, as demons a ed in cases like B en on Ta an , Hoda Mu hana and Ibn-e-Uma
in chap e 3, whe e digi al pla o ms, symbolic a i ac s, and communi y p ac ices c ea e
powe ul emo ional esonances ha sus ain ex emis commi men s.
On he o he hand, his amewo k also illumina es how adical o ganiza ions
s a egically deploy a ec s as ec ui men ools. Fo example, as explained in chap e 2, ISIS's
and Taliban’s sophis ica ed use o a ec i e sca olding demons a es how ulne able
indi iduals a e d awn in o ex emis ideologies h ough posi i e emo ions—b o he hood,
pu pose, belonging—be o e being u he en enched h ough sel -s imula o y loops o a ec
ha make disengagemen inc easingly di icul . These loops, combining digi al p opaganda,
communi y p ac ices, and ca e ully cu a ed emo ional expe iences, c ea e esilien pa e ns o
ex emis commi men esis an o con en ional in e en ion app oaches.
A he socie al le el, he amewo k o si ua ed a ec i i y no only e eals how
go e nmen s and poli ical ac o s enginee a ec i e en i onmen s o shape collec i e beha io
bu also unc ions as an impo an p edic i e ool. The success o T ump’s “Make Ame ica
G ea Again” slogan is a p ime example o how nos algic a ec s can be mobilized o d i e
poli ical ans o ma ion. His dehumanizing he o ic agains immig an s (e.g., e e ing o hem
as h ea s o Ame ican socie y) and his policies a ge ing ee speech—such as p essu ing
uni e si ies o hand o e s uden in o ma ion o banning ce ain p o es s—a e ins umen al in
c ea ing a ec i e a angemen s ha no malize au ho i a ian poli ics. A s iking mani es a ion
o his manipula ion is he ecen emo al o di e si y- ela ed books om he U.S. Na al
Academy’s lib a y unde he guise o ejec ing “di isi e” na a i es. Wo ks like Maya
155
Angelou's “I Know Why he Caged Bi d Sings” and li e a u e on he Holocaus ha e been
censo ed, while Hi le 's “Mein Kamp ”—a ex oo ed in whi e sup emacy— emains a ailable.
These decisions e lec an enginee ed socie al shi owa d au ho i a ianism ha p imes
popula ions o ejec dissen and emb ace exclusiona y policies.
Such p edic i e capabili ies o he si ua ed a ec i i y amewo k become e en clea e
when conside ing Chap e 1’s analysis o Pakis an. By examining he a ec i e a chi ec u e
c ea ed h ough s a e policies— anging om he con ol o educa ional ma e ial o he
en o cemen o se e e punishmen laws, o s a e-con olled media p omo ing speci ic
na a i es— he amewo k illus a ed how a socie y was p imed o accep eligious in ole ance
and au ho i a ian powe wi h minimal esis ance. O e decades, he s a e ac i ely shaped wha
ci izens could eel, exp ess, and belie e, leading o a popula ion la gely desensi ized o
a oci ies commi ed by au ho i a ian egimes. This a ec i e enginee ing demons a es how
con olling na a i es, social no ms, and alues allows egimes o edi ec socie al emo ions in
ways ha legi imize policies o con ol and opp ession.
His o ical pa allels can be ound in Nazi Ge many, whe e simila a ec i e
manipula ion was used o subdue and mobilize a popula ion. The egime sys ema ically
con olled books, such as banning wo ks by Jewish au ho s o hose conside ed “un-Ge man,”
while p omo ing Nazi p opaganda. Au ho s like Thomas Mann and S e an Zweig we e exiled,
while media and educa ion we e inunda ed wi h an i-Semi ic, na ionalis con en glo i ying he
egime. Public book bu nings became i uals ha emo ionally uni ed ci izens unde sha ed
ideological pu poses. Fu he mo e, he igh ly o ches a ed Nu embe g allies—wi h hei
d ama ic symbolism, a chi ec u al displays, and synch onized i uals—c ea ed o e whelming
collec i e emo ional expe iences, sys ema ically p iming Ge man socie y o wa and
genocide. The Holocaus did no happen suddenly; i was he culmina ion o yea s o emo ional
condi ioning, manipula ing socie al alues o no malize and jus i y inhumane policies.
In con empo a y Ge many, socie al ends ha e eme ged in public discou se and
poli ical ep esen a ion, culmina ing in isible shi s owa d exclusiona y policies and he o ic.
The Al e na i e o Ge many (A D), a a - igh pa y, has su ged in elec o al success, e lec ing
a b oade socie al pi o owa d na ionalis , exclusiona y na a i es. The imbalanced
p esen a ion o key issues in media sugges he cons uc ion o an a ec i e en i onmen
conduci e o he no maliza ion o igh -wing ideologies. This end u he demons a es how
analyzing a ec i e a angemen s can unco e pa e ns poin ing owa d a socie y’s di ec ion—
whe he libe al o conse a i e, au ho i a ian o democ a ic.

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The s eng h o si ua ed a ec i i y lies in i s abili y o p o ide a de ailed analysis o
hese a ec i e a chi ec u es o e eal no only he mechanisms o ex emism and adicaliza ion
bu also he a ec i e pa hways shaping socie al ans o ma ions. By applying he amewo k
o socie al no ms, media pa e ns, educa ional policies, and con olled na a i es, one can
obse e he g adual p iming o indi iduals wi h speci ic emo ional and ideological
disposi ions. Fo example, in he U.S., he shi owa ds igh -wing au ho i a ianism is
inc easingly isible in policies ha e ode ee speech while manipula ing socie al ea s.
This disse a ion began by es ablishing si ua ed a ec i i y as a dynamic amewo k
capable o mapping a ec i e pa hways om indi idual cases o adicaliza ion o unde s anding
how ex emis o ganiza ions manipula e a ec s o ec ui and e ain ollowe s. As explo ed in
ea lie chap e s, he amewo k demons a ed i s u ili y in explaining ec ui men s a egies by
g oups like ISIS and he Taliban and connec ing hese indi idual dynamics o b oade socie al
ends in places like Pakis an, he U.S., and Ge many. The abili y o his amewo k o unco e
nuanced connec ions be ween enginee ed a ec i e en i onmen s and socie al beha io has
p o ound implica ions o i s de elopmen as a p edic i e ool.
The indings emphasize ha he a ec i e a chi ec u e o any socie y—shaped by
policies, social no ms, media con ol, and cul u al na a i es—can p edic he ajec o y o ha
socie y. Whe he i leans owa d libe alism o au ho i a ianism, inclusi i y o exclusion, he
pa e ns e ealed h ough si ua ed a ec i i y poin o how people a e p imed emo ionally o
accep ce ain ideologies and powe s uc u es. By con inuing o s udy i s applica ion ac oss
di e se socie ies, his amewo k can be de eloped in o a obus p edic i e ool, capable o
p oducing de ailed maps o a ec i e e olu ions ha highligh bo h ulne abili ies and
oppo uni ies o imely in e en ions.