Is i possible o iden i y phenomenal consciousness in a i icial
sys ems in he ligh o he gaming p oblem?1
Michele Fa iscoa,b,*, Ka hinka E e sa,
aCen e o Resea ch E hics and Bioe hics, Uppsala Uni e si y, Uppsala, Sweden
bBiogem Molecula Biology and Gene ics Resea ch Ins i u e, A iano I pino (AV), I aly
*Co espondence: Michele Fa isco (michele. a [email protected]).
Abs ac
We analyze he ques ion how phenomenal consciousness (i any) migh be iden i ied in a i icial
sys ems wi h speci ic e e ence o he gaming p oblem (i.e., he ac ha he a i icial sys em is
ained wi h human-gene a ed da a, so ha possible beha io al and/o unc ional e idence o
consciousness is no eliable). Ou goal is o e iew selec ed illus a i e app oaches o
ad ancing in his di ec ion. We highligh s eng hs and sho comings o each app oach, inally
p oposing a combina ion o di e en s a egies as a p omising ask o pu sue.
1 The manusc ip has been submi ed o he special issue “E alua ing A i icial Consciousness” (in Philosophy and
he Mind Sciences).
2
In oduc ion
Among he issues a ising om ecen de elopmen o A i icial In elligence (AI), he p ospec
o a i icial o ms o consciousness eme ges as pa icula ly challenging, aising signi ican
expec a ions (ei he posi i e o nega i e) om bo h specialis s in he ield and he gene al public
(Lenha o, 2024, Colomba o and Fleming, 2023). One o he main challenges aised by a
hypo he ical AI consciousness is how o iden i y i . In ac , he classical o he minds p oblem,
which essen ially makes any a ibu ion o consciousness in e en ial, is e en mo e icky o
candida e conscious AI sys ems in i ue o he so-called gaming p oblem. The gaming p oblem
a ises in connec ion o he hypo hesis o a i icial consciousness, speci ically om he hypo hesis
o a i icial phenomenal consciousness o sen ience, because a i icial sys ems a e ins uc ed wi h
human-gene a ed da a in o de o gi e hem he appea ance o ins an ia ing human ea u es,
whe e o e unc ional o beha io al ma ke s o sen ience a e un eliable and canno be conside ed
as e idence o ac ual phenomenal consciousness (Bi ch and And ews, 2024).
Chang-Eop has ecen ly p oposed a logical a gumen in suppo o he un eliabili y o beha io al
mani es a ions o conscious abili ies by a i icial sys ems, speci ically by La ge Language
Models (LLM), concluding ha in he case o LLM consciousness denial leads o con adic ion
while consciousness a i ma ion leads o inde e minacy (Chang-Eop, 2024).
The gaming p oblem has bo h heo e ical and e hical ele ance, since i may be a gued ha
a i icial sys ems should no con use human use s abou hei conscious s a e (Schwi zgebel,
2023a). The e o e, i is pa icula ly u gen o elabo a e possible s a egies o managing and
p ospec i ely sol ing he gaming p oblem.
In he ollowing we e iew i e illus a i e app oaches ha ha e been p oposed by expe s in he
ield o iden i ying conscious abili ies in AI sys ems. We p o ide a desc ip ion o hese
s a egies o e en ually highligh ing ha a combina ion among hem is p obably he bes choice
o ad ancing owa ds a mo e eliable a ibu ion o conscious capaci ies o AI sys ems.
We s a om a de ini ion o phenomenal consciousness as he subjec i e eeling o a pa icula
expe ience, o “wha i is like o be” in a pa icula s a e (Block, 1995, Block, 2022), and as
“sen ience”, o he capaci y o ha ing alenced expe iences, like pain o pleasu e (Bi ch, 2024,
Bu lin and Lappas, 2025).
Then we desc ibe i e s a egies ha ha e been a icula ed o de ec ing hypo he ical a i icial
o ms o phenomenal consciousness: 1. A heo y-based s a egy ha s a s om selec ed heo ies
o consciousness o in e ele an indica o s (Bu lin e al., 2023) 2. A li e-based s a egy which
ou lines he necessa y connec ion o consciousness wi h biological li e (Se h, 2024); 3. A b ain-
based s a egy ha akes he b ain, i s e olu ion, and i s co ela ion wi h consciousness as a
benchma k o a i icial consciousness (Fa isco e al., 2024b, A u e al., 2023); 4. A
consciousness-based s a egy ha sea ches o o he o ms o biological consciousness han he
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human, in o de o iden i y wha (i any hing) is eally indispensable o consciousness and wha
is dispensable, and hus o e coming he con o e sy be ween he many heo ies o consciousness
and p oceed owa ds he iden i ica ion o eliable e idence o a i icial consciousness (Bi ch and
And ews, 2024); 5. A indica o s-based app oach ha elabo a es a lis o indica o s, concei ed as
ea u es ha we end o ag ee cha ac e ize conscious expe ience and ha a e indica i e (i.e.,
p obabilis ic a he han de ini i e e idence) o he p esence o consciousness in a i icial
sys ems (Penna z e al., 2019), and on hei basis elabo a e ele an es s o a i icial
consciousness (Bayne e al., 2024, Elam ani and Yampolskly, 2019).
1. Phenomenal consciousness
Phenomenal consciousness may be de ined as he subjec i e expe ience, “wha i is like o be” in
a pa icula s a e (i.e., including expe iences o pe cep ions which a e no cogni i ely accessed)
(Block, 1995, Block, 2022). Ano he way o concei e phenomenal consciousness is in e ms o
“sen ience”, which basically e e s o he capaci y o ha ing alenced (o hedonic) expe iences,
like pain o pleasu e (Bi ch, 2024).
Valenced expe ience ela es o a ec i e s a es, ei he posi i e o nega i e. In ac , oge he wi h
a ousal, alence is a undamen al componen o a ec (Russell, 1980, Posne e al., 2005). As
e iewed by Bi ch, he e a e di e en unde s andings o he na u e o alence, including i s
desc ip ion as immedia e quali y o he expe ience (i.e., aw eelings), as non-concep ual
ep esen a ion o alue, and as impe a i e con en (Bi ch, 2024). The concep o alue has been
ecen ly explo ed in ela ion o hypo he ical conscious AI sys ems (Fa isco and E e s, In P ess).
The s a ing poin o his analysis is he capaci y o e alua ion (i.e., sensi i i y o ewa d signals
and he abili y o disc imina e be ween good and bad hings in he wo ld on he basis o speci ic
needs, mo i a ions, and goals) as a de ining ea u e o biological o ganisms, namely o he
human b ain. In ac , e alua ion has been posi ed as a undamen o lea ning and memo y
(Dehaene and Changeux, 1989, Edelman, 1992), as well as o consciousness and e hical
delibe a ion (E e s, 2009). A c ucial cha ac e is ic ha makes his kind o e alua ion pe o med
by biological o ganisms a conscious expe ience is he capaci y o au onomously pe o ming i
on he basis o subjec i ely salien d i es.
Impo an ly, e alua ion hus concei ed, as well as he ela ed concep o alue, include bo h
cogni i e and emo ional dimensions: cogni i e ep esen a ions like concep s, goals, and belie s
a e combined wi h emo ional a i udes ha ing posi i e o nega i e alence
(h ps://www.psychology oday.com/in l/blog/ho - hough /201304/wha -a e- alues). Emo ions
a e pa icula ly c ucial o e alua ing in o ma ion coming om he inside o he o ganism
(Benne , 2023).
The concep s o phenomenal consciousness and sen ience play an impo an ole in bo h
heo e ical and mo al deba es. The e is a wide endency o iden i y consciousness ou cou wi h
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phenomenal consciousness, a leas in a mo ally ele an sense (Le y, 2014), o o a i m he
necessi y o phenomenal consciousness o any cogni i e o m o consciousness o be possible.
Wi h e e ence o he p ospec o a i icial consciousness, acco ding o hese pe spec i es, he
cen al ques ion is whe he i may be possible o enginee an a i icial o m o subjec i e
expe ience.
2. Le els o phenomenal consciousness
Since subjec i e expe ience o he phenomenal cha ac e o a conscious expe ience may ha e
di e en le els, and hese le els may depend on some speci ic aspec s o dimensions (e.g.,
du a ion, in ensi y, equency, p ecision, e c.), we canno logically exclude p ima acie ha a
sys em, whe he biological o a i icial, may ha e a leas e y udimen a y, low-le el o ms o
subjec i e expe ience. Acco dingly, we mus a oid iden i ying subjec i e expe ience exclusi ely
wi h high-le el, sophis ica ed o ms (e.g., hose usually a ibu ed o human subjec s), and a oid
an an h opocen ic bias in he a emp o iden i y i in non-human sys ems (e.g., in a i icial
sys ems). Acco dingly, we should a oid se ing he ba oo high in de ining he gold s anda d in
ou sea ch o indica o s o phenomenal consciousness in AI.
Two low-le el o ms o consciousness a e o pa icula in e es o conside he e:
p ima y/minimal consciousness and con en less consciousness. Ad oca es o di e en models
ha e p oposed he concep o p ima y o minimal consciousness as opposed o seconda y o
mo e ad anced consciousness wi hin a g aded iew o consciousness. One p oposal is o
concei e minimal consciousness as subjec i e expe ience. Mo e speci ically, as he mos basic
(non- e lec i e) subjec i e eeling ha includes ex e ocep i e (e.g., isual, ol ac o y),
in e ocep i e (e.g., pain, hunge , hi s ) and p op iocep i e (bodily posi ion) expe iences
(B on man e al., 2016, Me ke , 2007). The key poin o his p oposal is ha consciousness
includes a mo e basic, non-cogni i e o m (Pe ei a J , 2021, Baluška and Rebe , 2019, Baluška
e al., 2025). The p oponen s o his iew a gue ha he concep o consciousness as a
undamen al capaci y o expe iencing ha is dis inc om high-le el cogni i e capaci ies is
use ul o iden i y wha is necessa y and su icien o app op ia ely cha ac e izing a (biological
o a i icial) sys em as (minimally) conscious.
The concep o anoe ic consciousness as in oduced by Endel Tul ing is e y close o his iew
(Tul ing, 2005). Acco ding o him, he e a e h ee kinds o consciousness: au onoe ic, which is
ela ed o he knowledge o he sel ; noe ic, which is ela ed o he knowledge o he ou side
wo ld; and anoe ic, which is ela ed o he absence o explici cu en knowledge (LeDoux and
Lau, 2020). Anoe ic consciousness is concei ed as he condi ion o being ali e and esponsi e o
s imuli as opposed o ha ing explici conscious con en s (LeDoux, 2021), o as "a s eam o p e-
e lec i e a ec i e and senso ial pe cep ual consciousness essen ial o he waking s a e o he
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o ganism in he absence o an explici sel - e e en ial awa eness o associa ed cogni i e con en s
" (Vandeke ckho e e al., 2014) (p. 6).
O he s use “p ima y” o “senso y” (Edelman, 2003) (Feinbe g and Malla , 2016, Edelman,
1989) consciousness o indica e a basic capaci y o de ec s imuli, o p ocess hei saliency and
alue, and o eac acco dingly. Impo an ly, p ima y/senso y consciousness as quali ied, o
ins ance, by Ge ald Edelman can ha e access only o he p esen , ac ual expe ience.
To illus a e, o Feinbe g and Malla (Feinbe g and Malla , 2018), he basic o m o
consciousness is “ alue-based” as dis inguished om “image-based” consciousness. The alue-
based consciousness does no ely on any kind o explici , men al images o he wo ld, bu a he
on an o ganic, and in some cases neu onal, map o schema ha allows he o ganism o
disc imina e a o dances (i.e., o de ec and dis inguish dange s and posi i e oppo uni ies) in
o de o inc ease i s i ness (c . (Changeux, 1986, Changeux, 2004)).
The dis inc ion be ween basic and mo e sophis ica ed o ms o consciousness has been p oposed
also wi h speci ic e e ence o phenomenal consciousness, o ins ance h ough he dis inc ion
be ween minimal phenomenal sel hood (i.e., “ he expe ience o being a dis inc , holis ic en i y
capable o global sel -con ol and a en ion, possessing a body and a loca ion in space and ime”
(Blanke and Me zinge , 2009) (p.7)), and a mo e elabo a ed phenomenal sel -expe ience (Blanke
and Me zinge , 2009, Se h and Tsaki is, 2018).
Con en less consciousness, also called pu e consciousness o minimal phenomenal expe ience, is
a o m o conscious expe ience de oid o any speci ic con en (Me zinge , 2020) ha is ela ed o
he abo emen ioned dis inc ion be ween mo e basic and mo e sophis ica ed o ms o
phenomenal consciousness. No ably, con en less consciousness is conside ed as ei he he
g ounding o he highes o m o consciousness in some Eas e n eligions and spi i ual adi ions,
as well as he ul ima e goal in medi a ion (Thompson, 2015). The e is discussion abou whe he
his o m o consciousness ac ually exis s, and, i i does, wha i s main ea u es migh be and
how o e en ually ope a ionalize i in o de o elabo a e c i e ia o iden i ying i (Sulli an, 1995,
Woods e al., 2024). The possibili y o inde e mina e cases o sen ience, i.e. sys ems o which
he e is no de e mina e ac o he ma e whe he hey a e conscious o no (see (Lee, 2020,
Simon, 2017, Schwi zgebel, 2023b), adds u he complexi y o he ques ion whe he a i icial
phenomenal consciousness/sen ience is possible and how o de ec i .
3. How can phenomenal consciousness be ope a ionalized and made
de ec able in a i icial sys ems?
Di e en app oaches o he ques ion how o de ec phenomenal conscious ac i i y in a i icial
sys ems ha e been sugges ed. Among hem, we he e ocus on he ollowing i e:

6
1. Theo y-based s a egy: s a ing om selec ed heo ies o consciousness in o de o in e
ele an indica o s (Bu lin e al., 2023)
2. Li e-based s a egy: consciousness necessa ily connec s wi h biological li e (Se h, 2024)
3. B ain-based s a egy: he b ain, i s e olu ion, and i s co ela ion wi h consciousness a e
benchma k o a i icial consciousness (Fa isco e al., 2024b, A u e al., 2023)
4. Consciousness-based s a egy: sea ching o o he o ms o biological consciousness han he
human, in o de o iden i y wha (i any hing) is eally indispensable o consciousness and wha
is dispensable, and hus o e coming he con o e sy be ween he many heo ies o consciousness
and p oceed owa ds he iden i ica ion o eliable e idence o a i icial consciousness (Bi ch and
And ews, 2024) (h ps://aeon.co/
essays/ o-unde s and-ai-sen ience- i s -unde s and-i -in-animals)
5. Indica o s-based s a egy: s a ing om he ea u es o consciousness we end o ag ee abou
o elabo a ing a lis o indica o s o consciousness in a i icial sys ems (Penna z e al., 2019),
and ela ed es s o a i icial consciousness (Bayne e al., 2024, Elam ani and Yampolskly,
2019).
3.1 Theo y-based s a egy
The i s s a egy we ocus on consis s in s a ing om selec ed heo ies o consciousness in
o de o in e indica o s o consciousness om hem. (Bu lin e al., 2023) illus a es his kind o
app oach. In his pape , he au ho s p opose a “ igo ous and empi ically g ounded app oach o AI
consciousness”: hey selec some neu oscien i ic heo ies o consciousness and iden i y
espec i e indica o s o consciousness. They base hei analysis on h ee main p emises. Fi s ,
hey assume compu a ional unc ionalism (i.e., pe o ming compu a ions o he igh kind is
necessa y and su icien o consciousness) as a wo king hypo hesis; second, hey claim ha
neu oscien i ic heo ies o consciousness can help us in eliably assessing AI consciousness
because o he empi ical suppo hey ha e; and inally hey a gue ha a heo y-hea y app oach
(i.e., explici ly elying on empi ically g ounded heo ies o consciousness) is he bes s a egy o
assessing AI consciousness. Basically, he heo y-based s a egy hey a gue o a ibu es
consciousness o AI sys ems depending on how many indica o s o consciousness in e ed om
he selec ed heo ies he sys ems in ques ion show.
The au ho s acknowledge ha he e a e many scien i ic heo ies o consciousness, no all
compa ible and no always commensu able ei he (Se h and Bayne, 2022, E e s e al., 2024,
Chis-Ciu e e al., 2024, No ho and Lamme, 2020, Kuhn, 2024). Consis en ly, hey do no
endo se any speci ic heo y, bu a he de i e a lis o indica o s om he sampled heo ies, and
conside he e idence de i ing om hem cumula i e, meaning ha he mo e indica o s a e
p esen , he mo e likely i is ha he sys em in ques ion is conscious.
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The heo ies hey e e o a e he ollowing, wi h ela ed indica o s:
- Recu en p ocessing heo y, om which hey de i e wo indica o s: inpu modules using
algo i hmic ecu ence and inpu modules gene a ing o ganized, in eg a ed pe cep ual
ep esen a ions.
- Global wo kspace heo y, om which hey de i e ou indica o s; mul iple specialized
sys ems capable o ope a ing in pa allel (modules); limi ed capaci y wo kspace, en ailing
a bo leneck in in o ma ion low and a selec i e a en ion mechanism; global b oadcas :
a ailabili y o in o ma ion in he wo kspace o all modules; s a e-dependen a en ion,
gi ing ise o he capaci y o use he wo kspace o que y modules in succession o
pe o m complex asks.
- Compu a ional highe -o de heo ies, om which hey de i e ou indica o s: gene a i e,
op-down o noisy pe cep ion modules; me acogni i e moni o ing dis inguishing eliable
pe cep ual ep esen a ions om noise; agency guided by a gene al belie - o ma ion and
ac ion selec ion sys em, and a s ong disposi ion o upda e belie s in acco dance wi h he
ou pu s o me acogni i e moni o ing; spa se and smoo h coding gene a ing a “quali y
space”.
- A en ion schema heo y, om which hey de i e one indica o : a p edic i e model
ep esen ing and enabling con ol o e he cu en s a e o a en ion.
- P edic i e p ocessing, om which hey de i e one indica o : inpu modules using
p edic i e coding.
In addi ion o hese heo ies, he au ho s e e also o Agency and embodimen , om which hey
de i e wo indica o s: agency, concei ed as lea ning om eedback and selec ing ou pu s so as o
pu sue goals, especially whe e his in ol es lexible esponsi eness o compe ing goals;
embodimen , concei ed as modeling ou pu -inpu con ingencies, including some sys ema ic
e ec s, and using his model in pe cep ion o con ol.
As men ioned abo e, he au ho s conside he e idence de i ing om he iden i ied indica o s as
cumula i e. In ac , some AI sys ems al eady mani es some o he indica o s, while he e is
cu en ly no sys em capable o consis en ly implemen all o hem. The e o e, he au ho s
conclude ha he e is no sys em ye ha can be conside ed a s ong candida e o consciousness
acco ding o a heo y-based app oach.
The second s a egy we desc ibe consis s in conside ing consciousness as a biological
phenomenon which is a ea u e o li e and dependen on i .
Di e en au ho s p opose heo e ical in e p e a ions ha end o endo se his iew, including
John Sea le (Sea le, 2007), Pe e God ey-Smi h (God ey-Smi h, 2016, God ey-Smi h, 2023),
E an Thompson (Thompson, 2018, Thompson, 2007), and Anil Se h (Se h, 2024, Se h, 2021),
among o he s. He e we summa ize he posi ion o he la e , which is illus a i e o he li e-based
s a egy.
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Anil Se h ames his p oposal wi hin biological na u alism, acco ding o which consciousness is
a p ope y o only (e en hough no all) li ing sys ems. He acknowledges ha his iew has
di e en a ia ions, a guing ha i is no necessa y ha li e is ca bon-based. In p inciple his
lea es he doo open o he possibili y o a “li ing conscious AI”.
Impo an ly, Se h cla i ies wha is he meaning o consciousness he e e s o in his analysis:
conscious expe ience, o “ o eel like some hing”. Acco dingly, consciousness is eal, no an
illusion, and he e is a ac -o - he-ma e abou whe he some hing is conscious.
Basically, biological na u alism as de ined abo e opposes o compu a ional unc ionalism. In
ac , o biological na u alism he biological basis o consciousness is no jus an enabling ac o
o he igh kind o compu a ion, like, o ins ance, a gued o in (Wiese, 2024), bu a he a
undamen al condi ion o consciousness. On he basis o heo e ical models like p edic i e
p ocessing and he ee ene gy p inciple, Se h a gues o wha he calls an “on ological
con inui y” be ween li e and consciousness: li ing sys ems a e au opoie ic (i.e., hey con inually
egene a e hemsel es), and his cha ac e is ic o he li ing ma e is he basis o conscious
ac i i y. In e es ingly, acco ding o his iew consciousness may be ins an ia ed in e y basic,
udimen a y o ms, a “g ound s a e” o conscious expe ience cha ac e ized by “an inchoa e,
shapeless, o mless eeling o simply ‘being ali e’”.
A he heo e ical le el, wo o ms o biological na u alism a e possible: a weak biological
na u alism, o which li e ma e s o consciousness “in i ue o enabling (o being necessa y o )
speci ic pa e ns o unc ional o ganiza ion”, and s ong biological na u alism, o which
consciousness undamen ally depends on li e. Fo bo h hese e sions, conscious AI will no
come along o he ide as con en ional AI ge s sma e , because, as said abo e, consciousness is
concei ed as a p ope y o li ing sys ems, he e o e AI needs o be ali e o being conscious.
Neu omo phic and syn he ic echnologies could po en ially be p omising in his espec , i we
accep he hypo hesis ha he mo e AI is simila o he b ain and li ing sys ems, he mo e likely
i is ha i may be conscious.
The c ucial poin o he li e-based s a egy is ha li e, ei he ca bon-based o o di e en na u e,
imposes a numbe o cons ain s and necessa y condi ions o consciousness o a ise. Fo
ins ance, Se h ou lines he c ucial ole played by me abolic cons ain s, elec omagne ic ields,
and ine-g ained iming ela ions (Se h, 2024). In sho , he e a e se e al dependencies and
con ingencies accumula ed in a “gene a i e en enchmen ” in he in e nal o ganiza ion o he
b ain, which e en ually cons ain hypo he ical al e na i e implemen a ions o i s men al ea u es.
The conclusion by Se h is ha i may be impossible o sepa a e wha b ains do om wha hey
a e: a ailu e o eplica e he signi ican amoun o unc ional and a chi ec u al de ails ha appea
o play an impo an ole o consciousness would esul in a change o he sys em’s
o ganiza ion, which likely a ec s he unc ions ha he eplica o sys em is able o pe o m.
3.2 B ain-based s a egy
The hi d s a egy we desc ibe can be quali ied as b ain-based because i assumes ha he b ain,
i s e olu ion, and i s co ela ion wi h consciousness a e he benchma k o de eloping a i icial
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consciousness. Examples o his app oach may be ound in (A u e al., 2023) and (Fa isco e al.,
2024a). The la e pape analyses a i icial consciousness om an e olu iona y pe spec i e,
aking he e olu ion o he b ain and i s ela ion wi h consciousness as a e e ence model o
benchma k. This analysis e eals a numbe o s uc u al and unc ional cha ac e is ics o he
b ain ha a guably play a key ole o human-like conscious expe ience. Impo an ly, cu en AI
sys ems lack hese ea u es, o a leas hey ail o ins an ia e a su icien le el o hese ea u es.
The p oposal o he au ho s is aking inspi a ion om he b ain o ad ance owa ds de eloping
conscious AI.
Mo e speci ically, he ollowing b ain ea u es a e p oposed o be o ele ance in esea ch on
conscious AI :
- Hie a chical, nes ed, and mul iple le els o o ganiza ion
- Rewa ds sensi i i y based on embodied mul idimensional senso imo o expe ience
- Spon aneous physiological ac i i y con ibu ing o conscious in o ma ion p ocessing
- The capaci y o p oduce a iabili y om he same unc ional o ganiza ion and he long
pos na al de elopmen esul ing in mul iple nes ed epigene ic synapse selec ions
- Degene acy, ha is di e en connec ion pa e ns may ha e he same unc ion, leading o
plas ici y, indi idual di e ences, and c ea i i y
- Capaci y o in e ac ion be ween indi iduals in a social g oup
- A physical and ope a ional dis inc ion be ween conscious and non-conscious b ain
ep esen a ions, leading o he de elopmen o seman ic compe ence and singula
p ope ies o associa ion o conscious ep esen a ions.
S a ing om hese ea u es, he au ho s iden i y he ollowing limi a ions o cu en AI ha need
o be amelio a ed o ad ancing owa ds conscious AI:
- Compu a ional app oach wi h insu icien b ain da a
- Ha dwa e wi h limi ed chemical elemen s
- Ha dwa e implemen ing pa allel le els o compu a ion opposed o he nes ed b ain
o ganiza ion
- Lack o an e olu iona y and epigene ic de elopmen
- Lack o a mul idimensional and mul isenso y ep esen a ion based on embodimen
- Lack o social ela ionships and in insic e hical esponsibili y
- Lack o di e en ia ion o he singula i y o he indi idual and hei li e expe ience.
The hypo hesis sugges ed is ha he mo e an AI sys em implemen s he iden i ied b ain ea u es
co ela ed o consciousness, and he mo e an AI sys em imp o es he limi a ions lis ed abo e, he
mo e likely i is ha i may be o become conscious.
Impo an ly, (Fa isco e al., 2024a) limi hei analysis o human-like consciousness, bu hey
also acknowledge ha in p inciple i is possible o ha e an AI consciousness al e na i e o he
human model. While his possibili y canno logically be excluded, assuming human
consciousness and co ela ed b ain ea u es as e e ence models o benchma ks is a p agma ic
choice ha makes i possible o o mula e ealis ic hypo heses.
16
In conclusion, he consis ency among he i e iden i ied s a egies, and consequen ly he kind o
ela ionship be ween he e idence o consciousness de i ing om hem (i.e., complemen a y s
cumula i e) depend on which speci ic dimension o logical o empi ical s uc u e we conside .
Fo ins ance, all he i e s a egies appea logically consis en in ela ion o hei concep ual
ounda ions (i.e., hey de ine consciousness as phenomenal consciousness o sen ience, o a e
compa ible wi h such de ini ion o consciousness), and empi ically consis en in ela ion o hei
me hodology (i.e., hey sha e he necessi y o empi ical es ing he iden i ied indica o s).
This implies ha in o de o ge a g ea e e idence o AI consciousness we should i s cla i y
which speci ic logical and/o empi ical dimensions we e e o and hen e en ually cumula e o
complemen he e idence de i ing om he di e en s a egies. The e o e, he bes “me a-
s a egy” o ad ancing owa ds a be e and s onge e idence o AI consciousness is combining
di e en speci ic s a egies, bu how o conc e ely achie e his goal is a ma e o analy ical
easoning, and i needs a clea iden i ica ion o which s uc u e (i.e., logical o empi ical) and
espec i e dimension o add ess. Wha we sugges o be necessa y is o combine di e en kinds
o indica o s in o de o de elop es s o consciousness ha go beyond he classical wo
app oaches (i.e., a chi ec u al o beha io al (Elam ani and Yampolskly, 2019, Bayne e al.,
2024)) and ha include an e hological/ecological and diach onic (i.e., ex ended in ime)
obse a ion o add essing he issue o a i icial consciousness.
4.3 Rele ance o he di e en s a egies o iden i y di e en le els o
consciousness
As desc ibed abo e, consciousness, including phenomenal consciousness, may a guably exis a
di e en le els, he main o which a e p ima y o minimal consciousness, con en less
consciousness, and e lec i e consciousness. In sho , p ima y/minimal consciousness is he non
e lec i e and non cogni i e le el o consciousness, o he undamen al capaci y o
expe iencing. Con en less consciousness is he le el o consciousness de oid o any speci ic
con en , like a aw eeling o exis ing. Re lec i e consciousness is he mos sophis ica ed le el o
consciousness, cha ac e izing a subjec able o cogni i ely access hei own expe ience.
The i e s a egies p esen ed abo e appea o ha e di e en ele ance o hese h ee le els o
consciousness (See Table 3). All he s a egies po en ially p o ide in o ma ion ele an o
add ess e lec i e le el o consciousness, while no all appea ele an o he o he wo le els.
The heo y-based s a egy s ands on he s ong compu a ional unc ionalis p emise, which
excludes non cogni i e and con en less le els o consciousness. Bo he he li e-based and he
consciousness-based s a egies allow he possibili y o bo h p ima y/minimal and con en less
consciousness, o ins ance in he o m o he eeling o being ali e. Bo h he b ain-based and he
indica o s-based s a egies appea o be compa ible, a leas in p inciple, wi h p ima y/minimal
consciousness bu no wi h con en less consciousness, because bo h hese s a egies ake a
ep esen a ional iew o consciousness (i.e., consciousness e e s o some hing, ei he
cogni i ely o non-cogni i ely).

17
Since phenomenal consciousness is a guably mul ile el, i is impo an o ake in o accoun
which speci ic le els he di e en s a egies abo e a e ele an o, in o de o a oid excluding
o -hand some le els o consciousness because he chosen s a egy is no compa ible wi h hem.
In conclusion, he combina ion o di e en s a egies is he bes way o p e en his isk.
We p opose ha combining he di e en s a egies desc ibed abo e is necessa y o ad ancing
owa ds a mo e eliable assessmen o a i icial consciousness o wo easons among o he s:
i s , consciousness is a mul idimensional and mul ile el ea u e, and combining di e en logical
and empi ical s a egies inc eases he chances o co e ing his complexi y; second, in o de o
add ess he gaming p oblem, i is c ucial o look o as many indica o s as possible, om
s uc u al o a chi ec u al, om unc ional o socio-e hological.
Conclusion
We ha e e iewed i e s a egies o ope a ionalizing and iden i ying hypo he ical phenomenal
consciousness in AI sys ems. Each s a egy has i s own speci ic empi ical and logical
cha ac e iza ion, bu hey can be compa ed wi h each o he in ela ion o di e en empi ical and
logical dimensions, esul ing compa ible o complemen a y. We p opose o combine di e en
s a egies o elabo a ing mo e eliable indica o s o consciousness in AI sys ems, ei he
combining o complemen ing he e idence de i ed om compa ible o complemen a y
s a egies, espec i ely. We a gue ha his combina ion is necessa y o wo easons among
o he s: he mul idimensional and mul ile el na u e o consciousness, and he gaming p oblem.
Funding
This esea ch has ecei ed unding om he p ojec Coun e ac ual Assessmen and Valua ion
o Awa eness A chi ec u e—CAVAA (Eu opean Commission, EIC 101071178).
18
Table 1
App oach
Main ene s
Ad an ages
Sho comings
Theo y-based
 In e ing
indica o s o
consciousness
om selec ed
scien i ic
heo ies o
consciousness
 Ex ensi e heo e ical
base elying on
empi ically alida ed
heo ies
 Concep ual cla i y
abou he speci ic
no ion o
consciousness which
is he objec o he
indica o s
 Compu a ional
unc ionalism
ega ding
consciousness is
deeply p oblema ic
bo h heo e ically
and e hically
 pe o ce selec i e:
he heo ies ou he e
a e oo many. Some
o hem may lead o
p opose simila
measu es and
indica o s o
consciousness, bu
many di e on bo h
poin s which poses a
p oblem in e ms o
commensu abili y
 a ec ed by he
limi a ions o he
selec ed heo ies
 isk o biases (e.g.,
an h opocen ic o
bio-cen ic)
 how o sol e he
indica o s’
necessa y/su icien
issue
 how o compa e
di e en heo ies in
o de o de i e a
cumula i e e idence
(in ac di e en
heo ies o en a ge
di e en o ms o
kinds o
consciousness, so
ha he indica o s
de i ed om hem
a e no eally
cumula i e)
19
 gene aliza ion
p oblem, o he gold
s anda d p oblem:
heo ies o
consciousness a e
usually o mula ed
wi h e e ence o
ypical adul
consciousness, so
ha he ele ance o
he indica o s de i ed
om hem o add ess
a i icial
consciousness is
ques ionable.
Li e-based
 In e ing
indica o s o
consciousne
ss om li e
ea u es
associa ed
wi h
consciousne
ss
 i elies on he ac
ha all known
examples o
conscious sys ems
a e biological,
he e o e i is no
specula i e
 i may be in e p e ed
as excluding o -
hand he possibili y
o o ms o AI
consciousness
al e na i e o he
biological o ms
B ain-based
 In e ing
indica o s o
consciousne
ss om
b ain
ea u es
associa ed
wi h
consciousne
ss
 i elies on
empi ically-
g ounded da a
abou he b ain
bases o
consciousness,
he e o e i has a
s ong scien i ic
base
 i a oids
specula ions abou
hypo he ical
al e na i e o ms o
consciousness
 i is p agma ic, in
he sense ha is
p one o be
ope azionalized
in o speci ic
app oaches o es
 i is limi ed o
human-like o ms o
consciousness, so i
may lead o o e look
al e na i e o ms o
machine
consciousness
 he dis ance be ween
cu en AI and he
b ain is qui e big, so
his app oach may se
he ba oo high and
e en ually be no
applicable
20
machine
consciousness
Consciousness-based
 Compa ing
di e en
kinds o
consciousne
ss o in e
wha is
indispensabl
e o i (and
hen check
o i in AI)
 in p inciple, i
a oids
an h opomo phic
and an h opocen ic
aps: i
accommoda es
e idence coming
om di e en
ins ances o
consciousness
 i e en ually make
e e ence o selec ed
compu a ional
heo ies o
consciousness,
inally aising he
isk o ep oducing
he same
sho comings o he
heo y-based
app oach
 he sea ch o
compu a ional
ma ke s o
consciousness in AI
sys ems is limi ed by
he a chi ec u e o
ac ual AI sys ems,
which lack
anspa ency and
explicabili y
 i isks o eplacing a
big challenge
(iden i ying AI
consciousness) wi h
ano he big challenge
(ad ancing a
compa a i e
unde s anding o
di e en o ms o
consciousness in
na u e).
Indica o s-based
App oach
 In e ing
indica o s o
consciousne
ss om
ag eed-upon
ea u es o
consciousne
ss
 i elies on wha we
end o ag ee
cha ac e ize
conscious ac i i y,
ying o s ay
neu al wi h ega ds
o speci ic heo ies
o consciousness
 in p inciple, i is
compa ible wi h
di e en heo e ical
 i is concei ed wi h
e e ence o
biological
consciousness, and
he e o e i s
ele ance and
applica ion o AI
consciousness may
be limi ed
21
accoun s
 i can accommoda e
he p isma ic na u e
o consciousness,
including i s
phenomenal and
cogni i e
dimensions

22
Table 2
KIND
OF
STRUC
TURE
DIMENSION
THEORY-
BASED
LIFE-
BASED
BRAIN-
BASED
CONSCIOU
SNESS-
BASED
INDICATORS-
BASED
LOGIC
AL
CONCEPTU
AL
FOUNDATI
ONS
(Unde s anding
and de ini ion o
key concep s)
Phenomenal
Consciousne
ss
Sen ience
Conscious
p ocess,
compa ible
wi h
Phenomen
al
Conscious
ness
Sen ience
Bo h Access and
Phenomenal
Consciousness
X
X
X
X
X
THEORETIC
AL
FRAMEWO
RK &
INTERPRET
ATIVE
APPROACH
(The way o
assigning
ele ance and
meaning o
da a)
Compu a ion
al
unc ionalis
m.
Biological
na u alism.
(Neu o-
)biological
na u alism.
Biological
na u alism.
Biological
na u alism.
X
V
V
V
V
EMPIRI
CAL
EVIDENCE
OF
CONSCIOUS
NESS (i.e.,
Type(s) o da a
(e.g.,
quan i a i e o
beha iou al)
conside ed
necessa y and
su icien o
in e ing
consciousness)
Sys em’s
ope a ions
(wha i
does) +
a chi ec u e
(how i is
in e nally
o ganized)
Sys em’s
na u e (i s
inhe en
cha ac e )
Sys em’
na u e +
a chi ec u
e
Sys em’s
ope a ions
(wha i does)
+ a chi ec u e
(how i is
in e nally
o ganized)
Sys em’s
ope a ions (wha
i does) +
a chi ec u e
(how i is
in e nally
o ganized)
23
X
V
V
X
X
METHODOL
OGY (i.e.,
Gene al
esea ch
s a egy
de ining how
he esea ch
p ocess has o
be unde aken)
F om
heo ies o
indica o s, o
be checked
empi ically
(i.e., looking
o hi d-
pe son,
empi ically
es able
e idence)
F om li e
de ini ion o
indica o s, o
be checked
empi ically
(i.e., looking
o hi d-
pe son,
empi ically
es able
e idence)
F om b ain
ea u es o
indica o s,
o be
checked
empi ically
(i.e.,
looking o
hi d-
pe son,
empi ically
es able
e idence)
F om
di e en
ypes o
consciousness
o indica o s,
o be checked
empi ically
(i.e., looking
o hi d-
pe son,
empi ically
es able
e idence)
F om wo king
de ini ion o
consciousness
and i s ea u es
o indica o s, o
be checked
empi ically (i.e.,
looking o
hi d-pe son,
empi ically
es able
e idence)
X
X
X
X
X
Table 3
LEVEL OF
CONSCIOUSNESS
THEORY-
BASED
LIFE-
BASED
BRAIN-
BASED
CONSCIOUSNESS-
BASED
INDICATORS-
BASED
PRIMARY/MINIMAL
NO
YES
YES
YES
YES
CONTENTLESS
NO
YES
NO
YES
NO
REFLECTIVE
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
24
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