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con inued on nex page
ARCTIC
Published by he A c ic Resea ch Conso ium o he Uni ed S a es • 600 Uni e si y A enue • Sui e 1 • Fai banks, AK 99709
Ch onicles o he A c ic Sys em Science Resea ch P og am Au umn 1998, Volume 6 Numbe 2
Team Pionee s All-Win e Resea ch a G eenland Summi
by Jack Dibb
In ea ly Augus 1997, ou Ame icans
wa ched wi h mixed emo ions as he
inal ligh o he season le he ice shee
a he summi o G eenland wi h he
summe c ew. The ou would be he i s
people o s ay he win e a Summi . Fo
he nex eigh mon hs, NSF unded Phil
Aus in, Robe Hawley, Pa ick Smi h,
and Sa ah S u ges o es he easibili y
o main aining a yea - ound, long- e m
p esence a Summi — he highes poin
in he A c ic. When he plane e u ned o
pick hem up in Ap il 1998, he ou
sha ed unp eceden ed obse a ions and a
jus i iable sense o p ide in demons a ing
ha a small c ew could be sa e, easonably
com o able, and highly p oduc i e scien-
i ically yea - ound a Summi .
In Feb ua y 1998, while he ou we e
s ill collec ing da a, p elimina y in o ma-
ion abou hei accomplishmen s con-
ibu ed o he decision by he Danish
Science Commission, he Eu opean Pola
Science Boa d, and NSF o p oceed wi h
es ablishing he p oposed win e acili y
and o comple e he ela ed science plan.
Resea ch began a he si e in 1987 wi h
su eys o loca e he bes deep d illing si e
in he egion. Eu opean and Ame ican
esea ch eams eco e ed wo 3-km long
ice co es du ing he 1989-93 summe sea-
sons om he c es o G eenland whe e
he ice shee is nea ly wo miles hick and
minimally de o med by he low o he ice
owa d sea le el (see Wi ness Sp ing 1997).
The co es eco e ed by he G eenland
Iceco e P ojec (GRIP) and G eenland Ice
Shee P ojec Two (GISP2) p o ide
The 32’ x 34’ modula s uc u e known as he G een House was he cen e o ac i i y o ou esea che s s udying
ai /snow ela ionships a Summi h ough win e 1997-98. High winds o e whelmed e o s o keep snowd i s a bay.
This and any simila s uc u es will be on ele a ed pla o ms in u u e yea - ound campaigns (pho o by Jack Dibb).
excep ionally high- esolu ion in o ma ion
abou clima e change o e he las 110,000
yea s. These eco ds o accumula ion a es,
concen a ions o chemicals, and s able
iso opes ha e allowed esea che s o exam-
ine de ails, such as he p ecise na u e and
iming o apid clima e change e en s,
ha ha e impo an implica ions o
unde s anding he Ea h’s clima e sys em.
Quan i a i e in e p e a ion o he
eco ds in he co es, howe e , equi es he
de elopmen and e i ica ion o ans e
unc ions ela ing he chemical composi-
ion o he ice o ha o he a mosphe e.
Fo example, complex seasonal a ia ions
in snow accumula ion, deposi ional
p ocesses, and he combina ion o opo-
sphe ic anspo and chemical p ocessing
in e ac o de e mine he chemical compo-
si ion o snow a Summi . The goal o
in e ing ice-co e eco ds o ime se ies o
a mosphe ic composi ion and empe a u e
leads di ec ly o a se ies o ques ions ha
can only be add essed wi h yea - ound
sampling. Nea ly all ield expe imen s
o de elop such ans e unc ion models
in G eenland ha e been es ic ed o he
summe season. Yea - ound sampling will
imp o e he abili y o sepa a e e ec s o
seasonal o in e -annual changes om
long- e m signals in he ice-co e eco ds.
2
Fea u e A icle
Sa ah S u ges (pic u ed he e changing an ae osol il e in ea ly Feb ua y) and Robe Hawley collec ed samples, ope a ed
ins umen s, and made obse a ions o en di e en esea ch eams du ing he s udy (pho o by Jack Dibb).
Because o i s ele a ion, la i ude, and
esea ch his o y, he Summi si e is ideally
sui ed o s udies ha canno be con-
duc ed a low-ele a ion si es in he A c ic.
In addi ion o wo k on ice-co e in e p e a-
ion, da a ga he ed a Summi would
uniquely in o m s udies add essing:
• oposphe ic chemis y;
• adia ion and ene gy balance;
• bounda y laye dynamics;
• s a osphe ic obse a ions; and
• a mosphe ic elec ici y.
Summi da a could also con ibu e o:
• pola ae onomy and space sciences, and
• seismic and geode ic measu emen s.
The ollowing epo p o ides only an
o e iew o he da a se s ha ha e esul ed
om he 1997-98 expe imen and he
ques ions o which hey a e being applied.
P elimina y analyses o da a we e p e-
sen ed in Oc obe 1998 a an NSF/NASA
planning mee ing o 1999 ope a ions in
G eenland. Mo e comple e compa isons
and collabo a i e in e p e a ions we e
p esen ed a a special session on he
Summi win e -o e campaign a he
Decembe 1998 AGU mee ing in San
F ancisco. Publica ions ea u ing hese
esul s a e expec ed o appea in 1999.
P ecipi a ion and Snow Accumula ion
The equency and iming o snow all
e en s de ines an uppe limi o he em-
po al esolu ion wi h which he snowpack
can eco d a ia ions in he composi ion
o he o e lying ai . High winds deg ade
he esolu ion o such eco ds, as d i ing
o su ace snow mixes signals om di e -
en e en s and pa ially e ases some o
hem h ough enhanced sublima ion o
he snow c ys als. Un il he win e o
1997-98, ou ine obse a ions o alling
and d i ing snow had ne e been made a
Summi . P elimina y e iew o he new
da a se s demons a e ha :
• he e we e no ex ended pe iods wi hou
accumula ion du ing he yea o he
expe imen , and
• he summe and all seasons had g ea e
accumula ion han a o he imes.
A mosphe ic Gas-Phase Measu emen s
The 3200 m ele a ion o Summi
p o ides a su ace-based obse a o y wi h
access o he a c ic mid- oposphe e.
T oposphe ic chemis y in he pola
egions is unique because o he ex eme
seasonal a ia ion in a ailable ligh , wi h
pho ochemis y essen ially shu down
h ough he win e nigh . Howe e ,
anspo o ai masses om sunli egions
a lowe la i udes may make impo an
con ibu ions o he composi ion o he
a c ic win e oposphe e.
Gas-phase measu emen s made by he
he 1997-98 eam included:
• ozone (NOAA-CMDL),
• a la ge sui e o non-me hane hyd oca -
bons and haloca bons (UCI), and
• adon (UH).
Ozone and hyd oca bons allow assessmen
o he pho ochemical and oxida i e s a e
o he oposphe e h ough he yea .
Radon is a sensi i e indica o o ai masses
o igina ing o e con inen al egions and
can indica e anspo ime om hese
egions o Summi . Hyd oca bon and
haloca bon “signa u es” (cha ac e is ic
enhancemen s in g oups o compounds)
can be linked o mo e speci ic con inen al
egions wi h dominan emission pa e ns
om an h opogenic sou ces and also indi-
ca e na u al sou ces like oceanic emissions.
A mosphe ic Pa icles (Ae osols)
Unlike he gases lis ed abo e, many
ae osol-associa ed compounds a e
inco po a ed in o snow and hen pass
in o he glacial ice a chi es wi h li le pos -
deposi ional modi ica ion. As a esul ,
hese compounds ha e been s udied in
ice-co e in es iga ions, and iden i ying
empo al pa e ns in he abundance and
composi ion o a mosphe ic pa icles was
a majo ocus o his yea - ound sampling
campaign.
The Summi da a on he ionic com-
pounds in ae osol (Na+, NH4+, K+, Mg2+,
Ca2+, Cl-, NO3-, SO42-, MSA) a e cha ac-
e ized by spikes indica i e o speci ic epi-
sodes o anspo (CMU, LGGE). Some
o he ae osols (e.g., MSA, NH4+) also
show clea seasonal a ia ions. Analyses a e
now ocused on ela ing he spikes o simi-
la pa e ns in o he anspo ace s and
o known e en s such as episodes o i e.
Du ing he 1997-98 s udy pe iod he
na u al adionuclide ace s 7Be and 210Pb
showed no sign o he b oad win e maxi-
mum cha ac e is ic o sea-le el si es in he
A c ic (UNH). A simila lack o win e
peaks also was obse ed du ing he only
o he p e ious yea - ound a mosphe ic
sampling p og am on he ice shee
(1988-1989 a Dye 3, 2.5 km ele a ion
on he sou he n dome o he G eenland
Ice Shee ), sugges ing ha he A c ic Haze
phenomenon does no ex end o he 2-3
km al i ude o he c es o he G eenland
Ice Shee . This in e ence is suppo ed
by o he ace s measu ed in he wo
campaigns.
On he o he hand, he adionuclide
ace s showed sp ing and all peaks a
Dye 3 ha we e no appa en a Summi .
Since he peaks a Dye 3 we e a ibu ed
o la ge-scale a mosphe ic mo ions (mo e
igo ous e ical mixing o oposphe ic
ai down o he su ace o he ice shee ),
we expec ed simila pa e ns a Summi . I
is hoped ha analyses o o he ace s and
me eo ological da a will cla i y whe he
he di e ences be ween he wo eco ds
can be a ibu ed o sys ema ic di e ence
be ween he wo si es o anomalous a mo-
sphe ic ci cula ion in one o he wo yea s.
3
Back T ajec o y Modeling
Win e -o e esea che s applied a
model ha es ima es whe e ai masses
a i ing a Summi came om (UW-M).
These “back ajec o ies” we e calcula ed
wice each day h oughou he yea . The
pu pose is o use hese me eo ologically
based ajec o ies in conjunc ion wi h he
a ious chemical ace s o con i m he
loca ions o sou ce egions impac ing he
ai o e cen al G eenland. In addi ion o
examining a ia ions in appa en a mo-
sphe ic anspo om one day o he nex ,
he win e -o e ajec o ies will be s a is i-
cally compa ed o a se o ajec o ies p e-
iously calcula ed o e e y day o he las
40 yea s in o de o de e mine whe he he
s ong El Niño o 1997-98 made his an
anomalous yea .
Mic ome eo ology and Ene gy Budge
The sampling owe a Summi was
ins umen ed o con inuous me eo ologi-
cal measu emen s using CRREL equip-
men . The measu emen s made du ing he
win e -o e expe imen include:
• wind speed, ai empe a u e, and ela i e
humidi y senso s a wo le els;
• incoming and e lec ed long-wa e and
sho -wa e adia ion;
• incoming adia ion in he ed band; and
• in a ed snow-su ace empe a u e
measu emen s.
Because he esea che s checked he ins u-
men a ion a leas once each day and
emo ed any deposi s o os and ice, he
da a se ies om all senso s we e con inu-
ous and appea o be o high quali y.
Ene gy balance calcula ions a e cu en ly
in p og ess (CRREL). A quick look a he
aw da a has shown ha empe a u es a
Summi we e no ably wa me in mid-win-
e han he a e age o he p e ious se en
yea s—a lucky b eak o he ou s a
membe s, bu also pe haps an indica ion
ha his single yea may no be ep esen a-
i e o he no m.
Su ace Snow Sampling and Analysis
Win e -o e s a collec ed daily
samples o su ace snow o ai -snow
compa isons and examina ion o pos -
deposi ional changes in snow composi ion.
Concen a ions o hyd ogen pe oxide
(H2O2), which is p oduced in sunligh ,
con i m he e y low win e ime le els
The Team
The ield eam was ce ainly he
mos isible componen o he win-
e -o e campaign, bu hei success was
made possible by he suppo o a la ge
numbe o people. Special hanks
a e due o:
• Bill Ba be , P ojec Manage
• NSF O ice o Pola P og ams
ARCSS P og am—Mike Ledbe e ,
P og am Manage ;
• Pola Ice Co ing O ice (PICO) a he
Uni e si y o Neb aska-Lincoln;
• New Yo k Ai Na ional Gua d;
• Jonas Finnbogason and G eenland
Ai ; and
• Kange lussuaq Ai po Au ho i y.
Resea che s a he ollowing ele en
ins i u ions a e now p ocessing da a
collec ed du ing he 1997-98 win e -
o e expe imen :
• Ca negie Mellon Uni e si y (CMU)
• Cold Regions Resea ch and
Enginee ing Labo a o y (CRREL)
• INSTAAR s able iso ope labo a o y
• Labo a oi e de Glaciologie e
Geophysique de l’En i onmen
(LGGE)
• Na ional Ins i u e o S anda ds and
Technology (NIST)
• NOAA-CMDL
• Uni e si y o A izona (UA)
• Uni e si y o Cali o nia a I ine
(UCI)
• Uni e si y o Heidelbe g (UH)
• Uni e si y o New Hampshi e
(UNH)
• Uni e si y o Wisconsin-Milwaukee
(UW-M)
Jack Dibb is a Resea ch Associa e
P o esso wi h he Clima e Change Resea ch
Cen e a he Uni e si y o New Hampshi e.
He is he chie scien is o he 1997-98 and
2000-02 yea - ound sampling campaigns
a Summi and he ongoing summe ime
in es iga ion in o eac i e ni ogen oxides a
he same si e. Jack has he dubious dis inc-
ion o ha ing “ isi ed” Summi a leas once
each yea since 1989.
Fo mo e in o ma ion on Summi ,
see h p://www.hw .a izona.edu/Alpine/
Summi /obse a o y.h ml.
in e ed om p e ious pi s udies (UA).
The Summi eco d did no , howe e ,
cap u e he highes concen a ions ypi-
cally seen in snow pi s, sugges ing ha his
peak occu s be ween mid-Ap il and ea ly-
June (when no samples we e collec ed in
he p esen s udy) a he han du ing mid-
summe when dayligh hou s a e longes
and a mosphe ic concen a ions o H2O2
a e expec ed o be highes .
Ea ly esul s om he analysis o
ca bonaceous pa icles il e ed om snow
samples (NIST) indica e clea seasonal
pa e ns in hei ola ili y “spec a” as well
as s ong concen a ion peaks in sp ing
and summe . The sp ing peaks co ela e
wi h con inen al dus ace s in su ace
snow samples (UNH) and show a ola il-
i y pa e n simila o ha o an u ban
e e ence ma e ial (NIST). The summe
peak co ela es wi h ionic ace s o bio-
mass bu ning (UNH) and anspo om
he bo eal o es i e zone o Canada
(UW-M). Fu he analyses a e unde way
o unambiguously iden i y biomass and
ossil ca bon sou ces.
Snow and Fi n Physical Cha ac e is ics
Measu emen s o he oughness o
su ace snow show ha he su ace
becomes co e ed wi h sas ugi (wind-
sculp ed d i s) and dunes ha a e much
la ge du ing he win e han du ing any
o he season (CRREL). G ea e oughness
c ea es la ge p essu e g adien s, g ea e ai
low, and accele a ed exchange o ma e ial
(e.g., wa e , ai bo ne chemical com-
pounds) be ween he snowpack and
a mosphe e.
Ai low is also con olled, howe e ,
by he pe meabili y o he medium; i is
he e o e possible ha he oughe win e
snow su ace is coun e balanced by a
educ ion in pe meabili y. Examina ion o
p ese ed samples should p o ide insigh
in o seasonal changes in pe meabili y.
A ema kable logis ical and human
endea o , he ini ial Summi win e -o e
expe imen collec ed unique da a ha will
con ibu e impo an in o ma ion o a
numbe o in es iga ions. Fu u e esea ch
p og ams a he si e a e expec ed o
con inue his same ca e ul in eg a ion o
maximize he scien i ic e u n on his
in es men .
Fea u e A icle
4
a e cloud adia i e eedbacks, mois u e
anspo , global ace gas budge s, bio-
logical p oduc i i y, e es ial ecosys ems,
sea ice, socie al impac s, sea le el ise, and
glacie mass balance. O he ac o s may be
iden i ied in u u e discussions.
The commi ee ecommended ha
he ARCSS P og am con ene a wo kshop,
including expe s in a ious global models,
egional clima e modeling, e es ial
ecosys ems, i e uno modeling, land
and ma ine paleoen i onmen al s udies,
A c ic Ocean ci cula ion and links o
global ocean ci cula ion, sea ice, glaciol-
ogy, and social sciences. This wo kshop
would ocus on he ole o a c ic esh-
wa e budge s in global clima e change, o:
• e alua e cu en unde s anding o he
ela ionships be ween a c ic eshwa e
cycles and he global clima e sys em;
• highligh unce ain ies and impo an
linkages; and
• iden i y p io i y esea ch a eas.
In eg a ion o Con empo a y and
Paleoen i onmen al Te es ial S udies
In es iga o s wo king h ough he
ARCSS Land-A mosphe e-Ice In e ac ions
(LAII) and Paleoclima es om A c ic
Lakes and Es ua ies (PALE) p og ams
ha e ini ia ed discussions on in eg a ing
con empo a y p ocess s udies and paleo-
en i onmen al esea ch on e es ial
in e ac ions, ocusing on po en ial changes
in hese in e ac ions wi h al e ed clima e
o cing. LAII b ings p ocess- and model-
o ien ed s udies o he discussion; PALE
b ings long eco ds o clima e and land
co e change and a iabili y, as well as an
in e na ional scope. The AC ecom-
mended ha he ARCSS P og am sponso
a wo kshop o ca alyze collabo a ions and
ad ance hese impo an syn heses.
These AC ecommenda ions a e unde
conside a ion by he ARCSS P og am.
Fo mo e in o ma ion, con ac
ARCSS P og am Di ec o Mike Ledbe e
(703/306-1029; ax 703/306-0648;
[email p o ec ed]) o ARCSS Commi ee
Chai Jack K use (413/367-2240; ax 413/
367-0092; [email p o ec ed]) o see
he ARCSS web si e (h p://www.ns .go /
od/opp/a c ic/sys em.h m) o he ARCUS
web si e (h p://www.a cus.o g).
ARCSS O e iew
ARCSS Educa ional CD-ROM A ailable
The ARCSS Da a Coo dina ion Cen e (ADCC) a he Na ional Snow and Ice
Da a Cen e (NSIDC) has ecen ly published and eleased In o he A c ic:
In o ma ion and Educa ional Ac i i ies o S udying Clima e, an ins uc ional CD-
ROM con aining class oom ac i i ies ocusing on clima e s udies. The CD-ROM,
c ea ed in coope a ion wi h he G eenland Ice Shee P ojec Two (GISP2) Science
Managemen O ice a he Uni e si y o New Hampshi e, includes in o ma ion and
da a om GISP2 (see Wi ness Sp ing 1998) as well as da a om o he sou ces.
Designed o o e ma e ials and ac i i ies o eache s and s uden s, he unique
ea u e o he CD-ROM is access o “ eal” da a collec ed and used by esea ch scien-
is s. Using hese da a allows s uden s o simula e he p ocess scien is s ollow when
answe ing esea ch ques ions. The CD-ROM also p o ides in o ma ion, g aphics,
ac i i ies, and a glossa y o enhance he expe ience o lea ning abou ea h science.
Fo mo e in o ma ion, isi he ARCSS Da a web si e (h p://a css.colo ado.edu)
and go o he “Educa ion Resou ces” sec ion in he online Da a Ca alog.
ARCSS Commi ee Ad ances In eg a ion
Following on he 1998 publica ion o
he new ARCSS science plan, Towa d
P edic ion o he A c ic Sys em, he ARCSS
Commi ee (AC) me in Fai banks, Alaska
in Oc obe 1998 o explo e implemen a-
ion o he plan’s ecommenda ions o
in eg a i e esea ch on he a c ic sys em
and global en i onmen al change. The
commi ee discussed h ee high-p io i y
a eas o ad ancing ARCSS in eg a ion:
• in eg a ed assessmen o clima e change,
• a c ic hyd ologic cycles and eedbacks,
• in eg a ion o con empo a y and
paleoen i onmen al e es ial s udies.
In eg a ed Clima e Change Assessmen
To mee ARCSS P og am objec i es,
a hie a chy o models is needed o
in eg a e global models, egional clima e
models, and simula ions o key en i on-
men al changes, such as land co e and sea
ice. This in eg a ed assessmen would seek
o p edic a c ic sys em change, using:
• imp o ed p ocess unde s anding,
• quan i ica ion o eedbacks, and
• spa ial and empo al ex apola ions.
A majo challenge o his in eg a ion
is a ela i e lack o expe ise ocused on
a c ic clima e modeling ques ions, in
pa icula a combined capabili y o
in e disciplina y sys em modeling o:
• un expe imen s on a ious models,
• imp o e ep esen a ion o he a c ic
sys em in global models,
• conduc speci ic modeling s udies using
simple models, and
• use esul s om global models in
egional models.
One app oach o wa ded by he AC
is an ARCSS-sponso ed, pos -doc o al
ellowship p og am o de elop a coho
o model-sa y, in e disciplina y sys em
scien is s o wo k on hese p oblems in
collabo a ion wi h s akeholde g oups and
he ARCSS esea ch communi y.
A c ic Hyd ologic Cycles and Feedbacks
Changes in a c ic eshwa e budge s
ha e he po en ial o os e ab up clima e
change ou side o he A c ic, hus,
p edic ing how changes in eshwa e
cycles in he A c ic may change he global
clima e sys em is c i ical. Collabo a ion
among he ARCSS communi y and global
sys ems esea che s will be essen ial o
iden i y he le els o change in a c ic esh-
wa e budge s likely o e ec global
sys ems. Such collabo a ion would:
• enable a c ic esea che s o iden i y he
esolu ion equi ed o global sys em
eedbacks, and
• allow global sys ems esea che s o
de e mine he mos impo an a c ic
sys em p ocesses o ep esen a ion in
global sys em models.
Linkages be ween a c ic eshwa e
budge s and he mohaline ci cula ion a e
impo an o his discussion. Also ele an
La e-b eaking news: The HARC P og am is now in i ing p oposals! De ails on page 19.
5
The 9 h Annual ITEX Mee ing
In 1990, he Man and he Biosphe e No he n Sciences Ne wo k (MAB-NSN)
launched he In e na ionalTund a Expe imen (ITEX) o documen plan
esponse o inc eased empe a u es (see Wi ness Sp ing 1998). The U.S. con ibu ion
o ITEX (USTEX) is included wi hin he ARCSS LAII P og am.
A e se en yea s o ieldwo k moni o ing species-le el esponses o empe a u e,
ITEX esea che s a e now p epa ing o launch he second phase o esea ch,
ocusing on in eg a ion wi h he clima e change communi y. This ocus will be
ini ia ed a he 9 h In e na ional ITEX Wo kshop 4-9 Janua y 1999 in Eas Lansing,
Michigan. Fo mo e in o ma ion, see he con e ence web page a h p://
www.ce l.msu.edu/ael/i ex/index.h ml o con ac Bob Hollis e (517/432-2399; ax
517/432-2150; [email p o ec ed]).
ARCSS P og am Upda es
LAII/ATLAS Collec s Baseline Da a o B acke T ansi ions
The A c ic T ansi ions in he Land-
A mosphe e Sys em (ATLAS)
P og am began in Summe 1998 as pa o
he NSF A c ic Sys em Science (ARCSS)
P og am. ATLAS builds on he wo k o
he Land-A mosphe e-Ice In e ac ions
(LAII) Flux P og am in he Kupa uk Basin
(see Wi ness Sp ing 1998), ocusing on
unde s anding how he und a ecosys em
migh espond o clima e change.
One goal o he p ojec is o p oduce
la ge-a ea ex apola ions o ene gy and
ace gas luxes, by in eg a ing emo e
sensing wi h an unde s anding o basic
ecosys em p ocesses and landscape
a ia ions. The p ojec b ings oge he
ecologis s, biologis s, a mosphe ic
physicis s, snow physicis s, and modele s.
Fieldwo k will ake place in Alaska on
he No h Slope and Sewa d Peninsula,
and in Sibe ia. On he No h Slope,
con inuous measu emen s a e al eady
unde way a Ba ow, A kasuk, and I o uk.
A Ba ow and A kasuk, con inuous yea -
ound measu emen s o he wea he and
CO2 emissions a e being made using
owe s. These a e being supplemen ed
du ing he g owing season wi h ai bo ne
measu emen s om a specially equipped
ai c a , and wi h space-bo ne measu e-
men s o No malized Di e ence Vege a-
ion Index (NDVI), a measu e o plan
“g eenness.” Using he owe , ai c a , and
sa elli e da a, esea che s will scale-up
ace-gas lux measu emen s om he plo
o he landscape scale.
The I o uk si e is new o many ATLAS
in es iga o s, bu is well known o a chae-
ologis s as he loca ion o The Mesa,
a hun ing lookou used by indigenous
people 12,000-10,000 yea s BP. Sha ing
logis ics wi h Bu eau o Land Manage-
men a chaeologis s, an ATLAS c ew
es ablished ou pe manen 100 m2
ege a ion plo s, anging om sh ub
und a o d y, non-acidic ussock und a.
A each plo , esea che s made de ailed
measu emen s o :
• plan communi y composi ion;
• soil subs a e;
• ene gy and ace gas luxes (and
compa ed hese o measu emen s a
a e e ence plo using a se ies o po able
eddy-co ela ion owe s);
• biomass; and
• sh ub a chi ec u e along ansec s,
in p epa a ion o win e snow
measu emen s ha will commence
in No embe 1998.
In 1999, ieldwo k will mo e o he
Sewa d Peninsula, which is wa me ,
we e , and opog aphically mo e di e se
han he No h Slope. The Sewa d Penin-
sula also di e s in ha i is su ounded by
an ocean ha is p incipally ice- ee, while
he No h Slope bo de s an ocean ha is
o en ice-co e ed.
On he Sewa d Peninsula, ieldwo k a
Qua z C eek and Council is designed o
encompass a ansi ion om und a o
o es und a. Compa able se s o ege a-
ion, ene gy, and mass lux da a om he
Sewa d Peninsula and he No h Slope
will b acke he ex emes o a clima ic
g adien . Acco dingly, he ege a ion and
land-su ace p ocesses desc ibed a he
wo si es a e expec ed o be analogs o
a clima echange ansi ion.
The nex LAII All-Hands Mee ing will
ake place 11-13 Ma ch 1999.
Fo mo e in o ma ion, con ac Pa icia
A. Ande son a he LAII Science Manage-
men O ice (907/474-5415; ax 907/474-
6722; [email p o ec ed]; h p://www.
laii.ua .edu).
Ca he ine Copass (le ), La y Hinzman, and E ika Edwa ds climb he limes one idge a Lisbu ne Hills a midnigh
in mid-July. The I o uk ai s ip is isible in he dis ance. The a chaeological esea ch si e known as The Mesa is o
he pho o o he le (pho o by And ew Sla e ).

6
Na al Resea ch and he Oceanog aphy
Sec ion o he NSF Geosciences Di ec o -
a e ha e al eady ag eed o con ibu e und-
ing, and se e al o he po en ial suppo e s
ha e exp essed in e es . Al hough he exac
na u e o he SBI Phase I esea ch canno
be desc ibed un il his e iew p ocess is
comple e, he goal is o suppo modeling,
analysis o exis ing da a, and oppo unis ic
ieldwo k ha will p o ide a s ong
ounda ion o Phase II expe imen s.
Science S ee ing Commi ee
The OAII SSC me in S e enson,
Washing on in Oc obe 1998. NSF
ARCSS P og am Di ec o Mike Ledbe e
s a ed ha he inc eased unding le els
o FY 1999 (see page 10) should esul
in se e al new oppo uni ies, possibly
including announcemen s o oppo uni y
o a c ic en i onmen al obse a o ies and
o au oma ed sampling ins umen s.
The SSC e iewed asumma y o po en ial
si es o a c ic ma ine en i onmen al
obse a o ies. The commi ee sugges ed
ha he e we e scien i ically compelling
easons o es ablish si es in he Chukchi
Sea and he MacKenzie Beau o shel .
Concei ably, such si es could ake
ad an age o sho eside acili ies in Ba ow,
Alaska and Tuk oyuk uk, No hwes
Te i o ies, Canada.
Jamie Mo ison upda ed he SSC on he
de eloping S udy o En i onmen al A c ic
Change P og am (see page 7). The SSC
hough he scien i ic easons o p oceed-
ing wi h his e o (including he ecen
changes no ed by SHEBA) a e compelling.
The SSC will appoin a wo king g oup o
coo dina e a science-planning wo kshop,
en a i ely scheduled o ea ly Sp ing
1999. Discussion esul ed in modi ica ion
o he in o mal name, S udy o A c ic
Change, o S udy o he En i onmen al
A c ic Change (SEARCH).
The nex OAII All-Hands Mee ing will
ake place on 20-22 Oc obe 1999. Fo
mo e in o ma ion, see h p://a css-
oaii.ccpo.odu.edu/ o con ac Lou
Codispo i in No olk, VA (757/683-5770;
ax 757/683-5550; [email p o ec ed])
o OAII SSC Chai Jackie G ebmeie in
Knox ille, TN (423/974-2592; ax 423/
974-3067; [email p o ec ed]).
ARCSS P og am Upda es
OAII Comple es he SHEBA Yea
In ea ly Oc obe 1998, esea che s
success ully comple ed a ull yea o
ieldwo k in esidence on he a c ic pack
ice. On 11 Oc obe , he Canadian ice-
b eake Des G oseillie s b oke ou o he
a c ic ice pack in o which i had been
ozen since 2 Oc obe 1997 and b ough
he Su ace Hea Budge o he A c ic
Ocean (SHEBA) expe imen home.
Du ing he cou se o he yea , he ship
se ed as a esidence, esea ch s a ion, and
hub o he esea ch illage ha sp ead
on o he su ounding ice. The s a ion
ended he yea 800 km om i s s a ing
poin bu had ac ually d i ed much a -
he along i s ci cui ous ou e unde he
in luence o wind and cu en s. In he las
week alone, he ice s a ion d i ed 95 km,
unde he in luence o 20-30 kno winds.
SHEBA esea che s collec ed oughly
10 billion da a poin s. P elimina y insigh s
include he obse a ion ha he anoma-
lously hin ice no ed a he beginning o
(pho o by Richa d Mo i z,
cou esy o Uni e si y o
Washing on)
he expe imen had, in gene al, become
e en hinne by he end o he yea , sug-
ges ing ha wa ming o he A c ic Ocean
is con inuing. In es iga o s a e s i ing o
de e mine whe he his is an oscilla ion,
a secula change, o some combina ion o
bo h; whe he i ela es o me eo ological
phenomena such as he No h A lan ic
and A c ic oscilla ions; and, i so, how.
Fo in o ma ion, see he SHEBA web
si e (h p://sheba.apl.washing on.edu).
Wes e n A c ic Shel Basin In e ac ions
(SBI) Announcemen o Oppo uni y
Fi y-one p oposals submi ed o NSF
in June 1998 in esponse o he Wes e n
A c ic Shel Basin In e ac ions (SBI)
Announcemen o Oppo uni y a e in
e iew. The Science Plan o his biologi-
cally and biogeochemically o ien ed p o-
g am is a ailable om he OAII Science
Managemen O ice (SMO) and on he
OAII web si e (see below). The O ice o
“Finally, we mus conside he ice.... We e i no o he ice, he sea he e would be li le di e en
om he sea elsewhe e in he wo ld. We a el and wo k on he ice cons an ly, jus as i i we e
solid land, and we end o o ge ha 2 m benea h us is a 4 km oid. Bu his is he pola ice
pack, and i is cons an ly in mo ion. Since la e Janua y, he pack has been especially ac i e
nea he ship. The science camp was sepa a ed by a lead ha opened 50 m, hen c ushed
oge he again o o m a p essu e idge and a keel 10 m deep. The main camp was mo ed no h
hal a kilome e and now has o gene a e i s own powe a he han be hooked o he ship....
Some imes we a e awakened by a lu ch as he ice snaps and he ship mo es, o we hea he ice
g inding agains he side. No ma e he ime o day o nigh , he b idge immedia ely ills wi h
people anxious o see whe e he ac ion is, and whe he hei hu s and ins umen s a e in he
wa e o c ushed in he ice.”
—Ha old Welch, biological oceanog aphe
Depa men o Fishe ies and Oceans, Canada
May 1998
quo ed in A c ic
Sep embe 1998
7
means o da a syn hesis. Di ec any com-
men s on he A las o he Coo dina o ,
Ma Du all ([email p o ec ed]).
Fo mo e in o ma ion, con ac Kim
Ma sella a he PALE Science Manage-
men O ice in Boulde , CO (303/492-
0246; ax 303/492-6388; pale@spo .
colo ado.edu), and see he PALE web si e
(h p://www.ngdc.noaa.go /paleo/pale/
index.h ml).
PALE A las Se es as Model o Ci cuma c ic Syn heses
While indi idual esea che s in he
Paleoclima es om A c ic Lakes
and Es ua ies (PALE) P og am con inue
o wo k on pas clima e econs uc ion
wi hin hei own ield a eas, he e is also
a gene al mo emen owa d syn hesis
p ojec s. These include:
• he PALE high- esolu ion esea ch
g oup syn hesis o clima e change
in he A c ic o e he las 400 yea s
(see Wi ness Sp ing 1998); and
• se e al p ojec s ha a e pa o di e en
ini ia i es wi hin Pas Global Changes
(PAGES), a co e p ojec o he
In e na ional Geosphe e/Biosphe e
P og amme (IGBP). These include
Ci cum-A c ic PaleoEn i onmen s
(CAPE; see Wi ness Au umn 1997),
BIOME (see Wi ness Sp ing 1998),
and he PALE Paleoen i onmen al A las
(see Wi ness Sp ing 1998).
The A las (h p://www.ngdc.noaa.go /
paleo/pale/a las/index.h ml) has become a
key ool in p o iding a be e unde s and-
ing o pas en i onmen al and clima ic
spa ial a iabili y. The success o he
Be ingian A las pilo p ojec has led CAPE
esea che s o adop he a las app oach as
a way o u he egional syn hesis e o s
elsewhe e in he A c ic. A Sp ing 1999
wo kshop is planned o begin de elop-
men o an a las o he No hwes e n
No h A lan ic egion (Iceland o he
Canadian A chipelago). The A las is
unique in ha i combines paleo- and
mode n en i onmen al da a. The syn hesis
p ocess is ully documen ed so ha he
esul ing in e p e ed da a can be aced
di ec ly o he p ima y paleo-da a. This,
combined wi h he ease o upda ing da a,
se s he A las apa om mo e adi ional
S udy o he En i onmen al A c ic Change (SEARCH)
The inal Repo on he A c ic Change
Wo kshop ha ook place in No em-
be 1997 was comple ed and dis ibu ed in
Augus 1998 by he Pola Science Cen e
a he Applied Physics Labo a o y o he
Uni e si y o Washing on as an OAII
epo . The epo summa izes obse a-
ions o ma ked changes in he A c ic since
1990 (see Wi ness Sp ing 1998) and u ges
he de elopmen o a p og am o
examine hem u he .
Obse a ions ha e e ealed ha he
A c ic is in he mids o change ex ending
om he op o he a mosphe e o below
1,000 m in he ocean. A s eng hening o
he a mosphe ic pola o ex has esul ed
in lowe su ace p essu e and a consequen
weakening and dis o ion o he Beau o
Sea Ice Gy e. This weakening has been ap-
pa en in d i ing buoy da a; i is also asso-
cia ed wi h di e gence o he ice pack. I is
now pos ula ed ha he ice di e gence has
caused inc eased summe ice mel and he
eshening o he Beau o Sea mixed laye ,
as obse ed du ing he SHEBA ield
expe imen (see page 6).
The change in a mosphe ic ci cula ion
may also accoun o :
• he dec eased ice co e on he Sibe ian
shel es desc ibed by se e al au ho s;
• he ising No h A lan ic Oscilla ion
index; and
• inc eased ad ec ion o hea and mois-
u e in o he G eenland Sea and Ba en s
Sea egions. This, in u n, has esul ed
in an inc ease in he empe a u e o
A lan ic Wa e lowing in o he A c ic
Ocean and can explain he wa ming
obse ed he e.
The epo ecommends a coo dina ed
p og am o long- e m obse a ions,
modeling, and p ocess s udies o ack and
unde s and he change ha is unde way.
Jamie Mo ison p esen ed he epo a
he Oc obe 1998 mee ing o he ARCSS-
Ocean-A mosphe e-Ice In e ac ions
(OAII) Science S ee ing Commi ee. The
SSC endo sed he e o hus a and is
u ging ha he planning e o go o wa d
(see page 6).
The Repo on he A c ic Change
Wo kshop is a ailable a h p://psc.apl.
washing on.edu/publica ion/A c ic_
Change/a c ic.pd . Fo mo e in o ma ion,
con ac Jamie Mo ison in Sea le, WA
(206/543-1394; ax 206/543-3521;
[email p o ec ed]).
ARCSS P og am Upda es
The Paleoen i onmen al A las o Be ingia is designed o syn hesize en i onmen al condi ions om p ima y paleo-
en i onmen al da a. This map shows he si es con aining he ossil pollen and bee le da a used in A las econs uc ions.
Fo mo e in o ma ion, see he web si e (h p://www.ngdc.noaa.go /paleo/pale/a las/be ingia/index.h ml; map by Ma
Du all, Qua e na y Resea ch Cen e , Uni e si y o Washing on).
8
(NPS and he No wegian Ins i u e o Ai
Resea ch), ozone/s a osphe ic and clima e
esea ch (Al ed Wegene Ins i u e), and
space geode ic esea ch (No wegian Map-
ping Au ho i y). Mo e han 9,000 use -
days we e logged by isi ing scien is s a
Ny-Ålesund in 1998. Many o he esea ch
ac i i ies, coo dina ed by he Ny-Ålesund
Science Manage s Commi ee, con inue
yea - ound. A new No wegian esea ch
s a ion will be a ailable o use in ea ly
1999. Russia and Poland also ha e
esea ch s a ions on S alba d. The NPS
ope a es i s own esea ch essel, he R/V
Lance, o e he high A c ic.
The NPS o e s logis ics se ices o
No wegian esea che s and o o eign
esea che s wo king unde collabo a i e
ag eemen s. The S alba d Science Fo um,
es ablished by he Resea ch Council o
No way, coo dina es esea ch acili ies, he
de elopmen o in as uc u e, and in o -
ma ion conce ning esea ch in S alba d.
Fo mo e in o ma ion, con ac Jan
E ling Haugland, Di ec o o he NPS, o
Pe Ky e Reyme , Science Sec e a y o
he S alba d Science Fo um (+47/79-02-
26-00; ax +47/79-02-26-04; nps@lby.
npola .no o [email p o ec ed]; h p://
www.lby.npola .no).
S alba d O e s Ex ensi e Logis ics Capabili ies
A c ic Oppo uni ies
Du ing an Augus 1998 mee ing in
T omsø, No way, ep esen a i es
om se e al a c ic coun ies planned es a-
blishmen o an A c ic Ope a o s’ Fo um
(see page 13) o imp o e coo dina ion o
esea ch planning and logis ics. The NSF
A c ic P og am is a emp ing o publicize
he a ailabili y o in e na ional acili ies
and explo ing a angemen s o use o
hese acili ies by U.S. scien is s. To help
assu e ull access o he A c ic, NSF
encou ages esea che s o conside si es,
such as hose loca ed in Canada (see Wi -
ness Sp ing 1998), G eenland (see Wi ness
Sp ing 1997), and S alba d, when plan-
ning hei esea ch. Facili ies in S alba d
a e desc ibed he e.
S alba d is no able as an a c ic esea ch
pla o m because i is he wo ld’s no h-
e nmos communi y wi h mode n acili ies
and in as uc u e. Unde he S alba d
T ea y, i is open o scien is s om 42
na ions, including he U.S. In 1998,
in es iga o s om mo e han 15 na ions
conduc ed esea ch on S alba d.
Hal o S alba d’s a ea is p o ec ed
as na ional pa k, na u e ese e, plan
p o ec ion ese e, o bi d sanc ua y.
These ese es and he islands’ mo e han
100-yea his o y o scien i ic ac i i y make
S alba d an excellen labo a o y o s udy-
ing he en i onmen o he high A c ic.
Longyea byen, he main habi a ion
(pop. 1,200), o e s esea che s all ans-
po a ion, elecommunica ion, and logis ic
se ices yea - ound and is he si e o
se e al scien i ic ins alla ions.
Uni e si y S udies in S alba d (UNIS)
is a ounda ion es ablished by he No we-
gian go e nmen in coope a ion wi h
No way’s ou uni e si ies o o e uni e -
si y-le el cou ses and pe o m esea ch
ele an o he high A c ic. Field cou ses
a e an impo an pa o s udy a UNIS,
which is based in Longyea byen. Twen y-
h ee ins uc o s o e 35 cou ses in a c ic
geology, a c ic geophysics, a c ic biology,
and a c ic echnology o s uden s om
16 coun ies. Fo mo e in o ma ion, see
h p://au o a.unis.no.
One o he wo ld’s no he nmos se -
lemen s, Ny-Ålesund is an in e na ional
base o esea ch in he na u al sciences
Ny-Ålesund is si ua ed on Kongs jo den on no hwes e n Spi sbe gen, he la ges o he S alba d islands. The a ea is
ypical o high-a c ic ecosys ems, o e ing a a ie y o a c ic jo d en i onmen s, access o se e al bi d and plan
sanc ua ies, and di e se geological sys ems (pho o © Bjø n F an zen).
ha has a well-de eloped in as uc u e,
including egula comme cial ai se ice
and a mode n ha bo . The Ny-Ålesund
In e na ional Resea ch and Moni o ing
Facili y includes esea ch s a ions o
No wegian, Ge man, B i ish, I alian,
F ench, and Japanese ins i u ions, as
well as he Eu opean Union’s La ge Scale
Facili y (LSF). The LSF includes acili ies
o a mosphe ic clima e and biological
esea ch (No wegian Pola Ins i u e
S alba d o NPS), a mosphe ic ai esea ch
by Thomas Pyle, Jan E ling Haugland, and Pe Ky e Reyme
The S alba d A chipelago c osses 80oN, bu he po s o
Longyea byen (✫) and Ny-Ålesund (◆) a e kep clea o
ice in he summe by wa m wa e om he No h
A lan ic cu en (map by Moun ain High Maps).
♦✫
9
Resea ch Suppo Needs
An a c ic esea ch s a egy o planning,
coo dina ed measu emen s, and modeling
will imp o e ou p esen le els o unde -
s anding, p edic i e skill, and assessmen .
Wo kshop pa icipan s concu ed wi h he
ecen U.S. A c ic Resea ch Commission/
NSF epo , Logis ics Recommenda ions o
an Imp o ed U.S. A c ic Resea ch Capabil-
i y (ARCUS 1997; see Wi ness Au umn
1997), and ou lined addi ional ways in
which a ne wo k o en i onmen al obse -
a o ies could acili a e an obse a ional
s a egy o measu e impo an ime and
space scales o changes in he A c ic. The
ollowing eme ged as p io i ies:
Collec long- e m obse a ions wi h
emo e sensing, and in eg a e wi h paleo-
eco ds. S a egies o p omo e sys ema ic
obse a ion and elucida ion o he linkages
wi hin he a c ic sys em include:
• en i onmen al obse a o ies,
• sus ained o -si e obse a ions,
• echnology de elopmen and inc eased
u ili y o emo e sensing,
• in eg a ion o paleo-da a,
• yea - ound sa e access, and
• communica ions.
De elop modeling and p edic i e
capabili y. A usion o modeling and
obse a ional e o s is equi ed o
e ec i ely ocus modeling on c i ical
science ques ions, and da a collec ion,
whe e possible, should be ele an o he
modeling e o .
Syn hesize local and academic knowl-
edge on A c ic Change. Me hods need o
be de eloped o imp o e coope a ion and
sha ing o knowledge, in o ma ion, and
esea ch da a be ween academic schola s
and a c ic esiden s, including indigenous
no he n communi ies and local expe s.
S a egies o p omo e hese include:
• join , locally based mee ings; and
• ac i e dissemina ion o da a.
In e na ional coope a ion/collabo a-
ion. Coope a ion wi h he in e na ional
communi y is equi ed o achie e be e
global co e age and he needed mix o
ins umen a ion and acili ies.
The ull epo is a ailable on he
ARCUS web si e a h p://www.a cus.o g.
Fo mo e in o ma ion, con ac ARCUS.
A c ic Oppo uni ies
Wo kshop De ails Oppo uni ies in A c ic Resea ch
A communi y wo kshop held a he
eques o he Na ional Science
Founda ion and conduc ed by ARCUS in
Sep embe 1998 de eloped ecommen-
da ions ega ding needs and oppo uni ies
in a c ic esea ch. NSF eques ed com-
muni y inpu on a sho ime scale o aid
i s planning p ocess and abili y o espond
e ec i ely o signi ican budge inc eases
in he FY99 Cong essional app op ia ion
(see page 10 o mo e in o ma ion on he
budge and page 11 o opening ema ks
by he Di ec o o NSF).
Twen y-eigh scien is s, ep esen ing
a wide spec um o a c ic esea ch in e -
es s, iden i ied cu en oppo uni ies in
a c ic esea ch and challenges in a c ic
esea ch suppo needs. These issues a e
ou lined in Oppo uni ies in A c ic
Resea ch, which was e iewed in d a
o m by he wo kshop pa icipan s and
he co e o ganizing g oup and has been
o wa ded o NSF. The epo , which
a emp s o balance pe spec i es p o ided
by he physical, biological, and social
science communi ies, s esses he need
o in eg a ed esea ch app oaches o
s udy change in he A c ic and o imp o e
ou unde s anding o he links be ween
physical and biological phenomena and
socioeconomic changes. The in oduc ion,
scien i ic oppo uni ies, and ecommen-
da ions o esea ch suppo and logis ics
in as uc u e a e summa ized he e.
Ongoing communi y discussion on hese
issues will con inue o be e y impo an .
In oduc ion
Fo he las ew decades, he scien i ic
communi y has exp essed conce n abou
he ulne abili y o he A c ic and i s
esiden s o en i onmen al, social, and
economic changes. Resea ch esul s show
ha a c ic clima e and ecosys ems a e
indeed changing subs an ially, impac ing
people li ing in and ou side he A c ic.
Conce n abou physical and biological
change is heigh ened by new e idence ha
con aminan s a e accumula ing in a c ic
ecosys ems and ha he uppe a mosphe e
is unde going changes as well.
Many o he p ocesses egula ing a c ic
physical and biological sys ems a e no
well unde s ood, o e ing nume ous
oppo uni ies o ad ancing basic
knowledge. Ice, snow, glacie s, und a,
pe ma os , bo eal o es s, and pea lands
a e sensi i e in eg a o s and indica o s o
change; in es iga ing hese can also p o ide
undamen al in o ma ion abou he in e -
ac ions and p ocesses ha egula e hem.
The pola egion is also unique in i s di ec
elec odynamic coupling o space en i on-
men s h ough he geomagne ic ield.
Rapid changes also a e aking place
in he poli ical and economic sys ems o
a c ic socie ies. These p ocesses a e mo e
appa en and less a ec ed by ex aneous
in luences in he A c ic han hey a e in
many o he a eas o he wo ld. The ways in
which hese changes ake place and he
a ia ions in he p ocesses and ou comes
a e poo ly unde s ood.
Recen a c ic changes—clima ic,
con aminan , UV, biological, social,
economic, poli ical—add u gency o he
need o scien i ic unde s anding ha will
pe mi meaning ul p edic ion, adap a ion
o, and mi iga ion o hese changes. Key
ques ions include he ollowing:
• How a e apid social, poli ical,
economic, and en i onmen al changes
occu ing in he A c ic a ec ing he
people he e? How ha e simila changes
a ec ed a c ic esiden s in he pas ?
• How close is he A c ic Ocean o a
ansi ion o an al e na e s a e? Is
na u al a iabili y, when supe imposed
on any g eenhouse- ela ed ends,
su icien o make an ice- ee A c ic
likely in he nex 100 yea s?
• A e he obse ed ends o wa ming
going o con inue, o a e hey he esul
o a mul i-decadal cycle? How ha e hese
changes a ied a ound he A c ic?
• A e ecen la ge popula ion changes o
some a c ic animal species linked o
changes in clima e, ice condi ions,
landscape co e , o human esou ce use?
• How will dis ibu ions o a c ic
ege a ion and pe ma os change
o e he nex decades o cen u ies?
• Wha a e he o igin and e ec s (a
he su ace) o ecen a c ic uppe - and
lowe -a mosphe e changes (e.g., he
inc ease o pola s a osphe ic clouds
and A c ic Haze, he dec ease o
s a osphe ic ozone)?
16
F os i e o S udy E ec s o Fi e in Pe ma os Regions
Science News
Bo eal o es s accoun o abou 33%
o he ca bon seques e ed in e es ial
ecosys ems. I global wa ming inc eases
he equency o se e i y o i e, o a es
o decomposi ion o o ganic ma e , bo eal
o es s could shi om se ing as a ca bon
sink o ac ing as a ne sou ce o ca bon.
F os i e is a esea ch p ojec ha
will conduc a p esc ibed i e du ing he
summe o 1999 o 2000 on mo e han
2,000 ac es o he Long Te m Ecological
Resea ch si e no h o Fai banks, Alaska.
Resea ch on his p esc ibed i e is designed
o help o unde s and:
• he causes and consequences o i e
egimes,
• he ole o i e in he Alaskan egional
sys em, and
• he eedbacks om bo eal i e o
global clima e.
Global wa ming may inc ease o
dec ease he ex en o bo eal o es s,
depending on whe he o es s expand in o
und a mo e o less apidly han wild i e
and logging esul in de o es a ion. Cu -
en global models o ege a ion change do
no conside how he a e o dis u bance
by i e and logging migh change o e
ime. Much o he a ea cu en ly co e ed
by bo eal o es could change o a di e en
biome, howe e , and he species composi-
ion may change in much o he emain-
de . Changes in he dis ibu ion o unc-
ion o bo eal o es s could al e egional
ene gy budge s enough o ei he ampli y
o nulli y he expec ed apid clima ic
wa ming in he A c ic and sub-A c ic.
Fo es i es ha e an immedia e e ec
on he su ace ene gy and wa e budge by
d as ically changing:
• su ace albedo,
• su ace oughness,
• in il a ion a es, and
• mois u e abso p ion capaci y in o ganic
soils.
In pe ma os egions, hese e ec s
con ibu e o long- e m (20-50 yea s)
cumula i e impac s. The in ensi y o a
bu n, o ins ance, may de e mine imme-
dia e impac s as well as long- e m dis u -
bance. Whe e ees a e emo ed, e apo a-
ion o wa e om ee lea es dec eases o
ceases, soil mois u e inc eases ma kedly,
and he soil emains qui e we h oughou
he yea . Whe e he o ganic laye , wi h i s
insula ing quali ies, is emo ed, pe ma os
begins o haw nea he su ace and o
wa m a g ea e dep hs. Wi hin a ew
yea s, pe ma os may gi e way o a pe -
manen ly hawed laye in he soil (a alik),
allowing soils o d ain in e nally h ough-
ou he yea and become qui e d y. Plan s
and animals using such si es mus con inu-
ously adap o he changing empe a u e
and mois u e egimes o he soil. These
and many o he p ocesses (see box) will be
he subjec o F os i e esea ch.
Plan succession and e ec s o a i e on pe ma os o e ime. A e he insula ing quali y o he o ganic laye is emo ed,
pe ma os begins o haw nea he su ace and wa m o g ea e dep hs. Wi hin a ew yea s, i may haw o he poin
whe e i can no longe comple ely e eeze e e y win e , c ea ing a pe manen ly hawed laye in he soil called a " alik."
A e o ma ion o a alik, soils may be able o d ain in e nally h oughou he yea and may become qui e d y. The local
plan s and animals con inuously adap o he changing soil he mal and mois u e egimes (illus a ion by Sue Mi chell).
Resea ch Associa ed wi h F os i e
Suppo o his wo k is p o ided by:
• NSF Di ision o En i onmen al Biology
unde he Te es ial Ecosys ems P o-
g am,
• USDA Fo es Se ice Resea ch, and
• Japanese New Ene gy and Indus ial
Technology De elopmen O ganiza ion.
Fo mo e in o ma ion, con ac
F. S ua Chapin ([email p o ec ed]),
o La y Hinzman ([email p o ec ed]); o
see he USDA Fo es Se ice, Paci ic
No hwes Resea ch S a ion web si e
(h p://www. sl.o s .edu/home/us s/gepp/
alaska/ s i e.h m).
• Vege a ion Dynamics & Succession
• Landscape Scale Biomass Mapping &
Modeling
• Ecological Modeling
• Remo e Sensing o Te es ial Ecosys em
P ocesses
• Radia i e T ans e in Vege a ion
• Ecosys em Modeling & Analysis
• E ec s o Fi e on Rep oduc i e Ecology &
Biology o Black Sp uce
• Hyd ologic P ocess S udies & Modeling
• Aqua ic Ecology
• E osion & Sedimen a ion in S eams
• P ima y P oduc i i y in S eams
• G oundwa e Chemis y & Hyd ology
• P edic ion o Fu u e Clima e & Fi e Regimes
• Response o Small Mammals o Fi e
Dis u bance
• Fi e Sa e y
• Public Opinion Response o Fi e & Fi e
Con ol
• In luence o Fuel & Wea he on Fi e Beha io
• Long-Te m His o y o Fi e E ec s in Bo eal
Ca chmen s (Qua e na y Plan Ecology)
• De ec ion o Fi e Se e i y in Alaska Using
Remo e Sensing Da a
• LIDAR P o iling o Smoke Plume
• Fo es y P ac ices & Sys em Response
• Ni ogen T ans o ma ion & T anspo
• Consequences o Wild i e on Below-G ound
Ca bon Balance
• Ca bon S o age in Soils
• Soil Enzymes
• 14C Deep Soil Respi a ion
• Ca bon Budge o Taiga
• Myco hizal Fungi Be o e & A e he Bu n
• Pe ma os Response, The mal Condi ion o
Ac i e Laye
• The moka s Fo ma ion
• Geophysical Sounding o Pe ma os
Dis ibu ion
• Me hane Emission om Soil & Pe ma os
• A mosphe ic CO2 Dynamics
• Iso opic Chemis y
• LIDAR Ae osol Physics
• Ae ial Measu emen s o Ca bon Flux &
Su ace E ec s o Fi e on Su ace Ene gy
Balance

17
scena ios. To expand his planning p ocess
o he yea s 2002 and beyond, he AICC
will hold annual a c ic essel long- e m
planning wo kshops in San F ancisco one
day be o e he AGU Fall Mee ing, begin-
ning in Decembe 1999. Announcemen s
o hese mee ings will be widely ci cula ed.
The AICC u ges ha all p oposals
equi ing U.S. a c ic iceb eake suppo
du ing 2001 be submi ed o he app op i-
a e agencies no la e han Feb ua y 2000,
accompanied by a UNOLS Ship-Time
Reques Fo m (see below). Ship suppo
cos s need no be included in he submi -
ed science budge o p oposals o NSF
equi ing U.S. Coas Gua d iceb eake
suppo o a c ic esea ch, i an NSF
Fo m 831 (o o he logis ics o m
app o ed by he NSF O ice o Pola
P og ams) is a ached ha clea ly indica es
ship- ime equi emen s.
The AICC mee s nex in Ma ch 1999
in A ondale, Louisiana. Fo mo e in o -
ma ion, con ac AICC Chai Jim Swi in
La Jolla, CA (619/534-3387; ax 619/534-
7383; [email p o ec ed]) o he UNOLS
O ice ([email p o ec ed]);
a ship- ime eques o m is a ailable a
h p://gso.u i.edu/unols/unols.h ml).
eques s submi ed by 4 Janua y 1999 o
sui abili y, including geog aphic egion,
seasonali y, numbe o be hs, compa ibil-
i y o scien i ic p og ams and pe sonnel
esponsibili ies, USCG equipmen
eques s, and labo a o y equi emen s.
This ad iso y p ocess is independen o
p oposals o unding, o accep ance by
he Coas Gua d o any p oposed SOO
science pa icipa ion.
The new a c ic esea ch essel,
USCGC Healy, is expec ed o be a ailable
beginning Janua y 2001 o 180 o mo e
days o a c ic ma ine science suppo du -
ing ha yea . Ad ance assessmen o scien-
i ic in e es in use o Healy du ing 2001
indica es a likelihood o wo k in he eas -
e n A c ic, including he Nansen-Gakkel
Ridge, du ing mid-la e summe 2001.
Addi ional ma ine science p og ams in he
wes e n o eas e n A c ic om Healy a e
also logis ically easible ea lie in he yea .
The AICC in i es he communi y
o pa icipa e in he long- ange p ocess
o ad ising on science use o Healy, o
p o ide a empo al and egional pale e o
science missions, op ions, and equi e-
men s om which he Coas Gua d and
agencies can d aw science and unding
s udies o illus a e he obus ness o he
his o ical da a (e.g., co a iance o ice
edge wi h o he geophysical a iables).
• The Da a Managemen g oup ocused
on issues o da a o ma , me ada a, da a
a chi es, and in e na ional coope a ion.
Many o hei ecommenda ions we e
ca ied o he mee ing on sea-ice cha s
sponso ed by he Commission on
Ma ine Me eo ology held in Augus
1998 in Boulde , Colo ado.
• The Science/Ope a ions g oup ou lined
he pa ne ship be ween he esea ch
and ope a ions communi ies necessa y
o he e ec i e p epa a ion and use o
ice-cha in o ma ion.
Fo mo e in o ma ion, con ac To dis
Villinge a he ACSYS P ojec O ice in
T omsø, No way ([email p o ec ed]).
Science News
400 Yea s o A c ic Sea-Ice Cha s a e Valuable Resou ce
Old ship logs and li e a u e su eys
documen ing sea-ice his o y om as
a back as he 16 h cen u y eside a he
No wegian Pola Ins i u e (NPI). O o
S e d up collec ed he ship logs in 1922,
and To gny Vinje o NPI ga he ed he li -
e a u e su eys om lib a ies all o e he
wo ld mo e ecen ly. NPI has ecen ly
con e ed he masses o in o ma ion in he
collec ion o digi al o m, making i mo e
a ailable o he scien i ic communi y
s udying clima e.
The A c ic Clima e Sys em S udy
(ACSYS) P og am con ened he Wo k-
shop o Sea Ice Cha s o he A c ic—
Scien i ic Achie emen s om he i s 400
Yea s in Augus 1998 in Sea le, Washing-
on. Pa icipan s ag eed ha ice-cha
in o ma ion is he basis o he long- e m
obse a ional unde s anding o ice s a e
and ice ex en . In o ma ion ha can be
de i ed om ice cha s o he his o ical e a
(1200-1930) is limi ed o ice ex en , while
ice cha s o he mode n e a (1930-
p esen ) gene ally p o ide in o ma ion
abou he ice pack in e io as well. Se e al
wo kshop epo s illus a ed he quan i y
and quali y o he ice-cha in o ma ion
and sugges ed ha he da a a e adequa e
o suppo scien i ic in es iga ions o he
his o ical e a (e.g., he His o ical Ice Cha
A chi e P ojec ) and om he mode n e a
(e.g., Global Digi al Sea Ice Da a Bank).
Wo kshop pa icipan s di ided in o
h ee wo king g oups:
• The His o ical Da a Wo king G oup
wo ked on he use o ea ly ice-edge da a.
P ima y ecommenda ions included
UNOLS A c ic Iceb eake Coo dina ing Commi ee
Uni ed S a es Coas Gua d iceb eake s
ha e long been made a ailable o
se e as esea ch pla o ms o scien is s.
To enhance he e ec i e use o hese
pla o ms, he Uni e si y-Na ional
Oceanog aphic Labo a o y Sys em
(UNOLS) es ablished he A c ic Ice-
b eake Coo dina ing Commi ee (AICC;
see Wi ness Sp ing 1997) o help he Coas
Gua d and scien is s conduc and coo di-
na e hei espec i e missions in he A c ic.
The mos ecen AICC mee ing was 18-20
No embe 1998 a NSF in A ling on, VA.
The Coas Gua d now accep s ship-
ime eques s o a c ic ma ine science
suppo on USCGC Pola S a o Pola
Sea, gene ally o sp ing o summe
ope a ions. The Coas Gua d ecen ly
in o med he AICC ha a limi ed numbe
(10-20) o be hs may be a ailable o
scien is s on a wes e n A c ic Science-O -
Oppo uni y (SOO) c uise on Pola S a
du ing mid-summe 1999, should no
unded missions—which ha e highe
p io i y—ma e ialize. The AICC has
called o submission o Iceb eake
Science-o -Oppo uni y Reques o ms,
a ailable h ough he UNOLS web si e
(see hi d column). The AICC will assess
18
Po en ial Impac s o Clima e
Change on Alaska
• Majo changes in ishe ies ca ches
in ecen yea s, due o bo h longe
e m clima e change and El Niño
condi ions (+ and -).
• Accele a ed pe ma os hawing,
leading o cos ly inc eases in oad
damage and oad main enance (-).
• Majo landscape changes om o -
es o bogs, and in g asslands and
we land ecosys ems, due o pe ma-
os hawing, a ec ing land use (-).
• Inc eased o es i e equency and
insec ou b eaks wi h educed
economic o es yields (-).
• A leng hening o he g owing season
o ag icul u e and o es y by up o
20%, p oducing highe yields (+).
• Inc eased coas al e osion and inun-
da ion, due o less sea ice in he
Be ing Sea and mo e se e e s o m
su ges, h ea ening s uc u es (-).
• Impac s on Na i e subsis ence
li es yles as snow and sea ice changes
a ec land and ma ine animals used
in hun ing/ ishing (-).
om Welle , G., and P.A. Ande son (eds.),
1998. Implica ions o Global Change in
Alaska and he Be ing Sea Region.
P oceedings o a Wo kshop a he
Uni e si y o Alaska Fai banks on
3-6 June 1997. Cen e o Global Change
and A c ic Sys em Resea ch,
Uni e si y o Alaska Fai banks, 155 pp.
Regional Change Su eys Cul i a e New Pa icipan s
and commi ed o aking ac ion:
• b ing s akeholde s in o e e y s age
o he p ocess;
• inco po a e s akeholde s in o he
ins i u ional machine y (s ee ing and
ad iso y commi ees, e iew panels);
• go o he s akeholde s’ places o wo k,
mee ings, and boa d ooms— a he han
elying solely upon wo kshops and own
mee ings o b ing hem oge he .
To elici indigenous pe spec i es,
Na i e lands ac oss he coun y we e
ea ed as one o he 20 egions. Alaska
Yup’ik Caleb Pungowiyi opened he Oc o-
be 1998 wo kshop in Albuque que, New
Mexico, ci ing obse ed impac s on indig-
enous peoples and subsis ence li es yles
in he A c ic. The 175 pa icipan s om
all egions o he U.S., including Hawaii
and Alaska, began a comp ehensi e assess-
men documen ing change and po en ial
impac s o clima e a iabili y and change
on Na i e people and Na i e homelands.
The Alaska Regional Assessmen
(Be ing Sea Impac S udy, see Wi ness
Au umn 1997) was ini ia ed wi h a
scoping wo kshop in June 1997 and
has, hus a , been mos success ul in
In ea ly 1997, he U.S. Global Change
Resea ch P og am and he O ice o
Science and Technology Policy ini ia ed
a se ies o egional clima e change wo k-
shops h oughou he coun y (see Wi -
ness Au umn 1997). By ea ly 1998, his
ini ia i e had g own in o a comp ehensi e
U.S. Na ional Assessmen on he Po en ial
Consequences o Clima e Va iabili y and
Change. A numbe o ede al agencies a e
collabo a ing o sponso he wo kshops
and compile esul s, including:
• Depa men o Ag icul u e,
• Depa men o Ene gy,
• Depa men o he In e io ,
• En i onmen al P o ec ion Agency,
• Na ional Ae onau ics and Space
Adminis a ion,
• Na ional Ins i u e o En i onmen al
and Heal h Sciences,
• Na ional Oceanic and A mosphe ic
Adminis a ion, and
• Na ional Science Founda ion.
The na ional assessmen is being
conduc ed h ough 20 egional wo kshops
and i e con e ences on sec o s o c oss-
cu ing conce n. The sec o s selec ed o
analy ical ea men a a na ional scale a e
ag icul u e, coas al a eas and ma ine
esou ces, o es s, human heal h, and
wa e esou ces. The Na ional Assessmen
in ends o:
• publish 20 egional epo s, i e sec o
epo s, and an o e all syn hesis in ea ly
2000; and
• launch a long- e m p ocess o engage
ne wo ks h oughou he coun y in
analysis, assessmen , and epo ing on
1) he consequences o global change
and 2) associa ed coping s a egies.
The assessmen is also no able in i s
emphasis on s akeholde s—use s o in o -
ma ion (e.g., na u al esou ce manage s,
a me s, anche s, wa e manage s,
decision make s, elec ed o icials) and
o he s who will be a ec ed by u u e
clima e changes o who a e posi ioned
o de elop esponse s a egies.
The 20 egional con e ences, com-
ple ed in Oc obe 1998, ha e de eloped
ecommenda ions on engaging s ake-
holde s o imp o e he ele ance o he
in o ma ion gene a ed and o c ea e
communi ies o people who a e in o med
Science News
“The...wo kshop was a wonde ul
oppo uni y o he Na i e communi y
and scien is s o sha e echnology and
spi i ual philosophy as i ela es o
clima e and i s impac on he Ea h
and he people. O e 30 ibal elde s
sha ed he ancien wisdom and
knowledge... ega ding he ela ionship
be ween humans and he o ces o
na u e. The Na i e Peoples Wo kshop
was he beginning o a e y impo an
dialogue ha mus be sha ed and
con inued as he wo k con inues owa d
c ea ing a wo ld ha is sus ainable...
en i onmen ally, economically, and
socially. The c oss- alida ion o science
and he adi ional spi i ual knowledge
o he Na i e People o he Ame icas is
he ul illmen o a p ophecy ha all li e
is cyclical. This his o ic ga he ing is he
beginning o he closing o ha ci cle o
wisdom—science and spi i uali y."
—Ve na Telle , Wo kshop P ojec Di ec o
summa izing ecen changes in clima e
and hei e ec s on he physical en i on-
men , including snow and ice ea u es.
Quan i a i e syn hesis o he impac s on
ecosys ems and bio a has p o en mo e
di icul . An Oc obe 1998 ollow-on
wo kshop con ened in Fai banks, Alaska
sough o s eng hen unde s anding
o global change impac s on economic
ac i i ies including ishe ies, o es y,
anspo a ion, and subsis ence (see box).
Fo mo e in o ma ion, con ac Melissa
Taylo in Washing on, DC (202/314-
2239; ax 202/488-8681; m aylo @usgc p.
go ; h p://www.nacc.usgc p.go ).
19
Plan will be he s a ing poin o di ec -
ing esea ch ac i i ies o be conduc ed in
he No h Paci ic and Be ing Sea.
In Oc obe 1998, key ep esen a i es
o NOAA, DOI, and ADF&G p esen ed
a whi e pape en i led “The Be ing Sea
Ecosys em—A Call o Ac ion” a he
Lowell Wake ield Fishe ies Symposium
on Ecosys em Conside a ions in Fishe ies
Managemen . This pape se es wo
impo an pu poses:
• i highligh s he impo ance o he
Be ing Sea as a na ional esou ce; and
• i encou ages an in e agency app oach
o esea ch and managemen in he
Be ing Sea.
In esponse o indica ions o unusual
condi ions in he Be ing Sea du ing he
summe s o 1997 and 1998, Fishe ies-
Oceanog aphy Coo dina ed In es iga ions
(FOCI) di ec o s con ened a wo kshop in
No embe 1998. The wo kshop’s objec-
i es included sha ing in o ma ion, gene -
a ing hypo heses, and ou lining u u e
esea ch needs o add ess and unde s and
changing condi ions and hei e ec s on
he managemen o ma ine esou ces in
he Be ing Sea. The d a epo om his
wo kshop, which endo ses The Be ing Sea
Ecosys em Resea ch Plan, is a ailable a
h p://www.pmel.noaa. go / oci/
bs_98wo kshop/.
The Be ing Sea Ecosys em Biophysical
Me ada abase (see Wi ness Au umn 1997)
is designed o assis scien is s, manage s,
s uden s, ishe men, and he gene al pub-
lic o in es iga e and unde s and he com-
plex ecosys em o he Be ing Sea. The
me ada abase (h p://www.pmel.
noaa.go /be ing/mdb/) now con ains
nea ly 1,000 sepa a e eco ds.
The O ganizing Commi ee o Be ing
Sea Ecosys em Resea ch has ecen ly
ecommended ha he me ada abase and
he Be ing Sea and No h Paci ic Ocean
web si e ha hos s i se e as he hub o
which all ela ed esea ch p ojec s a e
linked and he locus o in e agency
coo dina ion o esea ch.
Fo mo e in o ma ion, con ac Pa
Li ings on a he Alaska Fishe ies Science
Cen e in Sea le, WA (206/526-4242; ax
-6723; [email p o ec ed]).
HARC P og am
In i es P oposals
The Human Dimensions o he
A c ic Sys em (HARC), he
mos ecen addi ion o he Na ional
Science Founda ion (NSF) A c ic
Sys em Science (ARCSS) P og am,
is designed o build on he con empo-
a y and paleoen i onmen al compo-
nen s o ARCSS o in eg a e physical,
ecosys em, and clima e esea ch wi h
a b oad ange o social sciences. The
majo goal o he HARC p og am will
be o unde s and human in e ac ions
wi h physical and biological en i on-
men al change in he A c ic, a scales
anging om local o global. HARC
esea ch will ocus on impac s on
human ac i i ies ha may be expec ed
in esponse o global change, by
• illumina ing he p esen and u u e
ole o humans in he a c ic sys em;
• ocusing on he de elopmen
o p edic i e capabili ies; and
• building upon he exis ing body
o ARCSS esea ch.
In addi ion, HARC esea ch should
seek o in eg a e me hods and p in-
ciples om he na u al and social
sciences; in e p e scien i ic esul s
on empo al and spa ial scales ele an
o policy decisions; inco po a e
adi ional knowledge; in ol e
indigenous peoples; and in e ac
wi h and complemen he ac i i ies
o o he a c ic and U.S. Global
Change Resea ch P og am p ojec s.
P oposals a e due Ap il 30, 1999.
Fo a copy o he p og am announce-
men (NSF 99-61), see he NSF A c ic
Sciences web si e a h p://www.ns .
go /od/opp/a c ic/. Fo backg ound
in o ma ion on he HARC ini ia i e,
see People and he A c ic: A P ospec us
o Resea ch on he Human Dimensions
o he A c ic Sys em, a h p://
www.a cus.o g/HARC/ o by eques
om ARCUS. Ques ions can be
di ec ed o D . Michael Ledbe e o
D . Fae Ko smo a he O ice o Pola
P og ams (703/306-1029; ax 703/
306-0648; [email p o ec ed] o
[email p o ec ed]).
Rep esen a i es om ede al and s a e
agencies engaged in esea ch in he
Be ing Sea ha e made u he p og ess in
hei coope a i e e o s o coo dina e
esea ch and planning (see Wi ness Sp ing
1998). Since June 1998, he Na ional
Oceanic and A mosphe ic Adminis a ion
(NOAA), Depa men o he In e io
(DOI), and he Alaska Depa men o
Fish and Game (ADF&G) ha e p oduced
esul s on h ee majo p ojec s ela ed o
wo k in he egion.
In Sep embe 1998, The Be ing Sea
Ecosys em Resea ch Plan was upda ed
o include he iewpoin s o uni e si y
esea che s, conse a ion o ganiza ions,
Na i e g oups, ishing indus y membe s,
and o he cons i uen s. The plan ou lines
he mos p essing needs o u he
esea ch in ishe y managemen and he
ma ine ecosys em. Unde s anding he
complex biophysical sys em in e ac ions,
including di ec and indi ec e ec s o
ishe y emo als, ha s uc u e he Be ing
Sea ecosys em is c i ical o de e mining
and moni o ing di e si y and p oduc ion.
The plan p oposes a pai o hypo heses
ha span cu en managemen and
science issues:
• na u al a iabili y in he physical
en i onmen causes shi s in ophic
s uc u e and changes in he o e all
p oduc i i y o he Be ing Sea; and
• human impac s lead o en i onmen al
deg ada ion, including inc eased le els
o con aminan s, loss o habi a s, and
inc eased mo ali y on ce ain species in
he ecosys em ha may igge changes
in species composi ion and abundance.
The plan is a ailable a NOAA’s Be ing
Sea and No h Paci ic Ocean web si e
(h p://www.pmel.noaa.go /be ing/) by
linking o “In e agency In o ma ion
Exchange.”
The U.S. Cong ess ecen ly app o ed
an app op ia ion o FY 1999 o $6.6 mil-
lion o he Uni e si y o Alaska o con-
duc o No h Paci ic Ocean ma ine
esea ch ac i i ies ei he di ec ly o
h ough subg an s. The wo k will be
guided by a plan app o ed by he Depa -
men o Comme ce, DOI, and S a e o
Alaska. The Be ing Sea Ecosys em Resea ch
Agencies Shape Be ing Sea Resea ch
Science News
20
conside he implica ions o hei own
knowledge o en i onmen al changes and
scien i ic in o ma ion. The pu pose o he
syn hesis mee ing is o enable scien is s
and communi ies o iden i y common and
di e gen unde s andings o en i onmen-
al change and he ole o adionuclides
and o he con aminan s.
In yea s wo and h ee, a communi y
g an p og am will suppo Alaska Na i e
g ass oo s ac ion p ojec s o add ess
communi y conce ns abou adionuclides.
The i s egional mee ing o no h-
wes e n Alaska was held in Nome in
Sep embe /Oc obe 1998. Na i e elde s,
hun e s, ga he e s, scien is s, and esou ce
manage s me o discuss and map obse a-
ions o changes in hei en i onmen and
documen o he issues o conce n o hei
communi ies. Thei conce ns include:
• abno mali ies in ish popula ions in
ela ion o known haza dous si es;
• inc easing numbe s o bea s and bea e s
and he e ec hey a e ha ing on human
heal h, ish popula ions, and s eam and
e es ial habi a s;
• highe cance a es in pa icula
communi ies su ounding known
nea by haza dous si es;
• inc ease in Alzheime ’s disease;
• die-o o seabi ds and wa e owl,
abno mali ies, ewe and mo e agile
eggs, change in mig a ion pa e ns;
• changes in wea he , ice, and cu en s
including we e and windie condi-
ions, changing equency and in ensi y
o s o ms, yea s o di y ice, and
dec ease in ice hickness;
• plan s ha as e di e en , healing powe
a ec ed, new loca ions o be ies,
ea ly/la e be y p oduc ion, plan s
no exis ing anymo e;
• con aminan s om Russian nuclea
powe plan s, dumping o was e; and
• need o es ing o con aminan s—key
species and people; local aining o
collec ion, es ing, moni o ing s a ions.
A summa y epo o he Nome mee ing
is cu en ly being compiled.
Fo mo e in o ma ion, con ac ANSC
Execu i e Di ec o Pa icia Coch an
(907/786-7704; ax 907/786-7739;
anpac1@ uaa.alaska.edu).
Science News
T adi ional Knowledge is Focus o Radionuclides P ojec
“The mos impo an conce n is ou wo ld
we li e in.... Things such as es ing bombs is
a wound ha will ne e heal—a wo ld ha
will ne e g ow plan s again. This wo ld
ha we li e in mus be p o ec ed. Whe e will
ou child en, g andchild en, and g ea
g andchild en li e i his wo ld is uined?”
—He man Toolie
Sa oonga, Alaska, Oc obe 1998
The Alaska Na i e Science Commis-
sion (ANSC) and he Ins i u e o
Social and Economic Resea ch (ISER)
a he Uni e si y o Alaska Ancho age
ha e ecei ed a h ee-yea g an om
he En i onmen al P o ec ion Agency,
O ice o Radia ion and Indoo Ai o a
Radionuclides and T adi ional Knowledge
p ojec . This p ojec ollows ISER/
ANSC’s wo-yea s udy o Con aminan s
and Na i e Food.
Alaska Na i es ha e many conce ns
abou adionuclides and o he ypes o
con amina ion. They a e cons an ly
eminded abou he close p oximi y o he
o me So ie Union and he po en ial o
ans-bounda y mig a ion o adionuclides
om his a ea. Du ing he e a o a mo-
sphe ic es ing o nuclea weapons,
subsis ence consume s o ca ibou we e,
pe haps, he mos exposed indi iduals
in he wes e n hemisphe e; he mos
impo an ecological pa hway o adio-
nuclides in he A c ic is he lichen-
eindee /ca ibou-human ood chain. A e
Che nobyl, he 137Cesium in lichen
peaked in 1986-87 a le els ha a e com-
pa able o he peak in allou om nuclea
weapons es s. While cu en da a om
Canada sugges s ha adionuclide con-
amina ion in he lichen-ca ibou-human
ood chain is no a p oblem in he Cana-
dian no h, we do no ha e co esponding
i s -hand in o ma ion o Alaska.
Many Alaska Na i e communi ies
belie e ha hey li e in he shadow o
nuclea adia ion om mili a y p ac ices
om he o me So ie Union, P ojec
Cha io , Amchi ka, and om mo e han
640 mili a y si es in Alaska. In addi ion,
communi ies epo obse a ions o
changes o abno mali ies in wildli e
including lesions in ish and ca ibou li e s;
hai less seals he colo o Eskimo ea; and
umo s and so es in bi ds, ish, ma ine
and land mammals. Fu he mo e, i ually
e e y communi y speaks o a deeply held
conce n o e he diminished heal h o
i s membe s.
The i s yea o he Radionuclides and
T adi ional Knowledge p ojec is designed
o use adi ional p ac ices and p o ocols
o ga he adi ional knowledge abou
adionuclide conce ns ac oss i e majo
egions o Alaska. Regional mee ings will
documen i s -hand obse a ions o
changes in he en i onmen , issues,
conce ns, unde s andings, and ques ions.
Yea wo is dedica ed o a second se ies
o egional mee ings and a syn hesis
mee ing. The pu pose o he egional
mee ings is o enable communi ies o
Roseanne Waghiyi, Faye Ong owas uk, My le Johnson, Hannah Mille , I ene Me chan , and Ellen Richa d discuss
women’s issues and conce ns a he No hwes Alaska Regional Mee ing on T adi ional Knowledge and Radionuclides
(pho o by Amy C a e ).
21
Science Educa ion P og am Engages A c ic Residen s
Educa ion News
A each o he h ee loca ions whe e
he Depa men o Ene gy ope a es
A mosphe ic Radia ion Measu emen
(ARM) acili ies, ede al unding also
suppo s science educa ion p ojec s wi hin
he communi y. On Alaska’s No h Slope,
he ARM Science Educa ion and T aining
(ASET) P og am awa ds small con ac s
(up o $2,000) unde wo p og ams o:
• communi y membe s, and
• school eache s.
Ilisag ik College has coo dina ed he
implemen a ion o wo communi y-based
science p ojec s. In Sep embe 1998,
esiden s a gaze s inaugu a ed a scale-
model sola sys em in Ba ow, wi h digni-
a ies and schoolchild en in a endance.
En husias ic plane hoppe s om Ipalook
Elemen a y School jou neyed om plane
o plane . By he ime hey eached
Sa u n, i was ime o mos o he space
a ele s o e u n o class. Only an
in epid g oup o 12 who had special
pe mission om hei cap ains (pa en s)
comple ed he 3.6 billion mile (4,248
ee ) jou ney o Plu o and back.
The second communi y g an unded
h ee esiden s o in es iga e he epo ed
p esence o sca e ed s ands and lone
specimens o dwa , cone-bea ing coni e
ees along he Chipp/Ikpikpuk Ri e
d ainage. The in es iga o s held a
communi y ou each mee ing o ga he
i s -hand knowledge and in o ma ion
om esiden s o Ba ow who had hun -
ing camps in he a ge ed a ea. They hen
explo ed pa s o he No h Slope and
isi ed se e al Iñupia ishing camps. They
ound no e idence o li ing sp uce ees;
howe e , one ee ha had been called o
hei a en ion, an alde (Alnus c ispa) on
he Chipp Ri e , was conside ably no h
o he published ange o ha species.
A ano he loca ion, in an a ea ha
had ob iously been ecen ly looded by
sp ing snowmel , he eam collec ed a
d i wood sample. I p o ed o be a small
sp uce ee, abou ou ee all, ha had
g own app oxima ely 30,900 yea s ago—
du ing he middle o he las Ice Age. The
102 ings in he basal unk, which is only
6.5 cm in diame e , co obo a e ha he
ee g ew in a cold clima e.
The h ee esiden s in end o con inue
hei explo a ion o ancien lo a o he
No h Slope wi h he suppo o o he
unding sou ces. They a i m ha he
ASET P og am has p o ided an oppo u-
ni y o make a las ing con ibu ion o
he scien i ic knowledge o he egion.
Unde he p og am which unds each-
e s, coo dina ed by ARCUS, he No h
Slope Bo ough School Dis ic has ini i-
a ed Science Nigh s, in which a eam o
kinde ga en eache s a Ipalook Elemen-
a y will b ing oge he amily membe s
and s uden s o explo e hemes such as:
• wa e , ice, snow, and colo s;
• magne s, simple machines, physics, and
chemis y; and
• changes in plan s, eggs, and insec s.
In ano he school p ojec , second g ade
s uden s a Ipalook Elemen a y will collec
wa e samples, and small plan and animal
specimens, a a ious aqua ic si es and
om he Chukchi Sea/A c ic Ocean o
add o an exis ing aqua ium a he school.
In Poin Hope, Science in a Bag will
eam kinde ga ne s wi h ou h g ade s
o conduc simple expe imen s ela ing o
hei immedia e en i onmen . S uden s
will also in e iew an Elde abou
adi ional knowledge ha ela es o
he wes e n science.
Fo mo e in o ma ion, con ac F ank
Willingham in Ba ow, AK (907/852-
9176; ax 907/852-2729; willingham@
co.no h-slope.ak.us) and Alison Ca e
a ARCUS.
Space a ele s om Ipalook Elemen a y School in Ba ow, Alaska eached Plu o (on Okpik S ee be ween Momegana
and Kiogak) o he i s ime on 2 Sep embe 1998 (pho o by C aig Geo ge).
Ba ow esiden s di ec ed in es iga o s o a seed-bea ing
alde (Alnus c ispa) on he Chipp Ri e , conside ably
no h o he published ange o his species (pho o by
F ank Willingham).

22
in he class oom, on ield ips, and
in hei wo kplace.
S uden s lea n how echnology can be
used in meaning ul ways. Fo example:
• elemen a y-school s uden s compile da a
in sp eadshee s;
• middle-school s uden s use p obe wa e
o measu ing pH and empe a u e; and
• high-school s uden s de e mine
con idence in e als in popula ion
dynamics s udies.
Pa ne s in Science has ocused on
de eloping a lexible ye e ec i e model
o suppo ing eache s by p o iding
aining in:
• echnology,
• collabo a ions,
• science p ocesses, and
• assessmen in and ou side he class oom.
Teache s con inue o wo k on new
ways o measu e wha s uden s a e
lea ning om hei inno a i e eaching
s a egies. While eache s gain a be e
unde s anding o science and ma h,
scien is s a e lea ning how o enhance
hei abili y o each he communi y
and sha e hei knowledge.
Since Pa ne s in Science was i s
unded in 1995, he p ojec has g own o
include 11 home-schooled s uden s in
Fai banks, 23 class ooms in 12 Fai banks
schools, and s uden s in i e emo e
illages in in e io Alaska. Mo e han 50
science, enginee ing, and ma h p o ession-
als ha e olun ee ed hei ime o wo k
wi h s uden s. I is expec ed ha by he
end o he p ojec in he yea 2000, mos
schools in Fai banks and Idi a od a eas
will pa icipa e in Pa ne s in Science.
Pa ne s in Science eache s and
s uden s ha e also pa icipa ed in Global
Lea ning and Obse a ions o Bene i he
En i onmen (GLOBE)—a wo ldwide
science and educa ion p og am, pa ially
unded by NSF and NOAA, ha coo di-
na es s uden s, eache s, and scien is s o
s udy and unde s and he global en i on-
men (see Wi ness Au umn 1997).
Fo mo e in o ma ion, con ac Ma ha
Kopplin in Fai banks, AK (907/452-2000
ex . 338; ax 907/451-6160; mkopplin@
no hs a .k12.ak.us), o isi he Pa ne s
in Science web si e (h p://www.no hs a .
k12.ak.us/NSFPIS/ sm.h ml).
Educa ion News
Pa ne s in Science is an NSF- unded
p ojec b inging communi ies and
schools oge he o each science and ma h
o s uden s in he Fai banks No h S a
Bo ough and Idi a od A ea school dis ic s
o Alaska. The objec i es o he g an a e
h ee old:
• T ain K-12 eache s o each p ocess-
based ma h and science skills using
hands-on me hods aligned wi h s a e
and na ionally se s anda ds o educa-
ion—s uden s lea n o cons uc hei
own knowledge based on hei expe i-
ences. They lea n how o p edic ,
hypo hesize, obse e, ques ion, and
in e , as well as how o design expe i-
men s, con ol a iables, collec and
analyze da a, and d aw conclusions.
• Teach s uden s how o use echnology
as a esea ch, in es iga i e, and commu-
nica ion ool o suppo he cu icu-
lum—s uden s lea n how o p oduce
mul imedia p esen a ions, c ea e web
pages, and communica e using e-mail.
They also lea n da a-managemen and
compu a ion echniques.
• Con ey he ele ance o ma h and
science in he eal wo ld—class ooms
a e pa ne ed wi h science, enginee ing,
and ma h p o essionals in he uni e si y
communi y, p i a e business, and
go e nmen agencies. Toge he , hey
collabo a e on w i ing uni plans ha
in eg a e he science pa ne ’s expe ise
in o he exis ing cu iculum. These
men o s hen in e ac wi h s uden s
K-12 Teache s Collabo a e wi h Communi y Men o s
Na i e Educa o s Adop and Endo se
Cul u al S anda ds
A he Alaska Na i e Educa o s’ Con e ence in Feb ua y 1998, he Assembly
o Alaska Na i e Educa o s adop ed and endo sed he Alaska S anda ds o
Cul u ally Responsi e Schools. In June 1998, he Alaska S a e Boa d o Educa ion
adop ed and endo sed he same s anda ds. The Na i e educa o s who de eloped he
s anda ds in ended ha all o ms o knowledge, ways o knowing, and wo ld iews
be ecognized as equally alid, adap able, and complemen a y o one ano he in
mu ually bene icial ways. Each communi y can adap he s anda ds o i local
needs. Fi e a eas a e add essed:
• Cul u al S anda ds o S uden s,
• Cul u al S anda ds o Educa o s,
• Cul u al S anda ds o Cu iculum,
• Cul u al S anda ds o Schools, and
• Cul u al S anda ds o Communi ies.
The Cul u al S anda ds complemen
he Con en S anda ds o he Alaska
Depa men o Educa ion. The Cul u al
S anda ds along wi h cu iculum
esou ces o implemen he kind o
lea ning expe iences hey call o , may
be ound h ough he Alaska Na i e
Knowledge Ne wo k (ANKN) web si e
(h p://www.ankn.ua .edu).
Fo mo e in o ma ion, con ac Sean
Topkok in Fai banks, AK (907/474-5897;
ax 907/474-5615; [email p o ec ed] o
[email p o ec ed]).
23
Publica ions
Fu u e Di ec ions o he Na ional Science Founda ion’s A c ic Na u al Sciences P og am.
1998. Pola Resea ch Boa d,Washing on, DC. 70 pp. $15.00 (800/624-6242; o de
online a h p://www.nap.edu; iew online a h p://www2.nas.edu/p b/; Na ional
Academy P ess, 2101 Cons i u ion A enue NW, Lockbox 285, Washing on, DC
20055).
A c ic Paleo-Ri e Discha ge (APARD)—A New Resea ch P og amme o he A c ic Ocean
Science Boa d. Ruedige S ein, edi o . 1998. Be ich e zu Pola o schung/Repo s on
Pola Resea ch, Vol. 279, 128 pp. Ruedige S ein, Chai o he APARD Co e G oup
(+49/471-4831-576; ax +49/471-4831-580; [email p o ec ed]; h p://
www.awi-b eme ha en.de/GEO/A c ic/index.h ml).
Global En i onmen al Change—Resea ch Pa hways o he Nex Decade. 1998. Commi ee
on Global Change Resea ch, Boa d on Sus ainable De elopmen , Policy Di ision.
Na ional Academy P ess, Washing on, DC. 69 pp. (800/624-6242 o 202/334-3313;
h p://www.nap.edu).
Sus ainable De elopmen in he A c ic: Lessons Lea ned and he Way Ahead. P oceedings
o he Ci cumpola Sus ainable De elopmen Con e ence, held in Whi eho se, Yukon
Te i o y 12-14 May 1998, published as a special issue o The No he n Re iew
(867/668-8773; ax 867/668-8828; [email p o ec ed]; h p://www.
yukoncollege.yk.ca/ e iew/).
Answe s om he Ice Edge: The consequences o clima e change on li e in he Be ing and
Chukchi seas. Ma gie Ann Gibson and Sallie B. Schullinge , edi o s. 1998. A c ic Ne -
wo k and G eenpeace USA. 32 pp. (907/277-8234; ax 907/272-6519; h p://
www.g eenpeace.o g/~clima e/a c ic/ epo s).
wi .ness (wi nis) n. 1.a. One who has hea d
o seen some hing. b. One who u nishes
e idence. 2. Any hing ha se es as
e idence; a sign. 3. An a es a ion o a ac ,
s a emen , o e en . — . . 1. To be
p esen a o ha e pe sonal knowledge o .
2. To p o ide o se e as e idence o . 3. To
es i y o; bea wi ness. —in . To u nish
o se e as e idence; es i y. [Middle English
wi nes(se), Old English wi nes, wi ness,
knowledge, om wi , knowledge, wi .]
Check he ARCUS Web si e Calenda (h p://www.a cus.o g) o mo e...
Publica ions Calenda
Feb ua y 10-14, 1999 The Human Role in Reindee /Ca ibou Sys ems: Coping wi h
Th ea s o En i onmen al Secu i y in No he n Landscapes. Ro aniemi, Finland.
Con ac Debo ah Robinson a Da mou h College (603/646-1897; ax 603/646-1279;
[email p o ec ed]; h p://www.da mou h.edu/~a c ic/con /index.h ml).
Ma ch 7-12, 1999 Go don Resea ch Con e ence on Pola Ma ine Science: Con ols and
Signi icance o Ca bon Fluxes in Pola Seas. Ven u a, Cali o nia. Con ac Louis
Legend e a he Uni e si é La al in Quebec, Canada (418/656-2339; ax 418/656-
5788; [email p o ec ed]; h p://www.g c.u i.edu/).
Ap il 19-23, 1999 Eu opean Geophysical Socie y: Session on Land Su ace Physical and
Biological P ocesses in he A c ic. Den Haag, he Ne he lands. Con ac Colin Lloyd a
he Ins i u e o Hyd ology in Walling o d, UK (+44/1491-692-330; ax +44/1491-692-
424; [email p o ec ed]; h p://www.cope nicus.o g/EGS/EGS.h ml).
Ap il 20-23, 1999 In e na ional Con e ence on Moni o ing o he C yosphe e.
Pushchino, Moscow egion, Russia. Con ac Consolida ed Scien i ic Council on Ea h
C yology, Russian Academy o Sciences (+7/095-124-5422; ax: +7/095-135-6582;
[email p o ec ed]).
Ap il 25-30, 1999 A c ic Science Summi Week. T omsø, No way. Con ac Odd Rogne
a he In e na ional A c ic Science Commi ee (IASC) Sec e a ia in Oslo, No way
(+47/22-57-37-37; ax +47/22-57-37-40; [email p o ec ed]; h p://www.iasc.no).
May 14-16, 1999 Visions o he No h, Voices o he No h. Space o D eams, Visions,
and Plans: The No h, Pas , P esen , and Fu u e. Temagami, On a io, Canada. Con ac
Jodi Su he land a Nipissing Uni e si y in On a io (705/474-3461 ex . 4558;
[email p o ec ed]).
May 31-June 4, 1999 Ame ican Geophysical Union (AGU) Sp ing Mee ing. Bos on,
Massachuse s. Con ac AGU in Washing on, DC (800/966-2481; ax 202/328-0566;
[email p o ec ed]; h p://ea h.agu.o g/mee ings).
ARCUS
600 Uni e si y A enue, Sui e 1
Fai banks, Alaska 99709 USA
Phone: 907/474-1600
Fax: 907/474-1604
[email p o ec ed]
h p://www.a cus.o g
Execu i e Di ec o
Wendy K. Wa nick
ARCUS is a nonp o i o ganiza ion
consis ing o ins i u ions o ganized
and ope a ed o educa ional,
p o essional, o scien i ic pu poses.
ARCUS was es ablished by i s
membe ins i u ions in 1988 wi h
he p ima y mission o s eng hening
A c ic esea ch o mee na ional needs.
ARCUS ac i i ies a e unded h ough
a coope a i e ag eemen wi h NSF; by
DOE, AFN; and by membe ship dues.
Wi ness he A c ic is published biannually
by ARCUS. Any opinions, indings,
conclusions, o ecommenda ions
exp essed in his publica ion do no
necessa ily e lec he iews o NSF.
Submi ideas o he Sp ing 1999
newsle e by 1 Ma ch 1999.
Con ibu o s: K. Ahgeak, P.A. Ande son,
T. Be g, G. B ass, J. B igham-G e e,
A. Ca e , P.Coch an, L. Codispo i,
R. Colwell, A. C a e , P. C onenwe ,
M. C oss, J. Dibb, M. Du all, C. El ing,
K. E b, C. Geo ge, J. G ebmeie ,
J. Haugland, L. Hinzman, R. Hollis e ,
K. Koizumi, M. Kopplin, J.K use,
M. Ledbe e , P. Li ings on, A. Macklin,
K. Ma sella, T.McGo e n, S. Mi chell,
J. Mo ison, T.Pyle, P. Reyme , M. Re elle,
O. Rogne, L. Sima ski, A. Sla e , R.S ein,
M. S u m, J. Swi , M. Taylo , V. Telle ,
H. Toolie, S.Topkok, T. Villinge ,
P. Webbe , G. Welle , H. Welch, P. Wes ,
F. Willingham, O. Young.
Managing Edi o : Wendy Wa nick
Edi o /Designe : Ma y Peale
P oduc ion Edi o : Alison Yo k
Copy Edi o : Diane Wallace
24
A c ic
Resea ch
Conso ium
o he
Uni ed S a es
600 Uni e si y
A enue,
Sui e 1
Fai banks, AK
99709
USA
INSIDE
Fea u e 1
ARCSS P og am Upda es 4
A c ic Oppo uni ies 8
Capi ol Upda es 10
NSF News 11
U.S. A c ic Resea ch Commission12
Pola Resea ch Boa d 12
In e na ional News 13
Science News 16
Educa ion News 21
Calenda & Publica ions 23
O ice las yea , has an ou s anding wo-
decade-long esea ch ca ee in academia.
This, along wi h he sa y gained di ec ing
p og ams in NSF’s Di ec o a e o Geo-
sciences, enable he o play a key ole as
we espond o ou new oppo uni ies.
I’m su e I speak o all o us a NSF in
saying we a e deligh ed o be pa o he
e o s o ad ance ou knowledge o he
A c ic. We look o wa d o wo king wi h
he a c ic communi y— esea che s and
esiden s—as we ackle hese challenges
oge he . The bes is ye o come!
Non-P o i O g.
U.S. Pos age
PAID
Pe mi No. 99
Fai banks, AK
A No e om he Di ec o o he NSF O ice o Pola P og ams
P in ed on Recycled Pape
These a e exci ing imes o a c ic
science. This was abundan ly clea
du ing he a c ic science sessions a he
ecen Ame ican Geophysical Union
(AGU) mee ing. We saw signi ican new
da a om bo h collabo a i e and indi-
idual in es iga o expe imen s, lea ned
abou inc easingly comp ehensi e models
o la ge-scale a c ic physical phenomena,
and enjoyed seeing he in e play be ween
expe imen and heo y spa k he de el-
opmen o new unde s andings.
My colleagues in he NSF O ice o
Pola P og ams (OPP) ake p ide in he
accomplishmen s o he a c ic esea ch
communi y and he ole we ha e played
in helping o make hem possible. Ou
sense ha he communi y is on he
leading edge o impo an new science
de i es pa ly om he ac ha da a
poin ing o impo an new phenomena
in—and in e dependencies among— he
physical, biological, and social sciences
a e now becoming a ailable om a wide
a ie y o pla o ms, ins umen s, and
p ojec s. The i ali y and en husiasm o
he a c ic esea ch communi y, so e i-
den a he AGU sessions, will ine i ably
push hese scien i ic on ie s o wa d.
Inc eases in NSF’s 1999 A c ic Science
budge will allow explo a ion o o e on
p oblems, p e iously inaccessible because
hey equi ed ex ensi e logis ics suppo .
Logis ics in ol es no only esea ch
pla o ms and ins umen s, bu he
means o link esea che s wi h A c ic
communi ies. Las yea NSF eques ed a
doubling o unding o a c ic logis ics,
and he Cong ess, clea ly ecognizing he
impo ance o he A c ic, mo e han
doubled he eques ed inc ease.
The oppo uni ies a o ded by hese
de elopmen s also p esen challenges o
NSF and o he communi y. Toge he ,
we need o s ike balances be ween sup-
po o esea che s and esea ch pla o ms
and be ween suppo o indi idual in es-
iga o s and la ge g oups. We mus in es
ou logis ics unds o gain he g ea es
scien i ic e u n o e he long e m while
aking ad an age o a ising oppo uni ies.
Mos impo an ly, we mus wo k oge he
o assu e a con inuing low o new alen
in o ou en e p ise. I was ob ious a he
AGU mee ing ha he a c ic science com-
muni y has been success ul a his, and I
will s ongly encou age NSF’s con ibu-
ion o hose e o s.
I belie e ou excellen eam in OPP
will mee hese challenges success ully.
D . Tom Pyle, a geologis and oceanog a-
phe who heads ou A c ic Sciences
Sec ion, came o NSF h ee yea s ago
wi h ex ensi e expe ience as a sea-going
esea che and as a manage o la ge, com-
plex scien i ic and logis ics p og ams. His
expe ience and abili y will be in aluable in
cha ing ou cou se h ough his ime o
g ow h in a c ic science. D . Ma yellen
Came on, who joined OPP as Execu i e
Physicis Ka l A. E b became he Di ec o
o NSF’s O ice o Pola P og ams in
No embe 1998. E b has se ed as Senio
Science Ad iso a NSF since 1993.