Iden i ying Building Blocks o
Second-Li e-Enabled Ba e y Managemen Sys ems
Julian Bl¨
umke
C-ECOS
Technische Hochschule Ingols ad
Ingols ad , Ge many
[email p o ec ed]
Claudius La es
C-ECOS
Technische Hochschule Ingols ad
Ingols ad , Ge many
claudius.la[email p o ec ed]
Hans-Joachim Ho
C-ECOS
Technische Hochschule Ingols ad
Ingols ad , Ge many
[email p o ec ed]
Abs ac —The g owing adop ion o elec ic ehicles has led o
a signi ican inc ease in he demand o li hium-ion ba e ies. Al-
hough hese ba e ies can no longe mee he ene gy and powe
equi emen s o elec ic ehicles once hei capaci y d ops below
a ce ain amoun , hey e ain su icien pe o mance o second-
li e applica ions such as enewable ene gy s o age and backup
powe sys ems. The applica ions align wi h ci cula economy
p inciples by educing eliance on newly mined ma e ials and
p omo ing ba e y euse. Howe e , in eg a ing also he o iginal
ba e y managemen sys em in o second-li e applica ions o en
in ol es compa ibili y and con ol sys ems challenges. Th ough
a comp ehensi e analysis o exis ing li e a u e and me hodology,
his s udy p oposes a no el app oach o ba e y managemen
sys em design o enhance he sus ainabili y and e iciency o
ba e y epu posing. Building blocks o enable he ins alla ion
o upda ed i mwa e and o access his o ical da a we e iden i ied
o ease he euse o i s -li e ba e y managemen sys ems.
The indings p o ide aluable insigh s in o ad ancing ci cula
economy p ac ices and imp o ing esou ce u iliza ion in he
con ex o sus ainable ene gy sys ems.
Index Te ms—second-li e ba e y, SLB, ba e y managemen
sys em, BMS, ci cula economy, sus ainabili y
I. INTRODUCTION
Due o he ise o elec ic ehicles (EVs), he demand o
li hium-ion ba e ies (LIBs) is also inc easing simila ly [1].
LIBs a e usually used in an EV un il 80% o he o iginal
ba e y capaci y is le , since ene gy and powe demands
canno be sa is ied anymo e [2]. Howe e , hese ba e ies a e
o en good enough o second-li e applica ions, e.g., o s o e
powe gene a ed by enewable ene gy sou ces (RES) o as a
backup sys em du ing powe ou ages [3]. The cha ac e is ics
o hese second-li e applica ions can di e , so di e en ypes
o epu posing an EV ba e y a e possible: depending on he
applica ion, he cells, he modules, o he whole pack a e used
[4]. Usually, hey a e ins alled wi h a newly de eloped ba e y
managemen sys em (BMS) ins ead o eusing he o iginal
componen om he i s li e. A BMS moni o s and con ols
pa ame e s o a LIB and is manda o y o ensu e a sa e ba e y
ope a ion [5].
Second-li e ba e ies (SLBs), in gene al, al eady suppo
he ci cula economy app oach, educing he demand o
i gin ma e ials and he p oduc ion o new LIBs [6]. Fu he
encou aging he con inued u iliza ion o used ba e y compo-
This pape has ecei ed unding om he Eu opean Union’s Ho izon Eu ope
esea ch and inno a ion p og amme unde g an ag eemen No 101138031
(REBORN).
nen s, his pape iden i ies building blocks o a eusable and
second-li e-enabled EV-BMS.
The objec i e o his pape is exp essed h ough h ee
esea ch ques ions:
RQ1 Wha a e he a chi ec u al and echnological di e ences
be ween he i s and second li e o ba e y sys ems?
RQ2 Wha bene i s and challenges a e discussed in he li e a-
u e conce ning eusing he o iginal BMS in second-li e
applica ions?
RQ3 Wha mechanisms a e necessa y o ease he ansi ion
om i s o second li e while enabling euse o he
o iginal BMS?
The emainde o he pape is s uc u ed as ollows. Sec-
ion II de ails he me hodological app oach, including da a
and li e a u e selec ion. Sec ion III p esen s he main indings,
which a e u he explo ed h ough an applica ion scena io in
Sec ion IV. Finally, Sec ion V summa izes he insigh s and
ou lines di ec ions o u u e esea ch.
II. METHODOLOGY
Li e a u e e iew on second-li e applica ions
Classi ica ion in o ca ego ies
Finding e e ence a chi ec u es
Compa ing i s -and second-li e a chi ec u es
Li e a u e sea ch Ti le & Abs ac
sc eening Pape skimming
Ca . 1 Ca . 2 Ca . 3 Ca . 4 Ca . 5
Fig. 1. Me hodology o ind a chi ec u al and echnological di e ences
be ween he i s and second li e o ba e y sys ems
In gene al, he analyses a e based on a e iew o he
academic li e a u e. To answe RQ1, a li e a u e e iew was
conduc ed in es iga ing ac ual applica ions o SLBs. These
we e hen classi ied, summa izing simila applica ions on
a high le el. A e e ence a chi ec u e was iden i ied o
each ca ego y. These e e ence a chi ec u es we e compa ed
o a e e ence a chi ec u e o an EV ba e y sys em. This
compa ison hen iden i ies a chi ec u al and echnological
di e ences be ween he i s and he second li e o ba e y
sys ems. The p ocess is summa ized in Figu e 1. RQ2 was
add essed h ough a li e a u e e iew ocusing on he p os and
cons o u ilizing he o iginal BMS in second-li e applica ions.
Finally, RQ3 was app oached by le e aging he esul s o
RQ1 and RQ2, o mula ing necessa y mechanisms o ease
he ansi ion om i s o second li e.979-8-3315-9515-9/ 25/$31.00 ©2025 IEEE
TABLE I
CATEGORIES OF SECOND-LIFE APPLICATIONS
Ca ego y Examples Sou ce
Behind he me e (BTM) peak sha ing, max. use o locally gene a ed powe , UPS, eed-in- a i s/ ime-o -use bill
managemen
[7]–[18]
F on o he me e (FTM) peak sha ing, g id s abili y, ene gy a bi age, equency egula ion, black s a , ancilla y
se ices, spin/no-spin ese es, mi iga ion o in e mi en e ec s o RES
[7], [9]–[12], [14], [16]–[20]
S a iona y peak sha ing, ( as ) EV cha ging, s andalone/isola ed g id, s abilize ou pu powe , esi-
den ial ESS, comme cial ESS, indus ial ESS, s ee ligh ing, wind powe s o age sys em
[3], [4], [12], [16], [20]–[28]
Semi-s a iona y ene gy supply o cons uc ion si es, po able cha ging de ices, con aine s o age sys em [3], [21], [26]
Mobile sho - ange ehicles ( o kli s, ec ea ional ehicles, ...), as cha ging s a ions, low-speed
E-bikes/mo o ca s, consume elec onics, mobile elecom. owe s, ail anspo
[3], [12], [21]–[23], [26]
III. RESULTS
A. RQ1: Wha a e he a chi ec u al and echnological di e -
ences be ween he i s and second li e o ba e y sys ems?
1) Ca ego iza ion o SLB applica ions: The academic
li e a u e, summa ized in Table I, iden i ies wo p ima y
iews o classi ying applica ions on SLB. The i s app oach
conside s hese applica ions om he s andpoin o he powe
g id, he eby ca ego izing hem in o hose si ua ed in on o
an elec ici y me e (F on o he Me e (FOTM)) and hose
loca ed behind a me e (Behind he Me e (BTM)). FOTM
use cases include ma e s ha conce n g id s abili y, like
equency egula ion o ancilla y se ices, bu also ac i i ies
ela ed o la ge-scale ene gy s o age wi hin RES o mi iga e
hei in e mi en e ec s. Peak sha ing, i.e., he s a egic
educ ion o he elec ical load a imes o peak demand,
can educe he need o inc eased ene gy gene a ion om
con en ional powe plan s a hese imes. The la e is no
only FOTM, bu also a BTM applica ion, o en applied o
esiden ial o indus ial applica ions. Maximizing he use o
locally gene a ed powe , e.g., by s o ing ene gy p oduced
by a pho o ol aic (PV) sys em, is one example o SLBs in
p i a e households. This can be combined wi h ime-o -use
bill managemen , whe e ene gy is bough and empo a ily
s o ed when i is cheap and used o sold when i is expensi e.
The second ca ego y g oup examines he mobili y o
second-li e applica ions, dis inguishing be ween s a iona y,
semi-s a iona y, and mobile applica ions. The examples
men ioned o FOTM and BTM can mainly be classi ied as
s a iona y applica ions. Addi ionally, use cases o s andalone
and isola ed g ids no ha ing a con en ional me e a e also
men ioned he e. The g oup o semi-s a iona y applica ions
is only iden i ied by a small ma gin o esea ch wo ks since
hese a e a mix u e o s a iona y applica ions, i.e., du ing
ope a ion, and mobile applica ions, i.e., anspo able. An
example is an ene gy supply o cons uc ion si es. Mobile
applica ions include ehicles whe e ange is no a dominan
equi emen , e.g., o kli s o ec ea ional ehicles such as
gol ca s. SLBs can also be used as an ene gy supply o
mobile elecommunica ion owe s, e.g., du ing eme gencies.
2) A chi ec u al and echnological compa ison: In Fig-
u e 2, e e ence a chi ec u es o each high-le el ca ego y
a e shown. Fo simplici y, a mid-laye di iding he ba e y
sys em in o modules is omi ed. I is also assumed ha he
in e nal s uc u e o he ba e y sys em emains unchanged
when being ans e ed o a second-li e applica ion, so only
ex e nal connec ions a e conside ed. The a chi ec u es shown
in Figu e 2 do no indica e ene gy low, hus, he isible
connec ions a e only shown whe e da a, e.g., o moni o and
con ol, is exchanged be ween componen s.
FOTM and BTM di e only in he placemen o he
ac ual load. FOTM ypically p o ide g id se ices, wi h an
unspeci ied load no managed by he ene gy sys em. In con-
as , BTM enables load con ol ia an ene gy managemen
sys em (EMS), which balances s o age and consump ion.
The a chi ec u es o BTM and s a iona y applica ions can
be summa ized as iden ical. In semi-s a iona y and mobile
applica ions, he g id in eg a ion is omi ed. The a chi ec u e
o mobile second-li e applica ions is di e en om he o he s
as an EMS does no exis he e. The load in his case is an
elec ical mo o con olled by a ehicle con ol uni (VCU).
Connec i i y ac oss hese componen s is es ablished h ough
a cen al ga eway. The a chi ec u es all ha e a connec ion o
a cloud in common. This is equi ed o egula ions such as
he new Ba e y Passpo [29], bu also o e s mode n oppo -
uni ies o emo e moni o ing and con ol o he sys em as
well as o he use o high-pe o mance compu ing, enhancing
s a us calcula ions [30].
I can be obse ed ha he ele an a chi ec u al a i ac s
can be educed o a single connec ion om he BMS o
a highe -le el componen ha ul ills he ole o managing
and con olling he en i e second-li e sys em. In conside a ion
o he b oade esea ch a ge o iden i ying building blocks
o he BMS, he echnologies used in his connec ion a e
he e o e o pa icula in e es .
P o ocols used o he communica ion be ween a BMS and
an EMS ac oss he indus y o he physical and da a link
laye s a e commonly CAN-BUS, E he ne , o WiFi [7], [31]–
[33]. The Modbus-p o ocol is egula ly employed wi hin
he applica ion laye , acili a ing da a communica ion as a
clien /se e a chi ec u e [31], [34]. O he possible p o ocols
in he applica ion laye a e HTTP o MQTT, al hough hese
a e no pa icula ly ep esen ed in he li e a u e.
Compa ing his wi h he BMS a chi ec u e in an EV, as
shown in Figu e 3, some simila i ies can be iden i ied. Fo
example, he BMS is also only connec ed o a highe -le el
componen , i.e. he ga eway, ia a single connec ion. In
addi ion, he e is an in e ace om his o an elec ic ehicle
supply equipmen (EVSE), i.e., he cha ging s a ion and o
an in- ehicle in o ainmen (IVI). While he e is a ange o
p o ocols o connec ing o EMS, he CAN bus p o ocol is
widesp ead in EVs. This esul s in a echnological di e ence
om hese.
BMS BMS BMS BMS BMS
a. FOTM b. BTM c. S a iona y d. Semi-S a iona y e. Mobile
EMS EMS
Cloud
UIEMS EMSIn .In .In .In .
G id
Load Load Load VCUGa eway
G idLoadCloud Cloud Cloud G id Cloud EVSE Load
Fig. 2. Compa ison o a chi ec u es o second-li e applica ions.
BMS
Ga ewayIVI
EVSE
VCU
Cloud Load
Fig. 3. EV-BMS a chi ec u e
B. RQ2: Wha bene i s and challenges a e discussed in he
li e a u e conce ning eusing he o iginal BMS in second-li e
applica ions?
TABLE II
BENEFITS AND CHALLENGES CONCERNING REUSING THE ORIGINAL
BMS IN SECOND-LIFE APPLICATIONS
Bene i s Sou ce
Cos E iciency [4], [35]–[39]
Da a-D i en Heal h Assessmen [4], [22], [38], [40]
Sys em In eg a ion Simplici y [39], [41]
Resou ce P o ec ion & Ci cula -
i y
[40]
Challenges
Communica ion In e ace Com-
pa ibili y
[4], [35], [41]
Limi ed OEM Access & P op i-
e a y Cons ain s
[4], [24], [38], [40], [41]
Technological Obsolescence [4], [22], [24], [36], [37], [42]–[45]
Regula o y and Insu ance Com-
pliance
[40], [43]
The second esea ch ques ion analyses he bene i s and
challenges ega ding he euse o i s -li e BMS in second-li e
applica ions o la e use hese o he iden i ica ion o BMS
building blocks. The esea ch wo ks ound o each cause a e
summa ized in Table II.
1) Bene i s:
Cos E iciency: The p ocess o disassembling, e alu-
a ing, and subsequen ly econs uc ing a ba e y pack in o a
new sys em in ol es signi ican labo and expenses, whe eas
u ilizing a ba e y pack p o es o be a mo e cos -e ec i e
al e na i e.
Da a-D i en Heal h Assessmen : The assessmen con-
ce ning emaining use ul li e (RUL) and s a e o heal h (SoH)
a he ansi ion owa ds a second-li e applica ion signi ican ly
elies on he ope a ing condi ions and his o ical da a o he
i s li e. Access o he da a s o ed on he BMS enables
easie assessmen du ing he ansi ion, bu also a con inuous
ongoing e alua ion in he second li e.
Sys em In eg a ion Simplici y: The de elopmen o a
new BMS is a complex and expensi e ask. Reusing he
exis ing i s -li e BMS is conside ably easie when in eg a ing
he SLB in o a new applica ion.
Resou ce P o ec ion & Ci cula i y: By eusing he
BMS, he app oach o ci cula economy is u he s eng h-
ened. In con as , he use o a new BMS ies up new esou ces
and aw ma e ials.
2) Challenges:
Communica ion In e ace Compa ibili y: The in eg a ion
o a SLB in o a new applica ion equi es se ing up a commu-
nica ion link o he BMS o con ol and moni o he ba e y.
I his connec ion is unknown, he communica ion in e ace
canno be es ablished, o complex e e se enginee ing o
ind ou command and da a s uc u es mus be ca ied ou .
Howe e , in eg a ing a new BMS allows ull in e ace con ol.
Limi ed OEM Access & P op ie a y Cons ain s: The
i s -li e OEM o en keeps design con ol o e hei EV
ba e ies due o in ellec ual p ope y (IP) con ol, hus no
handing o e in o ma ion ega ding BMS design, con ol, and
moni o ing s a egies o he ba e y, o ba e y pa ame e s in
gene al. Since his in o ma ion is manda o y o de eloping
and in eg a ing he ba e y sys em, i is ha dly possible o
euse he BMS. Then, he only op ion o con inue using SLB
is o de elop a new BMS.
Technological Obsolescence: New use cases, speci i-
ca ions, and en i onmen s o en equi e new so wa e and
ha dwa e componen s. Since he o iginal design o he EV
ba e y sys em can be 15-20 yea s old, echnology like p o o-
col s acks, ha dwa e componen s, e c., can be obsole e. A new
BMS can be op imized o a new en i onmen , acili a ing
up- o-da e echnologies.
Regula o y and Insu ance Compliance: As he i s -li e
en i onmen can signi ican ly di e om he en i onmen
o he second-li e applica ion, ce i ica ions and insu ance
canno be co e ed anymo e.
I is no iceable ha some o he easons gi en con a-
dic each o he . While some esea ch pape s emphasize he
simple in eg a ion, some see his as a g ea e challenge. I
should be no ed he e ha di e en assump ions we e made.
Namely, on he one hand, he implemen a ion o in e aces is
known, which simpli ies in eg a ion, and on he o he hand,
his is made mo e di icul by a lack o knowledge abou hese
in e aces.
C. RQ3: Wha mechanisms a e necessa y o ease he an-
si ion om i s o second li e while enabling euse o he
o iginal BMS?
The esul s o RQ1 showed ha only a single commu-
nica ion link om he BMS o a highe -le el componen
is ele an in di e en second-li e applica ions. Ac oss his
link, howe e , a ange o communica ion p o ocols may be
used. Compa ed wi h EV-BMS, he esul s also showed ha
a change o p o ocols is necessa y in mos cases. RQ2 iden i-
ied a majo challenge in eusing an o iginal BMS: he limi ed
a ailabili y o comple e absence o documen a ion ega ding
p op ie a y p o ocol implemen a ions. These wo aspec s,
ins alling ei he new p o ocols o ecei ing in o ma ion abou
exis ing ones, a e e en mo e challenging when he aspec o
di e en s akeholde s is aken in o accoun : di ec con ac s,
including an exchange o design and documen a ion, be ween
a i s -li e and second-li e OEM can sol e hese issues.
Howe e , wi h he inc easing a ailabili y o e i ed ba e ies
in he upcoming yea s, a ma ke o ading SLB is expec ed
o g ow signi ican ly. In his case, he ading pa ne s may
no ge o know each o he and he e o e do no exchange
in o ma ion. Ano he c ucial ac o esul ing om RQ2 is
he access o his o ical da a o enhance he ba e y’s s a us
assessmen . Finding he bes possible second-li e applica ion
hea ily elies on he quali y, i.e., on he SoH and he RUL
o he cells, which inc eases he impo ance o being able o
ead ou ope a ional da a o he i s li e.
Taking his in o accoun , wo majo BMS building blocks
would ease he ansi ion om a i s o a second li e.
1) Enabling he ins alla ion o upda ed i mwa e: In-
s alling new so wa e includes se e al secu i y measu es,
such as digi al signa u es, secu e boo , enc yp ion, and us
ancho s. These mechanisms ensu e con iden iali y, in eg i y,
and au hen ici y o he bina y i mwa e and au hen ici y o
communica ion endpoin s. (Roo ) ce i ica es, ha dwa e keys,
and public/p i a e key-pai s mus be highly p o ec ed and
mus no lea e he con olled ecosys em o he espec i e
OEM. Howe e , o be able o ins all a new i mwa e, he
second-li e OEM needs o e ie e con ol o e hese secu i y
measu es. The e o e, a me hod mus be implemen ed ha
enables a secu e ans e o secu i y measu es while ensu ing
no exchange o c i ical c yp og aphic ma e ial.
2) Access o his o ical da a: Access o BMS da a is
cu en ly es ic ed due o IP conce ns aised by OEMs. As
he ba e y ep esen s a c i ical and ma ke -di e en ia ing
componen o an EV, i s ope a ional da a may e eal p o-
p ie a y con ol s a egies ha OEMs wan o p o ec om
compe i o s. Howe e , as p e iously discussed, such da a is
essen ial o accu a ely assess he ba e y’s SoH and es ima e
i s RUL.
To econcile hese con lic ing in e es s, i is necessa y o
es ablish a mechanism h ough which he BMS can secu ely
and eliably communica e he ba e y’s cu en SoH. This
in o ma ion mus be made accessible o second-li e OEMs
in a way ha gua an ees da a in eg i y and au hen ici y,
while simul aneously p ese ing he con iden iali y o sen-
si i e in e nal pa ame e s and con ol logic. One p omising
app oach o mee hese equi emen s in ol es he in eg a ion
o blockchain echnology, which can p o ide con olled da a
access and ensu e he e i iabili y and immu abili y o he
sha ed in o ma ion.
IV. DISCUSSION
The cu en Ho izon Eu ope p ojec REBORN [46] has,
among o he aspec s, a use case in which ba e ies om an
EV a e o be ans e ed o a second-li e sys em o s o ing
enewable ene gy. This is aken as an example o show how
he wo iden i ied building blocks simpli y he euse o he
ba e y sys em. While he e a e non-disclosu e ag eemen s
(NDAs) ega ding IP wi hin he p ojec , his is no always
he case in a eal-wo ld scena io. The EV-OEM, he e o e,
does no wan sec e da a o be leaked, bo h on an ope a ional
le el and om he pe spec i e o secu i y mechanisms. The
wo building blocks help o p o ec his da a and s ill allow
he BMS o be eused. I is essen ial o he second-li e OEM
o know wha s a us he ba e ies o be used s ill ha e. A
simple bu con iden ial ans e o his s a us wi hou ha ing
o access all he da a om he i s li e makes i easie o make
such an assessmen . In he gi en example, he CAN p o ocol
is used in he EV o communica e wi h he BMS. The new
EMS, on he o he hand, can only communica e ia Modbus
o e E he ne . This means ha a new p o ocol s ack mus be
p og ammed. Wi hou a co ec digi al signa u e, howe e ,
he BMS will no accep any i mwa e. The secu e exchange
o c yp og aphic ma e ial om he i s OEM o he ma e ial
om he second OEM, he e o e, enables he exis ing upda e
op ions o be u ilized and new i mwa e o be impo ed.
V. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
This pape aimed o imp o e he euse o i s -li e BMS in
second-li e applica ions. To his end, he di e ences be ween
i s and second li e we e analyzed and iden i ied h ough
a li e a u e e iew. In pa icula , unknown communica ion
in e aces and he non-disclosu e o de ails om he i s -li e
OEM we e iden i ied as challenges o euse. The building
blocks ha eme ged om his analysis we e, on he one
hand, a secu e ans e o secu i y ma e ial o allow secu e
upda es. And secondly, secu e and us wo hy ansmission
o he ba e y s a us wi hou ha ing o access ope a ional da a.
The design and implemen a ion o a p oo o concep o an
EV-BMS applicable o a second-li e applica ion is one di ec
u u e wo k, as well as he de elopmen o a me ic enabling
an assessmen conce ning he e ec i eness and e iciency o
his concep .
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