Social Inclusion
2025 •Volume 13 •A icle 9774
h ps://doi.o g/10.17645/si.9774
ARTICLE Open Access Jou nal
Challenges in he T ansi ion F om App en iceships o Highe
Educa ion in England, Ge many, and No way
Johannes Ka l Schmees 1, Tim Migu a 2, Bill Esmond 1, Die ma F ommbe ge 2,
and Eli Smeplass 3
1Ins i u e o Educa ion & Skills, Uni e si y o De by, UK
2Ins i u e o Educa ion, Voca ional and Business Educa ion, Osnab ück Uni e si y, Ge many
3Facul y o Social and Educa ional Sciences, No wegian Uni e si y o Science and Technology, No way
Co espondence: Tim Migu a ([email p o ec ed])
Submi ed: 14 Decembe 2024 Accep ed: 30 July 2025 Published: 10 Sep embe 2025
Issue: This a icle is pa o he issue “Voca ional Schools as Pa hways o Highe Educa ion: In e na ional
Pe spec i es” edi ed by Ch is ian Imdo (Leibniz Uni e si y Hanno e / Bulga ian Academy o Sciences),
Claudia Schucha (Uni e si y o Wuppe al), and Nadine Be nha d (Technische Uni e si ä Be lin), ully open
access a h ps://doi.o g/10.17645/si.i423
Abs ac
The ansi ion om echnical and oca ional educa ion and aining o highe educa ion is pa icula ly
challenging o app en iceship g adua es. These challenges a e no only bu eauc a ic o logis ical bu also
e lec deepe sys emic inequali ies. In many coun ies, app en iceship ou es a he uppe seconda y le el
a e disp opo iona ely chosen by disad an aged g oups in ela ion o class, gende , and/o ace. As a esul ,
he limi ed, ime‐consuming, and inconsis en ly egula ed p og ession pa hways in place con ibu e o he
ep oduc ion o social inequali y. This a icle examines how such s uc u al ba ie s a e embedded in h ee
na ional app en iceship models in England, Ge many, and No way, whe e access o app en iceship
quali ica ions is p ima ily media ed by he labou ma ke . In England, highe ‐le el app en iceship ou es
combine company‐based lea ning wi h pa ‐ ime pa icipa ion in ins i u ional educa ion. In Ge many, he
pa allel o “dual” model in eg a es school‐based and company‐based aining, while No way’s sequen ial
model s uc u es app en iceships as successi e phases in schools and wo kplaces. In compa ing hese
models, we conclude ha despi e di e ences ac oss ansi ion ou es and claims o imp o e pe meabili y,
he di ide be ween oca ional and academic educa ion pe sis s ac oss all h ee sys ems, he eby ein o cing
a he han educing sys emic inequali y.
Keywo ds
case s udy; compa a i e analysis; c oss‐na ional; highe educa ion; pa hways; pe meabili y; ansi ion; TVET
© 2025 by he au ho (s), licensed unde a C ea i e Commons A ibu ion 4.0 In e na ional License (CC BY). 1
1. In oduc ion
Discussions on pe meabili y mos ly e e o he ansi ion om echnical and oca ional educa ion and
aining (TVET) o highe educa ion. This is why he Aus ian be u sbildende höhe e Schule ( oca ional
college), which combines a TVET quali ica ion wi h a highe educa ion en ance quali ica ion, is conside ed
he “bes p ac ice” (Deißinge e al., 2013, p. 8). Howe e , ansi ions be ween TVET and an inc easingly
s a i ied highe educa ion sys em a e no necessa ily de eloping as smoo hly in he con ex o
app en iceships, which equi e subs an i e wo kplace aining (F ommbe ge , 2019; Sende & K iesi, 2021).
By con as wi h oca ional schooling ha may p o ide addi ional uni e si y p epa a ion, app en iceship
g adua es ha e been p epa ed explici ly o wo king li e and he e o e ace disad an ages when a emp ing
o ansi ion o academic pa hways. In many coun ies, app en iceship ou es a e no only conside ed
dicho omous o academic educa ion, bu hey a e also s uc u ally and symbolically posi ioned as in e io .
These ou es o en se e s uden s om wo king‐class o o he wise ma ginalised backg ounds, compounding
issues o educa ional inequali y. Consequen ly, he p omise o equal oppo uni y h ough educa ion emains
un ul illed o many app en iceship g adua es, aising c i ical ques ions abou how educa ion sys ems
ep oduce, a he han esol e, social di isions. Addi ionally, he highe educa ion des ina ions a e o en o
compa a i ely low alue and may be seen as di e ing o discou aging s uden s om au hen ic highe
educa ion a he han as modes o access (Boli e , 2015; B in & Ka abel, 1989; G ubbs, 2020). The e o e,
his a icle in es iga es he ex en o which educa ion sys ems suppo o hinde p og ession om
app en iceships o highe educa ion, wi h app en iceships de ined as educa ional ou es whe e access o
quali ica ions is media ed by he labou ma ke (Esmond, 2020; Fulle & Unwin, 2009).
The challenges and obs acles ha pe sis h oughou he ansi ion om app en iceships a e closely
moni o ed. In his a icle, we analyse op ions o pe meabili y in o highe educa ion o app en iceship
g adua es a uppe seconda y le el—le el 4 o he Eu opean Quali ica ion F amewo k (EQF). A compa a i e
app oach is applied ac oss coun ies ha ha e di e en app en iceship s uc u es implemen ed. Ou goal
wi h his s udy is wo old: i s ly, we aim o illus a e he common ba ie s encoun e ed ac oss di e en
coun ies and, secondly, o highligh he di e ences in pe meabili y be ween hese coun ies. The cen al
ques ion posed in his a icle add esses he issue o equali y be ween TVET, on he one hand, and
gene al/highe educa ion on he o he . Fo app en iceship g adua es, access o highe educa ion can be
cons ained by limi ed pa hways and pe plexing egula o y amewo ks (Knigh e al., 2022; o Ge many,
see F ei ag e al., 2011; o No way, see Schmees e al., 2024). These indi iduals may ace ma ginalisa ion
o ejec ion by ( adi ional) uni e si ies du ing he admissions p ocess (Coulson e al., 2017; Jones e al.,
2019; Pilz, 2019) and may possess inadequa e academic skills due o he ci cumsc ibed na u e o
hei school‐based educa ion (Spö l, 2013, p. 466). Voca ional expe ise is equen ly ega ded as
inconsequen ial wi hin highe educa ion se ings (Gale, 2022). Simul aneously, le el 4 EQF app en iceship
pa hways a e pu sued by ma ginalised g oups, in nume ous coun ies, pa icula ly in e ms o class, gende ,
and/o ace. Consequen ly, hese indi iduals encoun e addi ional o ms o disc imina ion. The e o e,
app en iceship holde s a e, om a s uc u al, o ganisa ional, and indi idual pe spec i e, mos likely no o
p og ess in o highe educa ion despi e inc easing pe meabili y claims.
A he s uc u al le el, s uden access o highe educa ion ma ks he cen al concep ha widens o closes
possibili ies o pe meabili y be ween TVET and highe educa ion (e.g., Be nha d, 2019, pp. 132–134).
Howe e , e en in coun ies whe e TVET is ega ded as ela i ely p es igious, such as Aus ia, Ge many, and
Social Inclusion •2025 •Volume 13 •A icle 9774 2
Swi ze land, access om app en iceships o highe educa ion is he excep ion a he han he ule.
The concep behind he exp ession “equi alen no equal” ( o Ge many, see Eckel , 2016, chap e 6.3; o
Aus ia and Ge many, see Schwabe‐Ruck & Schlögl, 2014) has been used o legi imise obs acles and
ime‐was ing ha oca ionally quali ied s uden s ace when pu suing academic quali ica ions.
The implemen a ion o he EQF has esul ed in he es ablishmen o eigh dis inc le els o quali ica ions.
Le el 4 ep esen s a quali ica ion in uppe seconda y educa ion, Le el 5 an in e media e quali ica ion, and
le els 6, 7, and 8 co espond o bachelo ’s, mas e ’s, and PhD quali ica ions, espec i ely. This has se ed o
u he cla i y he dis inc ion be ween oca ional and gene al/academic educa ion. In Ge many, o ins ance,
i is possible o p og ess om EQF le el 4 in gene al educa ion o academic educa ion a EQF le el 6.
Howe e , his p og ession is signi ican ly es ic ed o oca ionally quali ied s uden s who a e a he same
EQF le el. Fu he mo e, he p og ession is ende ed e en mo e challenging o hose who possess an
app en iceship quali ica ion, he eby suppo ing claims ha pe meabili y is mo e es ic ed o hose who
quali y om mo e wo k‐ ela ed o ms o TVET (F ommbe ge , 2019, pp. 24–25).
A he o ganisa ional le el, ecogni ion o p io lea ning (RPL) as well as he connec ions be ween TVET and
highe educa ion ins i u ions a e cen al o enable pe meabili y (Be nha d, 2019, pp. 132–134). In England,
o ins ance, despi e a long‐s anding adi ion o RPL in TVET, p og ession in o highe educa ion, which is
usually om gene al educa ion, ends o emphasise di ec links o he s udy des ina ion. I is ine i able ha
p og essions om app en iceships, which a e mo e o ien ed o indus y expec a ions, will no align in he
same way. The “connec ions be ween TVET and highe educa ion ins i u ions” e e o models whe e he
ans e om TVET o highe educa ion is implemen ed h ough coope a ing ins i u ions in he sense ha a
oca ional school, college, o wo kplace lea ning a e closely connec ed o highe educa ion o enable
s uden s’ p og ession (F ommbe ge & Schmees, 2022). Howe e , o ms o hyb idisa ion o en ail o
acknowledge wo kplace lea ning. Excep ionally, coope a i e s udies, o en also e e ed o as dual s udies,
a e deg ee p og ammes in Ge many ha combine wo k placemen s wi h highe educa ion. Bu also, o
hese p og ammes, access is no gua an eed o app en iceship holde s a EQF le el 4, illus a ing ha
wi hou s uden access, pe meabili y has li le meaning. S uden s g adua ing om coope a i e s udies
p og ammes, in u n, ace di icul ies by hemsel es i hey plan o p og ess in o a mas e ’s o doc o al
p og amme a a adi ional uni e si y. While he e a e al e na i e op ions o ob ain a mas e ’s deg ee also a
a uni e si y o applied sciences o a coope a i e s udies uni e si y, he deg ee‐awa ding powe o a
doc o a e is, in gene al, es ic ed o uni e si ies alone (Beh enbeck, 2022; Meu e , 2018; Schmees, 2022).
A he indi idual le el, he majo i y o s uden s en olled in TVET in mos coun ies a e om wo king‐class
backg ounds (A is & A kins, 2017). I has been demons a ed ha ins i u ions o highe educa ion, mos
no ably hose o a p es igious epu a ion, ei he e use o accep hese s uden s (Coulson e al., 2017; Jones
e al., 2019) o a e no p epa ed o he di e si y ha ollows hei admission (Reay e al., 2009). Addi ionally,
oca ional knowledge is equen ly no ecognised by he mo e p es igious and well‐ esou ced ins i u ions
ha de e mine wha is o alue in highe educa ion, whils being i s p o ide s (Gale, 2022). I is e iden ha
app en iceship schemes exhibi a heigh ened p e alence o unde p i ileged indi iduals and a p onounced
emphasis on oca ional expe ise when compa ed o he b oade con ex o TVET. I can be claimed ha he
highe educa ion des ina ions o app en iceship g adua es, due o he easons men ioned, a e likely o be
less p es igious o ms o highe educa ion. The po en ial o an indi idual o bene i om he s uc u al
pe meabili y mechanisms is con ingen upon he assessmen o app op ia eness by he ga ekeepe s
(Bansche us e al., 2016, p. 9; Sch öde & Dehnbos el, 2019).
Social Inclusion •2025 •Volume 13 •A icle 9774 3
The ba ie s on he s uc u al, o ganisa ional, and indi idual le els delinea ed abo e o m he backg ound o
ou in es iga ion o ansi ions om app en iceships o highe educa ion. In o de o comp ehend he
in icacies o hese ba ie s a di e en le els and hei mul iple in e ac ions in he di e se case s udies o
England, Ge many, and No way, po en ial ansi ion pa hways a e ini ially iden i ied and hen discussed,
suppo ed by seconda y da a and/o s a is ics.
2. Me hodology
Taking a compa a i e app oach enables us o look beyond na ional explana ions and e eal he s uc u al
pa e ns ha in luence he pe meabili y be ween oca ional and highe educa ion in di e en sys ems.
By examining h ee coun ies wi h dis inc app en iceship models and highe educa ion sys ems, we can
iden i y how o mal p og ession oppo uni ies a e in luenced by unde lying ins i u ional ac o s, such as he
symbolic alue o oca ional knowledge, he s a i ica ion o highe educa ion, and he impac o policy on
access. This pe spec i e enables us o look beyond con ex ‐speci ic ba ie s and in e oga e whe he
educa ional e o ms genuinely expand social mobili y—o me ely ep oduce exis ing hie a chies in
new o ms.
The p ima y esea ch me hod is a compa a i e case s udy analysis (K oon & S u m, 2007) be ween England,
Ge many, and No way. In his app oach, he cases a e i s ly analysed in‐dep h be o e a compa ison is
ca ied ou . These cases we e selec ed based on hei dis inc (and di e en ) app en iceship s uc u es,
which p o ide a di e se se o cases o compa ison (Ge ing, 2007, p. 89). This allows us o conside he
impac o di e en app en iceship models on he ansi ion o highe educa ion. This way, we a e able o
de ec a ia ions due o he design o he app en iceship models. Ou da a basis comp ises educa ion
epo s, go e nmen documen s, na ional s a is ics, and academic esea ch. We, he e o e, e e o he
di e en designs o app en iceship models in England, Ge many, and No way compa a i ely. In England,
app en iceship ou es a e inc easingly agmen ed, combining company‐based lea ning wi h
ins i u ion‐based s udies in a ying ways ac oss occupa ional o ien a ions and le els o s udy (Esmond,
2020; Esmond & A kins, 2022). In Ge many, he dual app en iceship can be cha ac e ised as a pa allel
company‐based and school‐based s uc u e (F ommbe ge & Schmees, 2024). And, in No way, he
sequen ial model consis s o successi e phases in school and co po a ions (Smeplass & Schmees, 2023;
Vi olainen & Tønde , 2018). In all h ee cases, app en iceships a EQF le el 4 ep esen he ini ial
quali ica ion om which he possible ansi ion pa hways o highe educa ion a e analysed.
Finally, ou analysis akes in o accoun di e en ou es om app en iceship o highe educa ion.
As indica ed in p io s udies (F ommbe ge & Schmees, 2024; Schmees e al., 2024), sys ems usually p o ide
mul iple ou es o highe educa ion. In o de o sys ema ise hose ou es, we imply a e ically and
ho izon ally o ganised s uc u e o he educa ion sys em (Wilbe s, 2014, p. 21). The e ical s uc u e is
indica ed, o example, by di e en le els o quali ica ions and he ho izon al s uc u e by di e en
educa ion subsys ems wi h di e en aims and con en s, o example, TVET, gene al/highe educa ion, and
inc easingly hyb id o ms ( o he la e , see Schmees, 2022). When ansi ioning om app en iceships o
highe educa ion, we can hen dis inguish ho izon al, e ical, and la e al ansi ions (Hemkes, 2018; Hemkes
& Wilbe s, 2019; Wilbe s, 2014). Ho izon al ansi ions e e o pa hways whe e ano he quali ica ion on he
same quali ica ion le el is done in ano he educa ional subsys em. Ve ical ansi ions e e o ansi ions o
a highe quali ica ion le el bu in he e y same educa ion subsys em. Finally, la e al ansi ions e e o a
Social Inclusion •2025 •Volume 13 •A icle 9774 4
combined ansi ion (ho izon ally and e ically) a he same ime. Then, h ee di e en ou es om
app en iceships o highe educa ion can be aced (see Figu e 1):
1. Diagonal ou es om app en iceships o highe educa ion (la e al ansi ions);
2. Rou es ia highe TVET quali ica ions ( e ical ansi ion + ho izon al ansi ion);
3. Rou es ia gene al educa ion (in Ge many, howe e , as pa o he school‐based TVET sys em) on he
same quali ica ion le el, ha ha e o be added o he exis ing app en iceship quali ica ion be o e
en e ing highe educa ion (ho izon al ansi ion + e ical ansi ion).
Highe TVET
EQF le el 5/6/7
EQF le el 4
Highe educa on
TVET
Highe TVET
qualifica on
Highe educa on
qualifica on
App en ceship
qualifica on
Ge al educa on
qualifica ons
Gene al educa on
3
3
2
2
1
Figu e 1. Concep ualisa ion o he h ee ou es in o highe educa ion.
The ollowing sec ions p esen he h ee coun y case s udies. A e a b ie in oduc ion o he na ional
con ex , he case‐speci ic ansi ion pa hways om app en iceships (EQF le el 4) o highe educa ion a e
desc ibed in he con ex o he heu is ic model. Finally, each case s udy will discuss how he possibili ies o
ans e ing om app en iceships o highe educa ion a e con ibu ing o educa ional mobili y. Table 1
p o ides an o e iew o he ansi ion pa hs iden i ied in he case s udies. Wi hin he case s udies, we
p esen applied e sions o Figu e 1, excep o he case o England, as he deg ee app en iceship is a he
same ime a po en ial way in o highe educa ion, as i is i sel a highe educa ion p og amme al eady.
Table 1. Impo an pa hways om TVET o highe educa ion.
Cases Rou e 1 (diagonal) Rou e 2 (highe TVET) Rou e 3 (gene al
educa ion)
England Deg ee app en iceship (combined highe educa ion n.a.
and highe app en iceship quali ica ion)
Ge many Wo k expe ience plus
admission es
Highe TVET
(Au s iegs o bildung)
Fachobe schule
(FOS)/Be u sobe schule
(BOS)
No way Y Pa hway o 23/5 ule TVET college (Fagskole) Supplemen a y p og amme
Social Inclusion •2025 •Volume 13 •A icle 9774 5

3. England: Inno a ion o Re‐D awing Ba ie s?
In England, he ecen inno a ion o “deg ee app en iceships,” which combine a deg ee wi h ce i ied
highe ‐le el wo k expe ience (and some imes p o essional quali ica ions), appea s o ha e p o ided a ou e
o highe educa ion o app en ices. This has been hailed by policymake s as a success; ye his appa en
iumph is decep i e. Simply pu , p og ession o hese s udies p edominan ly occu s om subs an ially
di e en educa ional ou es and di e en social g oups han he wo king‐class young people who domina e
app en iceships a EQF le el 4. Ins ead, deg ee app en iceships widely a ac senio s a , such as manage s
and p o essionals who a e al eady employed. In his sense, we can iden i y English deg ee app en iceships
no as a success ul ou e om TVET in o highe educa ion, bu as an al e na i e ou e in o highe educa ion
o hose who ha e al eady achie ed some deg ee o mobili y wi hin he wo k o ce. Al e na i ely, he
ec ui men o less academically success ul young people di ec ly in o deg ee app en iceships, p omo ed by
some uni e si ies, can be desc ibed as a di e sion (B in & Ka abel, 1989) om con en ional highe
educa ion o di ec en an s.
App en iceships in England include a wide ange o subs an ially di e en p o isions. The mos sel ‐e iden
dis inc ion is by le el ( om EQF le el 3 o pos g adua e le el). The highe le els include: highe ‐le el
app en iceships, usually a EQF le el 5 (sub‐bachelo ), and deg ee app en iceships a bachelo ’s and
pos g adua e le els. The cu en s uc u e o app en iceships has been de e mined by legisla ion a he han
by indus y needs, al hough some employe s ha e been in ol ed in he design o quali ica ions by so‐called
“ ailblaze g oups” ha ha e b ough educa o s and o he s akeholde s oge he o design hem. Nei he
he le el, leng h, no associa ed quali ica ions a e de e mined in ad ance o his design p ocess. Mo eo e ,
hese quali ica ions di e e en a he same le el: an app en iceship in enginee ing a EQF le el 4 can include
a wo‐yea college cou se, leading o an uppe ‐seconda y quali ica ion, alongside wo k expe ience; a cou se
in hai d essing o beau y he apy is mo e likely o be p o ided en i ely in he wo kplace (Esmond, 2020).
The app en iceship s anda d manda es ha app en ices be gi en 20% o hei ime as “o ‐ he‐job aining,”
bu he e a e no s ic equi emen s as o wha his includes o whe e i akes place (Esmond, 2020).
App en iceships in England ha e long been dis inguishable as a less a ou able TVET ou e han in o he
Eu opean coun ies, such as Ge many. Du ing he ea ly pos ‐wa pe iod, hey p o ided an op ion o
low‐a aining young people seeking o lea e school ea ly o en e he labou ma ke , wi h app en iceships
combining ull‐ ime wo k and pa ‐ ime day o e ening s udy; apa om small numbe s o enginee ing
app en ices p og essing o pa ‐ ime “highe na ional ce i ica es” in hei inal yea , ques ions o
highe ‐le el p og ession ha dly a ose. The di ide be ween sec o s widened wi h he explosion o you h
unemploymen in he 1980s, as app en iceships became he name gi en o compe ency‐based quali ica ions
o e ed by a p i a e aining ma ke (Fulle & Unwin, 2009). By con as , o e he same pe iod, highe
educa ion expanded om pa icipa ion below 20% o o e 40% o he age coho , he bene icia ies
including lowe ‐achie ing middle‐class you h in schools and u he educa ion colleges (Hodgson & Spou s,
2015; K. O , 2020). Consequen ly, app en iceships ha e los much o hei o me cha ac e as a di ec
en y ou e o wo k, suppo ed by educa ional p o ision ha could p o ide a pla o m o mo e senio oles
in he wo k o ce a a la e s age.
Social Inclusion •2025 •Volume 13 •A icle 9774 6
3.1. In oduc ion o App en iceship‐Only Pa hways
Mo e ecen a emp s o in oduce app en iceship ou es a highe le els ha e had a di icul his o y. En y
in o English highe educa ion h ough an app en iceship ou e i s ook he o m o “highe le el”
app en iceship (Dismo e, 2014). Mo i a ed by a go e nmen d i e owa ds quasi‐ma ke di e si y, including
he encou agemen o p i a e p o ide s, i s in oduc ion was seen as an al e na i e o ull‐ ime bachelo ’s
deg ees, which had long emained he main mode o s udy in English highe educa ion (Highe Educa ion
Funding Council o England, 2010; Na ional Commi ee o Inqui y in o Highe Educa ion, 1997).
The numbe s on hese cou ses emained low compa ed o pa ‐ ime highe educa ion in colleges, which had
been unde mined by he wi hd awal o g an unding (Esmond, 2012, 2015). Wi hou he suppo o
signi ican inancial in es men , g ow h was insubs an ial, as cap u ed by a se ies o epo s (e.g., Joslin &
Smi h, 2013). Smi h e al. (2015) eco ded he h ee‐yea p og ession a e o ad anced (i.e., EQF le el 4)
app en ices as alling om 11.2% in 2006/2007 o 8.8% in 2009/2010. In common wi h o he oca ional
ou es, he ansi ions o young people om his gene a ion we e equen ly i egula and dis up ed: Whils
he p og ession o he 2006/2007 coho in o highe educa ion o e se en yea s s ood a 19.3%, only 58%
o hese s uden s p og essed wi hin h ee yea s, whils 42% p og essed be ween ou and se en yea s a e
comple ing hei app en iceship. Meanwhile, a shi o olde app en ices was accomplished a a s oke by
e‐designa ing adul s on a wo k‐based “ ain o gain” ou e as app en ices. Smi h e al. (2015, p. 9) epo ed
an inc ease in he o al o ad anced app en ices who we e aged 25+ om 115 o 0.3% o he o al in
2006/2007 o 25,015 o 40% o he o al in 2010/2011.
The policies o conse a i e‐led go e nmen s om 2010 p o ed mo e success ul, h ough e o ms designed
o aise bo h he p o ile and quali y o app en iceships, as well as he le el o s udy ha mos
app en iceships p o ide. Changes in app en iceship policy since 2015 ha e cen ed on he in oduc ion o
new app en iceship s anda ds ( ou es wi h ewe knowledge‐based quali ica ions and wi h igo ous
end‐ es s eplacing compe ency assessmen s) and a compulso y le y imposed on employe s (Richa d, 2012;
Wol , 2015). Fo employe s unwilling o spend his le y on aining new en an s o he business, deg ee
app en iceships o e ed he chance o spend i on managemen quali ica ions o hei senio s a . These
e o ms, aken oge he , ha e allowed UK go e nmen s—posi ioning app en iceships as a di e si ica ion o
highe educa ion— o inc ease he p opo ion o app en iceships a highe le els e en as he o al numbe o
app en iceships has declined. The numbe o app o ed s anda ds was much highe a EQF le el 4 and abo e,
and hese we e unded a signi ican ly mo e a ou able le els. Thus, 33% o app en iceships s a ed in
2022/2023 we e a highe le els, whils in e media e le el (EQF le el 3) app en iceships had allen om
65% o he o al (p io o he e o ms) o only 23% o he o al. The o al numbe o app en iceships a all
le els emains lowe han be o e he e o ms (Foley, 2021; Powell, 2024). Con e sely, he numbe o highe
educa ion en an s s udying on deg ee app en iceships has mo e han quad upled since 2015/2016. This
now s ands a 13.2%, almos one‐se en h, o he o al en an s o deg ee s udies (Depa men o Educa ion
o he UK, 2024).
3.2. Mo e Highe S udy, Less P og ession
This has ans o med app en iceships om a sys em in which p og ession o highe educa ion was la gely
excluded o a sys em in which app en iceship now includes s udy a highe le els. Wo k‐based and
wo k‐ ela ed lea ning ha e become ecognised componen s o many deg ee cou ses, a change easily
Social Inclusion •2025 •Volume 13 •A icle 9774 7
ep esen ed as a con e gence o highe and oca ional sec o s. Pullen e al. (2024) a gue ha deg ee
app en iceships now p o ide a ou e h ough which adul s can p og ess in o highe educa ion in a way ha
was no p e iously a ailable. Albei in an impo e ished way, his suppo s he en y o highe educa ion o
hose who ha e ound hemsel es in, o close o, mo e esponsible posi ions a wo k. In his, hey ha e
a ou able oppo uni ies o ca y ou he equi emen s o hei app en iceship compa ed o hose s udying
a ea lie le els (Esmond, 2020).
This e o m, howe e , does no ep esen an inc ease in p og ession om TVET cou ses a EQF le el 3 and
below. Ins ead, i has in oduced a new ou e wi hin highe educa ion. F om he pe spec i e o access o
disad an aged s uden s, his shi appea s o ha e widened a he han diminished he di ide, as deg ee
app en iceships and highe ‐le el app en iceships become mo e equen oppo uni ies o middle‐class s a
(Fulle & Unwin, 2017). In 2022/2023, 48% o s a ing app en iceships we e unde aken by en an s aged
25 and o e , who we e o en senio manage s. E idence o con ibu ions o social mobili y emains pa ial,
wi h e en p o ide s eluc an o claim deg ee app en iceships as e idence o widening pa icipa ion
(Ca aglia e al., 2022; Lillis & B a enboe , 2022; Pullen e al., 2024). Re lec ing he ma ke policies o ecen
yea s, i has been a gued ha app en iceship in England may be less likely o p omo e pe meabili y han o
assu e he educa ional success o hose al eady socially ad an aged. The appea ance o app en iceships a
deg ee le el coincides wi h he discon inua ion o app en iceships a lowe le els o s udy, om which
p og ession o deg ee s udy has become as imp obable as e e , bu wi h ewe app en iceships a lowe
le els o s a wi h. Ra he han a new ladde o oppo uni y, app en iceships in England ha e had many o
he lowe ungs kicked away.
4. Ge many: Be ween Pe meabili y and he Educa ional Di ide
The Ge man TVET sys em o e s a b oad spec um o ini ial and u he oca ional quali ica ions
(F ommbe ge , 2025; F ommbe ge & Schmees, 2024), aimed a di e se a ge g oups and sec o s and
p o iding a ange o op ions o u he s udies. In nume ous cases, hese p og ammes o e he oppo uni y
o ob ain TVET quali ica ions ha can be u ilised o di ec ly access highe educa ion. In ce ain ins ances,
hyb id quali ica ions a e also o e ed, in eg a ing oca ional and highe educa ion (in pa icula , coope a i e
deg ee p og ammes). In gene al, app oxima ely one‐ hi d o s uden s in Ge many ans e o highe educa ion
ia oca ional pa hways a he han ia gene al educa ion (Au o :inneng uppe Bildungsbe ich e s a ung,
2024, pp. 209–215).
The de elopmen o hese di e se pa hways be ween oca ional and highe educa ion has been a his o ical
p ocess. In Ge many, he e is a long‐s anding adi ion o acqui ing a highe educa ion en ance quali ica ion
h ough TVET (Buchholz & P a e , 2017; as ci ed in Au o :inneng uppe Bildungsbe ich e s a ung, 2024;
see also F ommbe ge , 2021). The expansion o TVET pa hways leading o highe educa ion en ance
quali ica ions cons i u ed a cen al componen o he so‐called educa ional expansion in he 1970s. In his
espec , TVET in Ge many se es o de elop oppo uni ies o a a ge g oup ha did no comple e gene al
uppe seconda y educa ion. In his ega d, TVET ul ils a compensa o y unc ion.
Howe e , hese oppo uni ies, i.e., o be pe mi ed o ans e o a cou se o s udy ia TVET, a e no
adi ionally associa ed wi h he dual app en iceship model (EQF le el 4). He e, he acquisi ion o ecognised
oca ional quali ica ions is p edica ed on aining ha akes place p edominan ly in he company and is
Social Inclusion •2025 •Volume 13 •A icle 9774 8
supplemen ed by lea ning in oca ional schools. The ansi ion om dual app en iceships o employmen is a
ela i ely e ec i e p ocess. Howe e , i lacks connec ions o highe educa ion. This dead end o
app en iceships has shaped he poli ical and scien i ic discou se on TVET o decades. Pa icula ly since he
1970s, he e ha e been ongoing discussions and demands o he in eg a ion o app en iceships wi h he
highe educa ion en ance quali ica ion. No wi hs anding he implemen a ion o pilo p og ammes, a di ec
link be ween he wo has no been es ablished o da e.
4.1. Di e si ied Rou es F om App en iceships o Highe Educa ion
Wi h ega d o he ep esen a ion o ansi ions in Figu e 1, he ollowing ansi ions can be dis inguished
(see Figu e 2):
1. T ansi ions om app en iceships o highe educa ion ia wo k expe ience and an admission es ;
2. T ansi ions h ough highe TVET quali ica ions;
3. T ansi ions h ough school‐based uni e si y en ance quali ica ions as pa o school‐based TVET.
Highe TVET
EQF le el 5/6/7
EQF le el 4
Highe educaon
TVET
Highe TVET
qualificaon
Highe educaon
qualificaon
App enceship
qualificaon
Ge al educaon
qualificaons
Gene al educaon
3
2
Highe TVET
(Au segs o bildung) FOS/BOS
3
2Wo k expe ience +
admission es
1
Figu e 2. T ansi ion ou es o highe educa ion in Ge many.
Since he beginning o he 2000s, his s uc u al de ici has been pa ially compensa ed o by changes o
he admission egula ions o highe educa ion access in he highe educa ion ac s o he ede a ed s a es.
The p e ailing egula ions s ipula e ha , in each ede a ed s a e, indi iduals who ha e no ob ained a
gene al quali ica ion o uni e si y admission a school, bu a oca ional quali ica ion, may also be admi ed
o uni e si y s udies. In o de o be conside ed o his posi ion, i is necessa y o ha e a minimum o h ee
yea s o p o essional expe ience, which mus ha e been gained ollowing he conclusion o he
app en iceship p og amme. P ospec i e s uden s a e hen equi ed o unde ake an admission es o e ed
by he a ge uni e si y. I he necessa y c i e ia a e me , i is possible o unde ake a p og amme o s udy
ha is closely ela ed o he aining occupa ion (S anding Con e ence o he Minis e s o Educa ion and
Cul u al A ai s, 2009). I should be no ed ha he egula ions pe aining o he admission es a e subjec o
a ia ion depending on he ede a ed s a e. Some ede a ed s a es ha e addi ional egula ions. In he s a e
o Hesse, o ins ance, he admission es can be omi ed i hey achie e a ce ain g ade in hei
app en iceship quali ica ion.
Social Inclusion •2025 •Volume 13 •A icle 9774 9
Rou e 3 was in oduced as ano he quali ica ion on EQF le el 4 in o de o en e highe educa ion a e a
ho izon al ansi ion. And i s uden s mus acqui e addi ional quali ica ions ei he wi hin he gene al
educa ion sys em o h ough ad anced TVET, i aises he ques ion o how e ec i ely he skills gained
du ing app en iceships a e being ecognised. As o Ge many, his ou e is he s anda d pa hway o
app en iceship g adua es a EQF le el 4 who do no al eady possess a highe educa ion en ance
quali ica ion. The educa ional pa hways a FOS (and BOS) a e p epa ing hei s uden s o highe educa ion
by mos ly co e ing gene al subjec s, e en hough hose schools a e pa o he sys em o TVET schools.
These ou es ake ano he wo o h ee yea s, depending on whe he he objec i e is access o uni e si ies
o applied sciences o adi ional uni e si ies. A simila possibili y exis s in No way, which akes jus one yea
o be comple ed. Howe e , he equi emen s o s uden s in he supplemen a y yea a e ex emely high and
e y much gene al educa ion‐d i en.
As long as p o i able ou comes like ca ee pa hways, sala ies, and p es ige con inue o be achie ed p ima ily
h ough academic quali ica ions, hese ansi ion pa hways om oca ional o highe educa ion a e ele an
o social equali y. Al hough he c ea ion o al e na i e u he educa ion pa hways in highe TVET is being
add essed, i is s ill no on an equal oo ing wi h academic educa ion. Despi e he e o s made o suppo
he ansi ion o people wi h oca ional quali ica ions in o highe educa ion, he numbe s a e compa a i ely
low. This may be due o he ac ha c ea ing ansi ion pa hways does no su icien ly add ess he s uc u al,
o ganisa ional, and indi idual ba ie s ha a e aced by hose wi h oca ional quali ica ions.
The p esen a ion o he ansi ion pa hways and he analysis we e ca ied ou on he basis o a heu is ic
model (Figu e 1). Acco dingly, a selec ion o coun y‐speci ic ansi ion mechanisms was made o ensu e
compa abili y o he cases. Howe e , his means ha o he ansi ion mechanisms a e no men ioned in his
a icle. These ela e, o example, o educa ional pa hways h ough gene al educa ion wi hou aking TVET
in o accoun , o indi idual egula ions o p i a e o speci ic ypes o highe educa ion ins i u ions, such as
he ecogni ion o excep ional indi idual alen s in specialised highe educa ion ins i u ions, o example, o
spo , music, and a in Ge many (Win e , 2019). Fu he mo e, he cases and ansi ion ou es we e p ima ily
p esen ed a a o mal‐s uc u al le el and suppo ed by s a is ical da a. This app oach also esul s in a less
de ailed depic ion o he ou es hemsel es. The limi ed dep h is pa ly a ibu able o he need o a
uni o m basis o compa ison, which, on he o he hand, p o ides he possibili y o he compa a i e
app oach chosen. The pa ial lack o quan i a i e p esen a ion o indi idual ansi ion pa hways is due o a
lack o da a. This applies in pa icula o he Ge man case.
As ou c oss‐coun y compa ison shows, policy can lay o mal b idges only when he suppo ing ins i u ions
and ewa d s uc u es ise o equal heigh on bo h banks. Un il oca ional and academic c eden ials sha e he
same socie al s a us, pe meabili y will emain mo e a design ea u e on pape han a unc ioning pa o he
educa ion landscape. A he same ime, i p omo es sys emic inequali y and ends o ein o ce i a he han
educe i .
Con lic o In e es s
The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es s.
Social Inclusion •2025 •Volume 13 •A icle 9774 16

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Abou he Au ho s
Johannes Ka l Schmees is an associa e p o esso o TVET a he Ins i u e o Educa ion &
Skills, Uni e si y o De by, UK. His esea ch in e es s a e in in e na ional and compa a i e
esea ch on TVET sys ems. The eby, he is pa icula ly in e es ed in in e na ional and
bila e al in luences on he de elopmen o TVET s uc u es.
Tim Migu a is a esea ch associa e a Osnab ück Uni e si y in he Depa men o Voca ional
Educa ion S udies. His esea ch ocuses on he academisa ion and Eu opeanisa ion o
heal h p o essions in Aus ia, Ge many, and Swi ze land, as well as in‐company aining
and eaching ac i i ies.
Bill Esmond is a p o esso o p o essional educa ion and aining in he Ins i u e o Educa ion
& Skills, Uni e si y o De by, UK. His esea ch seeks o ex end in e na ional unde s andings
o oca ional/wo kplace p ac ices and hei possibili ies o social jus ice.
Social Inclusion •2025 •Volume 13 •A icle 9774 21

Die ma F ommbe ge has been a p o esso o oca ional educa ion a Osnab ück
Uni e si y since 2017. He p e iously held a p o esso ship a he Uni e si y o Magdebu g.
His esea ch in e es s include compa a i e aspec s o TVET esea ch, especially wi h an
in e na ional ocus, as well as s uc u es and unc ions o TVET in Ge many.
Eli Smeplass is an associa e p o esso o oca ional pedagogy a he Depa men o Teache
Educa ion a he No wegian Uni e si y o Science and Technology. He esea ch explo es
educa ion, inequali y, and p o essional lea ning, wi h a pa icula ocus on oca ional
pa hways. She wo ks a he in e sec ion o sociological heo y and pedagogical p ac ice.
Social Inclusion •2025 •Volume 13 •A icle 9774 22