UniGR-CBS Wo king Pape Vol. 24
On he Rein oduc ion o Tempo a y
Con ols a EU In e nal Bo de s
De elopmen s and Challenges 40 Yea s A e
he Schengen Ag eemen
Ch is ian Wille
2
Ch is ian Wille
Uni e si y o Luxembou g
Depa men o Geog aphy and Spa ial Planning
ch is [email protected]
UniGR-CBS 2025
Doi: 10.5281/zenodo.15575146
A mo e comp ehensi e e sion o his ex will be a ailable in Ge man in: B odowski/Di el/Webe (Eds.): 40
Jah e Schengene Übe einkommen. Eu opa und seine inne en G enzen. Baden-Baden, Nomos.
3
On he Rein oduc ion o Tempo a y Con ols a EU In e nal Bo de s. De elopmen s
and Challenges 40 Yea s A e he Schengen Ag eemen
Abs ac – Schengen coun ies a e inc easingly elying on he Schengen Bo de s Code o make in e nal
bo de s less pe meable. This Wo king Pape ocuses on he ongoing ein oduc ion o empo a y in e nal
bo de con ols wi hin he EU be ween 2015 and 2024, as well as he jus i ica ions p o ided by Schengen
coun ies o hese measu es. The analysis iden i ies ou phases, e lec ing a g adual displacemen o he
Schengen spi i —es ablished 40 yea s ago—by a p e ailing bo de spi i . While open bo de s and ee mo e-
men emain guiding p inciples o he Eu opean Union, na ional bo de egimes a e gaining g ound and a e
con inuously being adap ed o luc ua ing h ea pe cep ions. Mig a ion, e o ism, public heal h, and hyb id
h ea s se e as discu si e esou ces o legi imize a Schengen eali y ha can no longe be ega ded as
excep ional, bu a he as pa o a no malized, secu i y-o ien ed Eu opean o de . This ajec o y is cha ac-
e ized by a e-na ionaliza ion o bo de policy wi hin he EU, an e e -expanding he o ic o c isis, poli ical
ins umen aliza ion, and an ambi alen mode o EU bo de go e nance.
Schengen, bo de , bo de ing, Eu ope, c isis
Su la éin oduc ion de con ôles empo ai es aux on iè es in é ieu es de l’UE. É o-
lu ions e dé is qua an e ans ap ès la Con en ion de Schengen
Résumé – Les É a s Schengen s’appuien de plus en plus su le Code on iè es Schengen a in de end e
les on iè es in é ieu es moins pe méables. Ce Wo king Pape analyse la éin oduc ion con inue de con-
ôles empo ai es aux on iè es in é ieu es de l’UE en e 2015 e 2024, ainsi que les jus i ica ions a ancées
pa les É a s Schengen pou légi ime ces mesu es. L’analyse dis ingue qua e phases au cou s desquelles
s’opè e une ans o ma ion p og essi e : l’« esp i de Schengen », ins au é il y a qua an e ans, es p og es-
si emen emplacé pa un « esp i des on iè es » dominan . Bien que les on iè es ou e es e la lib e
ci cula ion demeu en des p incipes di ec eu s ondamen aux de l’UE, les égimes on alie s na ionaux ga-
gnen en impo ance e son con inuellemen adap és aux pe cep ions changean es des menaces. La mi-
g a ion, le e o isme, la san é publique e les menaces hyb ides se en de essou ces discu si es pou
légi ime une éali é Schengen qui ne peu plus ê e pe çue comme excep ionnelle, mais plu ô comme pa -
ie in ég an e d’un o d e eu opéen no malisé e axé su la sécu i é. Ce e dynamique se ca ac é ise pa une
ena ionalisa ion des poli iques on aliè es au sein de l’UE, une hé o ique de c ise en expansion cons an e,
une ins umen alisa ion poli ique e une gou e nance ambi alen e des on iè es in é ieu es.
Schengen, on iè e, on ié isa ion, Eu ope, c ises
Zu Wiede ein üh ung empo ä e Kon ollen an den EU-Binneng enzen. En wicklun-
gen und He aus o de ungen nach 40 Jah en Schengene Übe einkommen
Zusammen assung – Die Schengen-Lände be u en sich zunehmend au den Schengene G enzkodex, um
die Binneng enzen undu chlässige zu machen. Das Wo king Pape analysie die o daue nde Wiede ein-
üh ung empo ä e Kon ollen an den EU-Binneng enzen zwischen 2015 und 2024 sowie die on den Schen-
gen-Lände n hie ü ange üh en Legi imie ungen. Die Analyse deck ie Phasen au , in denen sich ein
sch i weise Wandel ollzieh : De o 40 Jah en e ablie e Schengen-Spi i wi d zunehmend on einem
Bo de -Spi i e d äng . Zwa bleiben o ene G enzen und F eizügigkei zen ale Lei p inzipien de Eu opäi-
schen Union, doch gewinnen na ionale G enz egime an Bedeu ung und we den an wechselnde Bed ohungs-
lagen o lau end angepass . Mig a ion, Te o ismus, Gesundhei sschu z und hyb ide Bed ohungen s ellen
dabei disku si e Ressou cen, um eine Schengen-Reali ä zu legi imie en, die nich länge als Ausnahme e -
s anden we den kann, sonde n ielmeh als eine no malisie e, siche hei so ien ie e eu opäische O dnung.
Diese En wicklung is on eine Rena ionalisie ung de EU-G enzpoli ik, sich s e ig auswei enden K isen he-
o ik, poli ischen Ins umen alisie ung und einem ambi alen en G enzmanagemen gekennzeichne .
Schengen, G enze, bo de ing, Eu opa, K isen
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1 In oduc ion
This anni e sa y should no be a ce emony o mou ning bu a he a big pa y – his was he sen imen
exp essed by Luxembou g’s Minis e o he In e io in Janua y, 2025 ega ding he upcoming celeb a ions
ha will ma k he signing o he Schengen Ag eemen . Signed on June 14, 1985, by Belgium, F ance, Lux-
embou g, he Ne he lands, and he Fede al Republic o Ge many, he ag eemen ini ia ed he g adual aboli-
ion o con ols a in e nal bo de s in Eu ope and has since been conside ed a g ea success. To da e, 29
coun ies ha e joined he ag eemen . Howe e , e y nea o he p ecise loca ion whe e he Schengen Ag ee-
men was signed, con ols ha e now been eins a ed. A he “Schengen Viaduc ,” which connec s Ge man
and Luxembou gish highways o e he Moselle Ri e , empo a y con ols ha e been eins a ed on he Ge -
man side. The Ge man go e nmen has jus i ied he eac i a ion o con ols wi h ongoing mig a ion p es-
su e. Luxembou g, howe e , ques ions he legali y o hese empo a y con ols and is examining whe he
hey a e legally sus ainable (Ja el, 2025).
Ge many is no alone in u ilizing he op ion o in oduce empo a y con ols a EU in e nal bo de s “in he
e en o a se ious h ea o public policy o in e nal secu i y.” O he Schengen coun ies a e inc easingly
elying on A icle 25 o he Schengen Bo de s Code (Regula ion, 2016/399) o make in e nal bo de s less
pe meable – a end ha has pe sis ed o a decade. This de elopmen is he ocus o his UniGR-CBS
Wo king Pape , which discusses he eme ging bo de spi i in he Schengen A ea on he occasion o he
40 h anni e sa y o he Schengen Ag eemen . The pape examines he ein oduc ion o empo a y EU in-
e nal bo de con ols since 2015, he esul ing challenges o Eu opean ee mo emen , and concludes wi h
some conside a ions on he u u e o he Schengen egime.
2 Re-Bo de ing: No maliza ion and Consolida ion
This s udy ocuses on he ein oduc ion o empo a y EU in e nal bo de con ols be ween 2015 and 2024
and he jus i ica ions p o ided by Schengen coun ies o hese measu es. We analyze no i ica ions sub-
mi ed by Schengen coun ies o he Eu opean Commission ega ding he ein oduc ion o empo a y in e -
nal bo de con ols ha had been ecei ed by Janua y 14, 2025 (EC, 2025a). These no i ica ions p o ide
in o ma ion on he numbe and easons o he ein oduc ion based on he Schengen Bo de s Code (Reg-
ula ion, 2016/399) be ween 2006 and 2024. The analysis e eals a g adual bu s eady no maliza ion and
consolida ion o empo a y EU in e nal bo de con ols o e ou phases, g adually displacing he Schengen
spi i o open bo de s es ablished 40 yea s ago.
Th oughou he en i e pe iod o ime (2006–2024), 457 empo a y in e nal bo de con ols we e in oduced
(Figu e 1). A sha p inc ease occu ed in 2015 and emained a an unp eceden ed le el un il 2019, wi h an
a e age o 17.5 ein oduc ions epo ed pe yea . Ano he signi ican su ge happened again in 2020 due o
he COVID-19 pandemic, which las ed un il 2021. Since hen, empo a y in e nal bo de con ols ha e be-
come inc easingly p e alen in he Schengen A ea and hey a e no longe excep ional. Be ween 2022 and
2024, Schengen coun ies epo ed an a e age o 45.3 ein oduc ions pe yea . Aus ia led wi h an a e age
o 9.6 epo s pe yea , ollowed by Ge many (6.0) and No way (3.7) (Figu e 2). The h ea s ci ed by
Schengen coun ies o jus i y con ols co espond wi h cu en e en s, e lec ing a e u n o bo de s in Eu-
ope. While he mig a ion-secu i y nexus played a mino ole be o e he long summe o mig a ion (2015),
Schengen coun ies ha e since a ibu ed nea ly wo- hi ds o all empo a y in e nal bo de con ols o i
(Table 1). Thus, 2015 ma ked a u ning poin in he Schengen egime, in which he Schengen spi i was
eplaced wi h an eme ging bo de spi i . This de elopmen will be examined in he ollowing ou phases.
5
Figu e 1: Regis e ed no i ica ions be ween 2006 and 2024 conce ning he ein oduc ion o empo a y con ols a EU in e nal bo de s, by yea –
Sou ce: EC, 2025a (as o Janua y 14, 2025), my analysis.
Th ea s epo ed, lis ed by pe cen age
2006-2024
2006-2014
2015-2024
Co ona i us COVID-19
28
0
30
Mig a ion-secu i y nexus
61
9
64
In lux o mig an s
27
0
28
Te o ism, in as uc u es
19
0
20
Smuggling, c ime
12
0
13
S ain on ecep ion acili ies
4
9
4
Majo e en s
11
91
6
Mee ing o leading poli icians and o icials
8
69
5
Spo ing e en s
1
6
1
Mee ings o dange ous g oups, p o es s
1
17
0
To al
100
100
100
Table 1: Repo ed h ea s o public o de o in e nal secu i y by Schengen coun ies, exp essed as a pe cen age o no i ica ions pe ime pe iod –
Sou ce: EC, 2025a (as o Janua y 14, 2025), my analysis.
C isis o EU’s Mig a ion Go e nance as a Tu ning Poin (2015–2016) – Un il 2015, in e nal bo de con ols
wi hin he Eu opean Union we e ela i ely a e and ypically limi ed o a ew days, o en in he con ex o
majo e en s (e.g. poli ical summi s o spo ing e en s). In 2015, howe e , se e al EU Membe S a es –
no ably Ge many, Aus ia, and No way – in oduced, o he i s ime and wi h inc easing equency, mo e
p olonged con ols (Figu e 2) in esponse o e ugee mo emen s coming om Sy ia, A ghanis an, and A i-
can coun ies ia he Balkan and Medi e anean ou es. Mig a ion, he e iden sho comings in he EU’s
mig a ion go e nance, and e o is a acks in Pa is (2015) and B ussels (2016) p o ided e ile g ound o
new socie al o de ing p ocesses based on na a i es o incapaci y, con ol e osion, and na ionalis sel -
asse ion. This si ua ion, ini ially amed as a s a e o eme gency, len signi ican momen um o igh -wing
populis o ces: he “Al e na i e ü Deu schland” (A D) pa y made i s way in o se e al s a e pa liamen s,
he “F eihei liche Pa ei Ös e eichs” (FPÖ) pa y came close o winning he 2016 p esiden ial elec ion wi h
nea ly 50 pe cen o he o e, and he “Rassemblemen Na ional” (RN) pa y in F ance and “Lega No d” pa y
in I aly gained u he p ominence. Hunga y played a key ole in his shi by e ec ing a bo de ence wi h
Se bia and C oa ia in 2015, adop ing es ic i e asylum laws, and ein o cing he na a i e o na ional so -
e eign y in opposi ion o B ussels. This phase hus ma ks a u ning poin in he e olu ion o he Schengen
egime, as e lec ed in he 37 ins ances o ein oduced in e nal bo de con ols du ing he 2015–2016 pe-
iod.
333
954314
19 18 22
15 15
124
73
32
66
38
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024
6
Figu e 2: Regis e ed no i ica ions be ween 2015 and 2024 conce ning he ein oduc ion o empo a y con ols a EU in e nal bo de s, by coun y,
including decla ed h ea s and du a ion – Sou ce: EC, 2025a (as o 14 Janua y 2025), my analysis; concep : Ch is ian Wille, implemen a ion: Mal e
Hel e .
7
No maliza ion o he Excep ion (2017–2019) – Al hough he admission o pe sons seeking in e na ional
p o ec ion had s abilized ac oss Eu ope by his ime, he excep ional si ua ion a many in e nal bo de s was
no e e sed. Ra he , h ough con inuous ex ensions – pa icula ly by Aus ia, Ge many, F ance, No way,
Denma k, and Sweden (Figu e 2) – in e nal empo a y con ols g adually became no malized. This was also
due o he p og essi e expansion o he o icially ci ed h ea s: while (i egula ) mig a ion emained he
p ima y jus i ica ion, i was inc easingly supplemen ed – agains he backd op o g owing seconda y mo e-
men s and e o is a acks in Ba celona (2017) and S asbou g (2018) – by e e ences o he h ea o
e o ism, human smuggling, and o ganized c ime. A he same ime, he Eu opean Commission augmen ed
esou ces o he Eu opean Bo de and Coas Gua d Agency (F on ex) a he EU’s ex e nal bo de s and is-
sued he eminde ha : “In an a ea in which he ee mo emen o pe sons is ensu ed, he ein oduc ion o
in e nal bo de con ols mus emain an excep ion.” (EK, 2017, p. 2). None heless, igh -wing populis g oups
such as he “Eu ope o Na ions and F eedom” and “Iden i y and Democ acy” poli ical g oups in he Eu opean
Pa liamen ook a i m s ance agains e u ning o he p e-2015 Schengen egime. On he na ional le el, he
“F eihei liche Pa ei Ös e eichs” (FPÖ) pa y en e ed he ede al go e nmen in 2017, and in I aly a go e n-
men was o med in coope a ion wi h he “Lega No d” – which soon aced in e na ional c i icism o closing
po s o ships ope a ed by non-go e nmen al o ganiza ions. This phase – in which 52 empo a y in e nal
bo de con ol no i ica ions we e eco ded be ween 2017 and 2019, despi e he Commission’s eminde –
illus a es he no maliza ion o wha was once conside ed an eme gency measu e and pa ed he way o
he eme gence o a new bo de spi i a he EU’s in e nal bo de s.
Heal h Risk as Ca alys (2020–2021) – In he wake o he COVID-19 ou b eak, he Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion
decla ed a global pandemic eme gency on Ma ch 11, 2020, p o oking “ he second g ea bo de dis up ion”
(Alden & T au mann, 2025, p. 113) in Eu ope since 2015. Wi hin a ma e o weeks, s ic en y es ic ions
and mass con ols associa ed wi h hem we e in oduced a EU in e nal bo de s (Rei el e al., 2020; Wille &
Webe , 2020). Each Membe S a e de ined unila e ally who was pe mi ed o c oss he bo de o wha (le-
gi ima e) eason; con ol and managemen p ac ices also a ied widely, anging om he eac i a ion o
decommissioned bo de in as uc u e o basic police checks and heal h sc eenings. The jus i ica ion o
ein oducing in e nal bo de con ols inc easingly shi ed owa d public heal h isks, he eby complemen -
ing mig a ion- and secu i y- ela ed a gumen s (Figu e 2). While he in lux o mig an s declined due o he
pandemic, i did no cease en i ely, as illus a ed by he h ea s epo ed – pa icula ly in Aus ia, No way,
F ance, and Denma k (Figu e 2). Righ -wing populis s capi alized on he pandemic: he pa ies “Al e na i e
ü Deu schland (A D),” “F eihei liche Pa ei Ös e eichs (FPÖ),” and Hunga y’s “Fidesz – Magya Polgá i
Szö e ség”, o example, called no only o s ic e heal h con ols bu also o he consolida ion o bo de
con ols.
The Eu opean Commission sough o coo dina e he measu es and in e nal bo de con ols implemen ed
by he Membe S a es. In May 2020, i launched he “Join Eu opean Roadmap owa ds li ing COVID-19
con ainmen measu es” (EC, 2020), ollowed in Ma ch 2021 by he in oduc ion o he “Digi al G een Ce i -
ica e” (EC, 2021). In Decembe 2021, he Commission p oposed a e ision o he Schengen Bo de s Code
aimed a es ablishing mo e p ecise c i e ia o he empo a y ein oduc ion o in e nal bo de con ols, en-
hancing epo ing obliga ions, and ins i u ing a s uc u ed moni o ing mechanism (EC, 2021). Finally, in Feb-
ua y 2022, he Eu opean Council ecommended ha Membe S a es li a el es ic ions imposed due o
he pandemic. The 97 in e nal bo de con ols ein oduced be ween 2020 and 2021 con ibu ed (ou side o
bo de egions) o a b oade public accep ance o such measu es and encou aged some Schengen coun-
ies o con inue employing his ins umen as a seemingly iable esponse o decla ed ex e nal h ea s.
Pe manen Excep ion as a Schengen Reali y (2022–2024) – The es ic ions imposed du ing he pandemic
and hei consequences did no p o e o be “a wakeup call o Eu ope” (Alden & T au mann, 2025, p. 111).
Ra he , hey pa ed he way o he con inua ion o empo a y in e nal bo de con ols, ini ially jus i ied once
mo e by mig a ion- ela ed a gumen s. The Russian wa o agg ession agains Uk aine, which began on Feb-
ua y 24, 2022, se ed as a new ca alys , p omp ing he displacemen o o e six million people, p ima ily o
Poland, Ge many, he Czech Republic, and Slo akia. Al hough he Eu opean Union o ganized a solida i y-
based ecep ion amewo k, se e al Schengen s a es used he oppo uni y o in oduce o ex end empo a y
in e nal bo de con ols – now including he Czech Republic, Poland, I aly, Slo akia, Slo enia, and he Ne h-
e lands (Figu e 2).
The legi imizing h ea scena ios we e b oadened. Pa icula ly in Ge many and Aus ia, he in lux o mi-
g an s was sys ema ically linked o isks such as e o ism, h ea s o c i ical in as uc u e, he s ain on
he ecep ion sys ems, human smuggling, and o ganized c ime. Key con ibu ing ac o s we e he ene gy
8
c isis and heigh ened anxie ies – especially in No he n Eu ope – abou sabo age a ge ing c i ical in a-
s uc u e. The Is ael-Hamas wa ha began in 2023 u he in ensi ied e o ism- ela ed anxie ies, due o
ising ensions be ween Jewish and A ab communi ies in Eu ope. Addi ionally, hyb id h ea s, such as dis-
in o ma ion campaigns, cybe a acks, and ins umen alized mig a ion lows aimed a des abiliza ion, we e
inc easingly in oked by Schengen s a es.
In his con ex , igh -wing populis pa ies saw u he elec o al success: Gio gia Meloni became P ime Min-
is e o I aly in 2022, Gee Wilde s won he Du ch pa liamen a y elec ions in 2023, and he “Al e na i e ü
Deu schland (A D)” pa y eached eco d le els in opinion polls in 2024. In May 2024, he Eu opean Council
adop ed a e ised e sion o he Schengen Bo de s Code in ended o “s eng hen he Schengen a ea’s e-
silience o p esen and u u e c ises a i s ex e nal bo de s” (EK, 2024, p. 1). This e ised amewo k aims
o sa egua d he eedom o mo emen wi hin he Schengen A ea, albei by s eng hening he EU’s ex e nal
bo de s – an objec i e also pu sued h ough he EU Pac on Mig a ion and Asylum expec ed om 2026
onwa d. While he 136 in e nal bo de con ol no i ica ions be ween 2022 and 2024 con inued o be jus i ied
p ima ily by “mig a ion p essu e,” Schengen coun ies ha e inc easingly mobilized a wide and mo e mul i-
ace ed se o h ea s used as jus i ica ion. These e e ed o isks emana ing om ene gy and geopoli ical
dis up ions, which o en esona e wi h he p e e ences o a secu i y-o ien ed elec o a e (C ouch, 2025).
The ajec o y o EU in e nal bo de con ols om 2015 o 2024 hus e lec s he displacemen o he
Schengen spi i by a p e ailing bo de spi i . While open bo de s and ee mo emen emain o icial guiding
p inciples o he Eu opean Union, na ional bo de egimes a e gaining g ound and a e con inuously adap ed
o luc ua ing pe cep ions o h ea . Mig a ion, e o ism, public heal h, and hyb id h ea s se e as discu -
si e esou ces o legi imize a Schengen eali y ha can no longe be unde s ood as excep ional, bu a he
as pa o a no malized, secu i y-o ien ed Eu opean o de .
3 Re-Na ionaliza ions and O he Challenges
The bo de spi i diagnosed he e mani es s in he ans e sal de elopmen s iden i ied h oughou his anal-
ysis, which a e ou lined below and e lec cu en and u u e challenges o he Schengen egime.
Re-Na ionaliza ion o Bo de Policy Weakens Eu opean F ee Mo emen – The analysis o he ein oduc ion
o empo a y in e nal bo de con ols has e ealed a end owa ds he e-na ionaliza ion o in e nal bo de
policy. P io o he 2015 mig a ion c isis, such con ols we e conside ed a e and genuinely excep ional
wi hin he Schengen A ea. This changed wi h he so-called “long summe o mig a ion,” as empo a y con-
ols we e inc easingly eac i a ed. Despi e declining mig a o y in lows in subsequen yea s, he p ac ice
con inued, and in some coun ies, empo a y in e nal bo de con ols became a ou ine ins umen o (do-
mes ic) poli ical go e nance. I is o eseeable ha some Schengen s a es will con inue o eso o such
con ols in he u u e – e en in he absence o clea ly iden i iable h ea scena ios – in o de o espond o
domes ic poli ical p essu es and expec a ions.
Pe sis en C isis Rhe o ic Unde mines he P inciple o Excep ionali y – The analysis has also highligh ed a
cumula i e logic o h ea s ha e ec i ely esul in a pe pe ual s a e o eme gency. The so-called “mig a ion
c isis” was only he s a ing poin . Subsequen e en s – such as he e o is a acks in Pa is, B ussels, and
Ba celona, he COVID-19 pandemic, and Russia’s wa o agg ession agains Uk aine – we e each in oked
anew o jus i y he ein oduc ion o empo a y in e nal bo de con ols. This de elopmen has unde mined
he p inciple ha such con ols should only be in oduced as a las eso unde excep ional ci cums ances.
Ins ead, a go e nance p ac ice has eme ged ha abso bs c ises and unce ain ies while subo dina ing ee
mo emen o a logic o secu i y. Tempo a y in e nal bo de con ols a e he e o e likely o be eins a ed in
esponse o u u e c ises o o he decla ed h ea s. This is all he mo e p obable, as some Schengen s a es
a e al eady expe ienced and well-equipped o lexibly eac i a e such con ols, and no decline in clima e-
ela ed isks, geopoli ical ensions, o o he dis up i e ac o s is cu en ly o eseeable.
P oli e a ion o Th ea Na a i es Dilu es Legi ima ion Resou ces – Mo eo e , he analysis demons a es
ha Schengen s a es ha e p og essi ely expanded and di e si ied he h ea na a i es, unde pinning in e -
nal bo de con ol jus i ica ions. Ini ially cen e ed on mig a ion- ela ed a gumen s, hese jus i ica ions we e
subsequen ly ex ended o include he igh agains e o ism, human smuggling, and o ganized c ime, and
la e also heal h isks, he p o ec ion o c i ical in as uc u e, and hyb id h ea s.
9
This e olu ion has allowed in e nal bo de con ols no only o pe sis ac oss a ious and shi ing c isis
con ex s bu also o become no malized. A he same ime, i has led o a p ac ice o inc easingly a bi a y
jus i ica ion, he eby dilu ing he no ma i e and legal ounda ions o he Schengen egime. I is likely ha
he spec um o h ea na a i es will con inue o expand, inco po a ing clima e- ela ed isks, cybe secu i y,
and disin o ma ion alongside he mo e “ adi ional conce ns.”
Poli ical Ins umen aliza ion o In e nal Bo de Con ols – The indings also poin o he poli ical ins umen-
aliza ion o he in e nal bo de issue by igh -wing populis s. In se e al Schengen coun ies, in e nal bo de
con ols ha e been amed as exp essions o na ional so e eign y, wi h populis pa ies campaigning o
hei pe manen implemen a ion (e.g. in Aus ia, Ge many, I aly, and F ance). Due o inc easing domes ic
p essu e, simila posi ions ha e pa ially pe mea ed mains eam poli ical discou se, he eby con ibu ing o
a no maliza ion o igh -wing he o ic conce ning mig a ion, secu i y, and na ional asse ion. I is o eseea-
ble ha he poli ical ins umen aliza ion o in e nal bo de con ols will in ensi y, gi en he g owing elec-
o a e wi h secu i y-o ien ed p e e ences and he symbolic meaning o bo de s in ela ion o na ional iden i y
and so e eign y – especially as hese a e inc easingly challenged ac oss mul iple policy domains.
Ambi alen EU’s Bo de Managemen E odes Schengen P inciples – Finally, he analysis has unco e ed a
end o ambi alence. On he one hand, he Eu opean Union has a emp ed o p ese e he no ma i e oun-
da ions o he Schengen egime and o coo dina e he ein oduc ion o empo a y con ols. On he o he
hand, i has imposed ew e ec i e cons ain s on Membe S a es’ scope o ac ion ega ding in e nal bo de
con ols – wi h some coun ies ope a ing beyond he legal amewo k wi hou acing signi ican conse-
quences. Al hough he p inciple o ee mo emen o mally emains in place, i has, in p ac ice, been e oded.
As a esul , he p inciples unde pinning he Schengen egime ha e been subo dina ed o na ionally d i en
o de ing p ocesses. A ull e u n o an open Schengen A ea akin o ha o he p e-2015 pe iod appea s
inc easingly unlikely.
4 Ou look: Si ua ional F ee Mo emen and Fu he F agmen a ion
The de elopmen o empo a y in e nal bo de con ols and he challenges ela ed o i show ha he ein-
oduc ion o such measu es o e he pas decade has no been he esul o simple adminis a i e ac s.
Ra he , hese measu es a e he p oduc o mul i ace ed socie al p ocesses con ex ualized wi hin speci ic
poli ical momen s. While his UniGR-CBS Wo king Pape canno ully unpack hese p ocesses, i has illus-
a ed ha hey a e cha ac e ized by a e-na ionalizing bo de policy wi hin he EU, a con inuously expanding
c isis he o ic, poli ical ins umen aliza ion, and an ambi alen mode o EU bo de go e nance.
The in oduc ion o longe - e m in e nal bo de con ols in 2015 ma ked he shi om an open o a mo e
con olled Schengen A ea. A ha ime, mig a ion lows, he ailu e o EU-le el mig a ion managemen , and
e o is h ea s became discu si ely en angled, gi ing ise o na ional na a i es o incapaci y and loss o
con ol. This shi ma ked he beginning o he e-na ionaliza ion o in e nal bo de policies and laid he
ounda ion o subsequen o de con igu a ions. Al hough immedia e mig a o y dynamics subsided, he e-
pea ed ex ensions o empo a y bo de con ols om 2017 onwa ds, he expansion o legi imizing h ea
na a i es, and he ise o igh -wing populis ac o s ensu ed ha he excep ion o con olled in e nal bo de s
became no malized. S a ing in 2020, he COVID-19 pandemic engende ed new o de ing p ocesses oscil-
la ing be ween na ional sel -asse ion and Eu opean coo dina ion. I also os e ed (ou side bo de egions)
a gene al accep ance o in e nal bo de con ols and ein o ced isk na a i es ex ending beyond public
heal h conce ns. F om 2022 onwa ds, socie al o de ings inc easingly d ew on geopoli ical dis up ions and
we e used ac oss he Schengen A ea o consolida e measu es ha we e ini ially in oduced as empo a y.
The u u e o he Schengen egime in a Eu ope compelled o espond o global powe shi s and geopoli ical
unce ain ies emains unclea . A p agma ically ealis ic and poli ically sha ed ac ion pe spec i e is equi ed
– one ha e-in eg a es he no ma i e ounda ions o he Schengen spi i , add esses u u e challenges, and
emains ope a ional. Agains his backd op, a e u n o he p e-2015 Schengen sys em appea s as unlikely
as he comple e aboli ion o ee mo emen . The u u e o he Schengen egime will likely un old be ween
hese wo scena ios and may con inue o shi owa ds a model o si ua ional ee mo emen – unde pinned
by a modi ied bo de egime. I will be embedded in a e ised legal amewo k ha allows o lexible, con-
ex -speci ic modi ica ions in esponse o un o eseen de elopmen s and challenges, he eby con ibu ing
o a u he agmen a ion o he Schengen A ea.
