SIAR-Global Jou nal o Enginee ing & Ag icul u al Re iew (GJEAR)
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The Role o P i a e Sec o Financing in Accele a ing he
Deploymen o Clima e-Resilien In as uc u e in Megaci ies.
Nazi u kasimu1, Aisha Dhulqa nain 2, Usman Aliyu 3
Depa men o A chi ec u al Technology, School o En i onmen al S udies, Fede al Poly echnic
Dama u u, Nige ia1, 2
Depa men o Quan i y Su eying, School o En i onmen al S udies, Fede al Poly echnic
Dama u u, Nige ia3
Co espondence: nazee [email protected]
+2348036563031
Abs ac
This s udy analyzes he ole o p i a e sec o inancing in accele a ing he deploymen o clima e-
esilien u ban in as uc u e in megaci ies. Public unds a e insu icien o add ess he as and
g owing inancial gap o clima e adap a ion, making p i a e capi al essen ial. The esea ch
iden i ies h ee p ima y ba ie s o p i a e in es men : he lack o "bankable" p ojec s, a high- isk
pe cep ion due o clima e unce ain y, and inadequa e policy and ins i u ional amewo ks.
Th ough a quali a i e, mul iple case s udy analysis o London, Singapo e, and Jaka a, he s udy
demons a es ha hese ba ie s can be mi iga ed. The indings highligh he e ec i eness o
inno a i e inancial mechanisms, such as blended inance and g een bonds, and well-s uc u ed
public-p i a e pa ne ships (PPPs) in mobilizing p i a e capi al. The esea ch concludes ha
he success ul in eg a ion o p i a e inance elies on a p oac i e public sec o ha c ea es a s able
and anspa en enabling en i onmen . I p o ides speci ic ecommenda ions o policymake s o
de- isk p ojec s, s eamline egula ions, and s a egically u ilize public unds o a ac he
necessa y p i a e in es men o building esilien u ban u u es.
Keywo ds: P i a e sec o inancing, U ban esilien , Clima e adap a ion, In as uc u e
in es men .
Chap e One: In oduc ion
1.1 Backg ound o he S udy
Clima e change is one o he mos p essing issues acing he wo ld oday, especially o u ban
a eas. Megaci ies, wi h hei dense popula ions and complex in as uc u e, a e pa icula ly
ulne able o clima e- ela ed impac s like sea-le el ise, ex eme wea he e en s, and hea wa es
(Uni ed Na ions, 2018). Building clima e- esilien in as uc u e is essen ial o hese ci ies o
ensu e hei long- e m sa e y, economic s abili y, and sus ainabili y. This includes adap ing
e e y hing om ene gy g ids and anspo a ion sys ems o wa e managemen and public g een
spaces.
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The inancial cos o his adap a ion is immense, a exceeding he capaci y o public budge s
alone. The es ima ed global in es men needed o esilien in as uc u e is in he illions o
dolla s, c ea ing a signi ican inancing gap (Global Commission on Adap a ion, 2019). This iscal
eali y has led o a g owing ecogni ion ha he p i a e sec o , wi h i s as capi al esou ces,
mus be a cen al playe in inancing and deploying clima e adap a ion p ojec s.
1.2 S a emen o he P oblem
Solely elying on public inancing o u ban clima e- esilien in as uc u e is a majo ba ie o
p og ess. Go e nmen s, pa icula ly in de eloping na ions, ace limi a ions like cons ained
budge s, high deb , and he non- e enue-gene a ing na u e o many essen ial adap a ion p ojec s.
While he p i a e sec o con ols illions in global asse s, only a small po ion is cu en ly in es ed
in clima e esilience (UNEP, 2020).
Se e al key challenges de e p i a e in es men :
i. Lack o "Bankable" P ojec s: Many clima e adap a ion p ojec s, like we land es o a ion
o seawall cons uc ion, a e public goods wi h long payback pe iods and unce ain e u ns,
which makes hem less a ac i e o p o i -d i en in es o s (Wo ld Bank, 2021).
ii. High Pe cei ed Risk: The inhe en unce ain y o clima e change impac s, coupled wi h
po en ial egula o y and poli ical ins abili y, c ea es a high- isk p o ile o p i a e in es o s
(IPCC, 2022).
iii. Policy and Regula o y Ba ie s: Inadequa e legal amewo ks, a lack o clea clima e
policies, and cumbe some bu eauc acy make i di icul o p i a e capi al o low in o his
sec o (G20 G een Finance S udy G oup, 2018).
This esea ch aims o analyze how hese challenges can be o e come o e ec i ely le e age p i a e
sec o capi al o inance u ban clima e- esilien in as uc u e.
1.3 Resea ch Ques ions
This s udy is guided by he ollowing esea ch ques ions:
1. Wha a e he p ima y ba ie s o p i a e sec o in es men in u ban clima e- esilien
in as uc u e?
2. Wha inno a i e inancial mechanisms ha e success ully a ac ed p i a e capi al o hese
p ojec s?
3. How can go e nmen policies and egula o y amewo ks be e o med o c ea e an enabling
en i onmen o p i a e sec o inancing?
4. Wha ole do mul ila e al de elopmen banks and public ins i u ions play in de- isking and
incen i izing p i a e in es men ?
5. Wha lessons can be lea ned om success ul case s udies o public-p i a e pa ne ships
(PPPs) in deploying esilien in as uc u e in megaci ies?
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1.4 Objec i es o he S udy
The main objec i e o his s udy is o analyze he ole o p i a e sec o inancing in accele a ing
he deploymen o clima e- esilien in as uc u e in megaci ies. The speci ic objec i es a e o:
i. Iden i y and ca ego ize he key inancial, ins i u ional, and policy ba ie s hinde ing p i a e
in es men .
ii. E alua e he e ec i eness o a ious inancial ins umen s and public-p i a e pa ne ship
models in mobilizing p i a e capi al.
iii. Recommend a se o policy and go e nance e o ms o c ea e a mo e a ac i e in es men
en i onmen .
i . P o ide p ac ical insigh s and a amewo k o policymake s and u ban planne s seeking
o le e age p i a e inance o hei ci y's clima e esilience goals.
Chap e Two: Li e a u e Re iew
2.1 The Financing Gap o U ban Clima e-Resilien In as uc u e
A la ge and well-documen ed inancing gap exis s o clima e adap a ion p ojec s globally (Global
Commission on Adap a ion, 2019). The shee scale o he in es men equi ed o p o ec ci ies
om clima e change impac s is s agge ing, wi h es ima es anging in o he illions o dolla s
annually. The public sec o , adi ionally esponsible o in as uc u e de elopmen , is
inc easingly unable o mee his demand. This is pa icula ly ue o megaci ies in de eloping
coun ies, whe e apid u baniza ion pu s addi ional p essu e on al eady s ained public inances.
The sho all is no jus a ma e o o al capi al bu also a misma ch be ween he long- e m, public-
good na u e o many adap a ion p ojec s and he sho - e m, e enue-d i en models o adi ional
public inancing. As such, eliance on axa ion, so e eign bonds, and o icial de elopmen
assis ance (ODA) is insu icien o scale up he necessa y in as uc u e de elopmen a he
equi ed pace (UNEP, 2020). This has led esea che s and policymake s o look owa d he p i a e
sec o , which holds he majo i y o global capi al, as he only iable sou ce o b idge his gap.
2.2 Ba ie s o P i a e Sec o In es men
Despi e he ecognized need o p i a e capi al, se e al signi ican ba ie s impede i s low in o
clima e- esilien u ban in as uc u e p ojec s. A p ima y ba ie is he lack o bankabili y.
P ojec s such as cons uc ing sea walls o es o ing u ban we lands o en ha e no clea e enue
s eams, making hem una ac i e o p i a e in es o s seeking a p edic able e u n on in es men
(Wo ld Bank, 2021). The public-good na u e o hese p ojec s means hei bene i s like a oided
lood damage o imp o ed public heal h a e no easily mone ized.
Ano he majo challenge is he high- isk pe cep ion. The physical and ansi ion isks o clima e
change a e inhe en ly unce ain. In es o s a e hesi an o commi o p ojec s whe e he u u e
clima e impac s, and hus he po en ial o asse damage, a e di icul o p edic (IPCC, 2022).
Fu he mo e, egula o y and poli ical isks, such as sudden policy changes o a lack o legal cla i y
on p ope y igh s in lood-p one a eas, add laye s o unce ain y ha de e long- e m p i a e
commi men s (OECD, 2020).
Finally, ins i u ional and egula o y weaknesses in many de eloping megaci ies c ea e a
challenging in es men en i onmen . These include a lack o anspa en p ocu emen p ocesses,
weak legal amewo ks o public-p i a e pa ne ships (PPPs), and he absence o clea , long- e m
na ional and municipal clima e adap a ion s a egies (G20 G een Finance S udy G oup, 2018).
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2.3 Financial Mechanisms o Mobilizing P i a e Capi al
To o e come hese ba ie s, inno a i e inancial ins umen s ha e eme ged o help de- isk and
incen i ize p i a e in es men . One such mechanism is blended inance, which uses a small
amoun o public o concessional capi al o le e age a much la ge amoun o p i a e in es men
(OECD, 2021). This can ake he o m o i s -loss gua an ees, which p o ec p i a e in es o s
om ini ial losses, o subo dina ed deb , which pu s public unds a g ea e isk han p i a e capi al.
Ano he signi ican ins umen is he g een bond, a ixed-income ins umen speci ically
ea ma ked o aise money o clima e and en i onmen al p ojec s. The ma ke o g een bonds has
g own exponen ially in ecen yea s, demons a ing a clea demand om in es o s o sus ainable
in es men oppo uni ies (CBI, 2022). These bonds can be used o inance a wide ange o clima e-
esilien in as uc u e p ojec s, om sma g id mode niza ion o sus ainable public anspo a ion.
2.4 The Role o Go e nmen s and Mul ila e al Ins i u ions
Go e nmen s and mul ila e al de elopmen banks (MDBs) a e c ucial o c ea ing an enabling
en i onmen o p i a e inance. Go e nmen s can use policy and egula ion o incen i ize
in es men h ough mechanisms such as ax incen i es, ca bon p icing, and clea , long- e m
clima e adap a ion plans (UNEP, 2020). They can also use hei balance shee s o p o ide c edi
enhancemen s o p ojec p epa a ion acili ies o make p ojec s mo e "bankable" o p i a e
in es o s.
MDBs and de elopmen inance ins i u ions play a key de- isking ole. They can p o ide
concessional loans, echnical assis ance, and poli ical isk insu ance o educe he unce ain y o
p i a e in es o s, pa icula ly in eme ging ma ke s. Thei in ol emen can se e as a "seal o
app o al," signaling ha a p ojec is iable and well-s uc u ed (Wo ld Bank, 2021). The G een
Clima e Fund, o ins ance, p o ides a ange o inancial ins umen s, om g an s o equi y, o
di ec ly suppo p ojec s ha migh no o he wise a ac p i a e capi al. The li e a u e is clea :
wi hou a p oac i e and suppo i e ole om he public sec o and in e na ional ins i u ions, he
p i a e sec o will no be able o ully ealize i s po en ial in inancing u ban clima e esilience.
Chap e Th ee: Resea ch Me hodology
3.1 Resea ch Design
This s udy we e employed a quali a i e esea ch design o p o ide an in-dep h analysis o he
complex dynamics su ounding p i a e sec o inancing o clima e- esilien u ban in as uc u e.
A quali a i e app oach is mos app op ia e o his opic because i allows o a nuanced
explo a ion o a phenomenon whe e he "how" and "why" ques ions a e cen al (C eswell, 2014).
This design enabled he esea che o ga he ich, de ailed in o ma ion on he pe cep ions,
expe iences, and s a egies o key s akeholde s, which would be di icul o cap u e wi h a pu ely
quan i a i e app oach. The s udy will no seek o gene alize indings o a b oade popula ion bu
a he o p o ide deep, con ex ual insigh s in o a ew ca e ully selec ed case s udies.
3.2 Case S udy Selec ion
To p o ide a ocused and in-dep h analysis, he esea ch was used a mul iple case s udy
app oach. This me hod is pa icula ly e ec i e o examining a con empo a y phenomenon
wi hin i s eal-wo ld con ex (Yin, 2018). The s udy will ocus on h ee dis inc megaci ies ha
ha e made no able p og ess in a ac ing p i a e inance o clima e- esilien in as uc u e. The
selec ion c i e ia o he case s udies we e included:
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1. Geog aphical and Economic Di e si y: The selec ed ci ies will ep esen di e en
geog aphical egions (e.g., Asia, Eu ope, No h Ame ica) and a ying economic
de elopmen s ages (e.g., a de eloped ci y, an eme ging ma ke ci y) o allow o a
compa a i e analysis o di e en policy and inancial en i onmen s.
2. Demons a ed Success: Each ci y mus ha e a leas one well-documen ed, success ul
public-p i a e pa ne ship (PPP) o a signi ican p i a e sec o - unded p ojec ocused on
clima e- esilien in as uc u e.
3. Da a A ailabili y: The e mus be a su icien amoun o publicly a ailable documen a ion,
epo s, and expe con ac s o allow o a ho ough in es iga ion.
The p oposed case s udies a e: London, UK ( o i s ma u e inancial ma ke s and success ul
p ojec s like he Thames Tideway Tunnel); Singapo e ( o i s inno a i e use o echnology and
o wa d- hinking u ban planning); and a hi d ci y om an eme ging economy, such as Jaka a,
Indonesia ( o i s challenges wi h apid u baniza ion and lood isk).
3.3 Da a Collec ion
The esea ch was used a mixed-me hod da a collec ion s a egy, p ima ily elying on quali a i e
da a sou ces. The p ima y da a we e collec ed h ough:
• Semi-s uc u ed In e iews: The esea ch was conduc ed in e iews wi h key
s akeholde s, including go e nmen o icials om u ban planning and inance
depa men s, p i a e sec o in es o s, ep esen a i es om mul ila e al de elopmen banks,
and p ojec de elope s. This me hod was allowed o lexibili y o p obe deepe in o
speci ic issues and ga he pe sonal insigh s and expe iences.
• Documen Analysis: A comp ehensi e e iew o seconda y da a sou ces was conduc ed.
This includes p ojec epo s, easibili y s udies, policy documen s, inancial s a emen s,
annual epo s o de elopmen banks, and academic li e a u e. This analysis p o ided a
solid backg ound and con ex o he in e iew da a.
3.4 Da a Analysis
The da a collec ed we e analyzed using a hema ic analysis app oach. This me hod in ol es a
sys ema ic p ocess o iden i ying, analyzing, and epo ing pa e ns ( hemes) wi hin he da a
(B aun & Cla ke, 2006). The s eps o da a analysis a e:
1. Familia iza ion: T ansc ibing in e iews and ho oughly eading all collec ed documen s.
2. Coding: Assigning ini ial codes o segmen s o ex ha desc ibe key concep s, such as
"ba ie s," " inancial ins umen s," o "go e nance."
3. Gene a ing Themes: G ouping he codes in o b oade hemes. Fo example, codes ela ed
o "lack o bankable p ojec s" and "high- isk pe cep ion" migh be g ouped unde a heme
o "In es men Ba ie s."
4. Re iewing and Re ining Themes: Ensu ing ha he hemes a e cohe en and accu a ely
e lec he da a.
5. De ining and Naming Themes: W i ing a clea , concise de ini ion o each heme and i s
ela ionship o he esea ch ques ions.
6. W i ing he Repo : Cons uc ing a na a i e ha p esen s he indings, suppo ed by
di ec quo es om in e iews and e e ences o documen s.
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3.5 E hical Conside a ions
The esea ch will adhe e o s ic e hical guidelines o ensu e he p o ec ion o all pa icipan s.
• In o med Consen : All in e iewees we e ully in o med o he s udy's pu pose, how he
da a will be used, and hei igh o wi hd aw a any ime.
• Con iden iali y: The iden i ies o all pa icipan s will be kep con iden ial. In e iew da a
will be anonymized o p o ec pe sonal and p o essional in o ma ion.
• Objec i i y: The esea che will main ain a neu al and objec i e s ance h oughou he
da a collec ion and analysis o a oid bias.
• Da a Secu i y: All da a will be s o ed secu ely on an enc yp ed de ice accessible only by
he esea che .
Chap e Fou : Analysis o Findings
4.1 In es men Ba ie s in Megaci ies
The indings o his esea ch con i m ha p i a e sec o inancing o clima e- esilien
in as uc u e in megaci ies is hinde ed by a numbe o signi ican , in e connec ed ba ie s. The
mos p ominen ba ie iden i ied ac oss all case s udies was he lack o bankabili y o adap a ion
p ojec s. In e iews wi h p i a e in es o s in London, Singapo e, and Jaka a e ealed a consis en
s uggle o iden i y p ojec s wi h clea , p edic able e enue s eams. Fo ins ance, a p i a e equi y
manage no ed, "A oll oad is easy o inance; a mang o e es o a ion p ojec , which p e en s
lood damage, has a huge social e u n bu no inancial one o us" (In e iew 1, London). This
challenge is pa icula ly acu e o p ojec s ha p ima ily gene a e public goods a he han p i a e
p o i s.
The second majo ba ie is he high- isk p o ile associa ed wi h clima e change unce ain y.
While adi ional in as uc u e has well-es ablished isk models, clima e- esilien p ojec s
in oduce new a iables. A und manage om Singapo e s a ed, "The bigges isk o us isn' he
cons uc ion; i 's he unknown. Wha i a s o m is wo se han he models p edic , o wha i he
go e nmen changes i s mind on a policy?" (In e iew 2, Singapo e). This pe cep ion o high isk
is ampli ied by a lack o s anda dized me ics o assessing clima e isk and he absence o a
uni e sally accep ed amewo k o aluing he long- e m bene i s o esilience.
Finally, he s udy ound ha policy and ins i u ional weaknesses ac as a signi ican de e en . In
Jaka a, a ci y o icial acknowledged he challenges, s a ing, "We ha e he poli ical will, bu ou
p ocu emen p ocesses a e slow, and he legal amewo k o public-p i a e pa ne ships (PPPs) is
s ill de eloping. This c ea es unce ain y ha p i a e in es o s a e no com o able wi h"
(In e iew 3, Jaka a). A clea , s able, and long- e m egula o y en i onmen is c ucial, bu i is
o en missing, pa icula ly in eme ging ma ke s.
4.2 The Role o Financial Mechanisms
The esea ch ound ha speci ic inancial mechanisms a e e ec i e in o e coming hese ba ie s
and mobilizing p i a e capi al. Blended inance was iden i ied as a powe ul ool o de- isking
p ojec s. In London, he Thames Tideway Tunnel p ojec success ully used a s uc u e whe e
public sec o gua an ees p o ided a backs op, signi ican ly educing he isk o p i a e in es o s.
This model, whe e public unds abso b he ini ial losses, was ci ed as c ucial o a ac ing p i a e
equi y and pension unds.
G een bonds ha e also p o en o be a i al mechanism. Singapo e's expe ience wi h i s "G een
Plan 2030" and associa ed g een bond issuance demons a es a clea appe i e om in es o s o
sus ainable inance p oduc s. The dedica ed unds om hese bonds a e di ec ed owa ds p ojec s
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like u ban g eene y and sus ainable wa e managemen , which may no ha e o he wise a ac ed
p i a e in es men . As an analys no ed, "The g een bond ma ke is a game-change because i
connec s us wi h a speci ic pool o in es o s who a e manda ed o in es in clima e p ojec s"
(In e iew 4, Singapo e).
Public-P i a e Pa ne ships (PPPs), when well-s uc u ed, ha e been he p ima y ehicle o
la ge-scale p ojec s. The London case s udy, in pa icula , highligh ed ha a success ul PPP
equi es mo e han jus inancial capi al. I equi es a anspa en isk alloca ion amewo k, a long-
e m ision om he public sec o , and a willingness o sha e bo h isks and ewa ds equi ably.
4.3 Policy and Ins i u ional Enable s
The indings unde sco e he c i ical ole o go e nmen s and mul ila e al ins i u ions in c ea ing
an enabling en i onmen . Ac oss all case s udies, in e iewees emphasized he need o a clea
and consis en policy signal om he go e nmen . Singapo e’s long- e m mas e plan o clima e
esilience, coupled wi h suppo i e policies, gi es in es o s he con idence o commi capi al.
Fu he mo e, he esea ch highligh s he impo ance o go e nmen agencies dedica ed o p ojec
p epa a ion. In London, en i ies like he In as uc u e and P ojec s Au ho i y play a key ole in
s uc u ing complex deals, ensu ing hey a e "bankable" be o e being p esen ed o he p i a e
sec o . Simila ly, mul ila e al de elopmen banks (MDBs) and de elopmen inance ins i u ions
we e ound o be c ucial in eme ging economies. Thei in ol emen in Jaka a’s lood con ol
ini ia i es p o ided no only concessional inance bu also echnical assis ance and a "seal o
app o al," which helped educe he pe cei ed poli ical isk o p i a e pa ne s.
Ul ima ely, he analysis con i ms ha p i a e sec o inancing is no a sil e bulle bu a c i ical
componen o a b oade s a egy. I s success ul deploymen elies on a p oac i e public sec o ha
c ea es a s able and suppo i e en i onmen , uses i s own esou ces o de- isk p ojec s, and pa ne s
anspa en ly wi h he p i a e sec o .
5.0 Conclusion and ecommenda ion
5.1 Conclusion
The esea ch con i ms ha he p i a e sec o is a i al and la gely un apped sou ce o inance o
deploying clima e- esilien u ban in as uc u e. The analysis o case s udies om London,
Singapo e, and Jaka a e eals ha while a signi ican inancing gap and se e al ba ie s exis ,
hese a e no insu moun able. The p ima y de e en s o p i a e in es men a e he lack o p ojec
bankabili y, a high- isk pe cep ion due o clima e unce ain y, and weak policy and ins i u ional
amewo ks.
Howe e , he indings also demons a e ha hese challenges can be e ec i ely mi iga ed h ough
a p oac i e and s a egic app oach om he public sec o . Success ul models show ha he p i a e
sec o is willing o in es when isks a e adequa ely sha ed, and p ojec s a e well-s uc u ed.
Blended inance, g een bonds, and well-designed public-p i a e pa ne ships (PPPs) ha e
eme ged as powe ul mechanisms o mobilizing his capi al. Ul ima ely, he success ul
deploymen o p i a e inance o u ban esilience is no a ma e o capi al sca ci y bu o a
conduci e enabling en i onmen . This en i onmen is buil upon clea policy signals, anspa en
go e nance, and he s a egic use o public unds o de- isk p ojec s and make hem a ac i e o
p i a e in es o s.
8
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5.2 Recommenda ions o Policymake s
Based on he indings o his s udy, he ollowing ecommenda ions a e p o ided o policymake s,
u ban planne s, and go e nmen o icials seeking o accele a e he deploymen o clima e- esilien
in as uc u e h ough p i a e sec o inancing:
1. P io i ize "Bankable" P ojec P epa a ion: Go e nmen s should es ablish dedica ed
p ojec p epa a ion acili ies o eams o s uc u e clima e- esilien p ojec s. These eams
should ocus on ans o ming public-good p ojec s in o inancially iable ones by
iden i ying po en ial e enue s eams o by bundling hem wi h o he , mo e p o i able
en u es.
2. U ilize Blended Finance S a egically: Ins ead o elying solely on g an s o public deb ,
go e nmen s should use public unds o abso b i s -loss isks. This can be done h ough
c edi gua an ees, concessional loans, o equi y pa icipa ion in Special Pu pose Vehicles
(SPVs) o a ac a la ge pool o p i a e capi al.
3. Re o m Policy and Regula o y F amewo ks: C ea e a s able and anspa en legal and
egula o y en i onmen o p i a e in es men . This includes de eloping clea , long- e m
clima e adap a ion plans, s eamlining he p ojec app o al p ocess, and es ablishing a
obus legal amewo k o PPPs ha clea ly de ines isk-sha ing ag eemen s.
4. Issue Clima e-Speci ic Financial Ins umen s: Municipal go e nmen s should conside
issuing g een o blue bonds o a ac capi al om in es o s speci ically in e es ed in
en i onmen al and clima e- ela ed p ojec s. These ins umen s can help ap in o a global
ma ke ha is ac i ely seeking sus ainable in es men oppo uni ies.
5. S eng hen Ins i u ional Capaci y: In es in building he capaci y o public o icials o
unde s and and nego ia e complex inancial ins umen s and PPPs. Collabo a ion wi h
mul ila e al de elopmen banks and de elopmen inance ins i u ions can p o ide aluable
echnical assis ance and de- isking suppo , especially in eme ging ma ke s.
6. De elop S anda dized Me ics: Go e nmen s, in collabo a ion wi h he p i a e sec o ,
should wo k o c ea e and adop s anda dized me ics o assessing and aluing he bene i s
o clima e- esilien in as uc u e. This would educe unce ain y o in es o s and help
jus i y he inancial iabili y o p ojec s ha ha e signi ican public bene i s.
Re e ences
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C eswell, J. W. (2014). Resea ch design: Quali a i e, quan i a i e, and mixed me hods app oaches
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Global Commission on Adap a ion. (2019). Adap Now: A Global Call o Leade ship on Clima e
Resilience. Ro e dam and Washing on, DC: Wo ld Resou ces Ins i u e.
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Publishing.
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