Microstructural and mechanical insights into 1.2709 maraging steel produced by direct energy deposition

Vol.:(0123456789)
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s10853-025-11439-8
J Ma e Sci (2025) 60:17933–17952
Me als & co osion
Mic os uc u al andmechanical insigh s in o1.2709
ma aging s eel p oduced bydi ec ene gy deposi ion
AngelinaS akošo á1,2,* , DanielK apil1 , FilipP ůša1 , Ma ekV onka2 , Pe S o a2,3 ,
Pa elLejček2 ,and Dalibo Voj ěch1
1 Depa men o Me als andCo osion Enginee ing, Uni e si y o Chemis y andTechnology, P ague 6, Technická 5, 16628P ague,
CzechRepublic
2 Ins i u e o Physics, Czech Academy o Science, Na Slo ance 1999/2, 18200P ague, CzechRepublic
3 Czech Technical Uni e si y inP ague, Uni e si y Cen e o Ene gy E icien Buildings, T inecka 1024, 27343Bus eh ad, CzechRepublic
ABSTRACT
The p esen wo k ocuses on he cha ac e iza ion o he ul a-high-s eng h 1.2709
ma aging s eel p oduced by he Di ec Ene gy Deposi ion (DED) echnique,
ei he in i s as-buil o as-buil  + hea - ea ed s a e. Scanning elec on mic o-
scope mic og aphs and X- ay di ac ion pa e ns showed ha he hea ea men
(namely, solu ion annealing and aging) had minimal impac on he mic os uc-
u e changes o he ma aging s eel. The ma e ial is cha ac e ized by ine cellula
o dend i ic mic os uc u e con aining se e al pe cen o he duc ile γ-aus eni e
phase in bo h as-buil and as-buil  + hea - ea ed s a es. A small amoun o he
N i 3Mo0.5Ti0.5 in e me allic phase was obse ed e en in he as-buil s a e o he
ma e ial. The hea ea men caused a subs an ial imp o emen o he mechanical
p ope ies h ough he homogeneous p ecipi a ion o nano-sized needle-shaped
N i 3Mo0.5Ti0.5 in e me allic phase. Tensile yield s eng h inc eased om 753 o
1957 MPa, ul ima e ensile s eng h— om 991 o 2024 MPa, and mic oha dness—
om 350 o 700 HV0.1. The p esen esul s a e also compa ed wi h hose ob ained
o he same ma e ial p oduced by he mo e commonly used Lase Powde Bed
Fusion (L-PBF) echnique. Despi e ha ing a coa se mic os uc u e wi h a p es-
ence o γ-phase han he LPBF-p in ed ma e ial, he DED-p in ed ma aging s eel
exhibi ed g ea e p ecipi a ion ha dening while main aining 5% duc ili y a e
hea ea men .
Recei ed: 12 May 2025
Accep ed: 25 Augus 2025
Published online:
6 Sep embe 2025
© The Au ho (s), 2025
Handling Edi o : Sophie P imig.
Add ess co espondence o E-mail: [email p o ec ed]; s akoso [email p o ec ed]
J Ma e Sci (2025) 60:17933–17952
In oduc ion
Addi i e manu ac u ing (AM, also deno ed as 3D
p in ing) is a mode n and cu en ly e y a ac i e
p oduc ion echnology in he ield o powde me -
allu gy [1–3]. AM allows p in ing pa s o complex
shapes, including small o e en po ous s uc u es,
which can be easily and ela i ely quickly ep o-
duced. Likewise, i is possible o indi idually mod-
i y he shapes o indi idual pa s wi hou signi ican
complica ions and hus p oduce unique pa s [3]. As
an ad an age o his echnique, he e is also no need
o make pos -p oduc ion machining o he addi i ely
manu ac u ed pa s. O en hen, only he inal su -
ace ea men is su icien [4, 5]. Due o he speci ic
condi ions ha a ise du ing p in ing, addi i ely
manu ac u ed ma e ials show di e en mic os uc-
u es compa ed o con en ionally p oduced equi a-
len s [5, 6]. A he same ime, hei p ope ies di e
e en when compa ing p oduc s o di e en p in ing
me hods [7], which demons a es he impo ance o
ho ough in es iga ion o such p epa ed ma e ials.
Di ec Ene gy Deposi ion (DED) and Lase Pow-
de Bed Fusion (L-PBF) a e he mos commonly used
addi i e manu ac u ing me hods o me allic ma e i-
als [8]. Bo h me hods a e based on he local mel ing
o small ma e ial olumes using high-ene gy den-
si y sou ces (lase o elec on beams). As a esul o
g adual bu apid solidi ica ion, cha ac e is ic den-
d i ic/cell mic os uc u es a e o med [9–11]. The
main di e ences in luencing he mic os uc u es
be ween he wo echnologies a e he cooling a es
and he powde pa icle sizes [7]. DED is based on
he localized mel ing o aw ma e ial supplied as
ei he powde o wi e a he poin o deposi ion by
a lase , elec on beam, o elec ic a c. The deposi-
ion head hen mo es g adually ac oss he su ace,
building up laye s o he ma e ial [12]. In e ms o
usage, he DED me hod addi ionally enables, o
example, he epai s and imp o emen s o al eady
ins alled pa s and he modi ica ion o he chemical
composi ion di ec ly du ing p in ing [4, 5]. I is also
possible o p in he pa s using bo h powde and
wi e eeds ock ma e ial, unlike in he L-PBF me hod,
whe e only powde can be used [2, 8]. Mo eo e ,
in 2019, he ma ke sha es o L-PBF sys ems we e
much highe compa ed o DED sys ems (85 and
8.3%, espec i ely) [6]. The e o e, DED-p oduced
ma e ials a e s ill no as well esea ched as ma e ials
p oduced by he oday’s mos common al e na i e
L-PBF me hod.
Ma aging s eels ank among he s onges ma e-
ials p oduced by AM. A signi ican g oup o hese
s eels—based on he Fe–18Ni sys em—ha e gene -
ally li le endency o he mal shocks and c acking,
while abso bing well he lase sou ce ene gy, which
makes hem one o he excellen candida es o 3D
p in ing [11, 13]. The 1.2709 (also deno ed as X3Ni-
CoMoTi 18-9-5, 18Ni300) ma aging s eel is he mos
widely used ma e ial o he Fe–18Ni g oup [2]. Apa
om high s eng h and ha dness, i also o e s good
oughness [14, 15]. This s eel is cha ac e ized by good
weldabili y [16], dimensional s abili y du ing aging
hea ea men , as well as g ea machinabili y in he
annealed s a e [14]. I s undamen al s eng hening
can be achie ed h ough a simple hea ea men com-
posed o aging ha las s o se e al hou s [17–19]. The
main s eng hening mechanism is p ecipi a ion ha d-
ening wi h in e me allic phases such as Ni3(Mo, Ti)
[20], Fe2Mo [21, 22], η-Ni3Ti [9], and Ni3Mo [23, 24].
The applica ion o AM o p oduce pa s o ma ag-
ing s eels hus o ms a e y po en and indus ially
usable esou ce. Fo his eason, i is c ucial o in es-
iga e and compa e he ci cums ances o bo h L-PBF
and DED p in ing me hods. Cu en ly, a la ge num-
be o esea ch pape s a e ocused on he cha ac e iza-
ion o he s uc u e and p ope ies o ma aging s eels
p oduced by he L-PBF. Some o hem [13, 25–31]
ela e o he examina ion o p in ing pa ame e s o
he success ul p oduc ion o high-quali y p oduc s.
Many esea ch pape s ela e o he hea ea men o
he L-PBF-p oduced ma aging s eel. Se e al wo ks
[26, 32–35] desc ibe he impac o he combina ion o
solu ion annealing and aging on he mic os uc u e
and changes in mechanical p ope ies. O he wo ks
[36–38] ocus on he impac o aging alone. Also, many
esea che s ocus hei s udies on he ypes o p ecipi-
a es ha a e o med du ing aging [9, 13, 16, 39, 40].
Howe e , only a ew s udies [7, 20, 41–46] wo k wi h
he ma aging s eel p epa ed by he di ec ene gy dep-
osi ion (DED) me hod.
The wo k [20] desc ibes changes in he s uc u e
and p ope ies o DED-p oduced C250 ma aging s eel
a e hea ea men ; he esul s we e also compa ed
o w ough coun e pa s. The esponse o DED p o-
cess pa ame e s and consequen hea ea men on
he cha ac e is ics o 18%Ni M350 alloy is e alua ed
in he wo ks [43, 45]. The e ec o in insic hea ea -
men (IHT) du ing he DED p ocess on MAR60HRC
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powde was s udied in [41]. The in es iga ion o he
mic os uc u e and mechanical p ope ies o he DED-
p in ed MAR-60HRC ma aging s eel, as well as a com-
posi e based on he 18Ni300 co e and MAR-60HRC
coa ing, is desc ibed in Re . [46]. Only wo o he
abo e-men ioned wo ks [42, 44] deal wi h he DED-
p oduced 18Ni300 ma aging s eel. De ailed in es iga-
ion o mic os uc u e and mechanical p ope ies o
18Ni300 ma aging s eel p oduced by DED using di -
e en ypes o p in ing s a egies: single- ace-single-
laye , mul i- ace-mul i-laye s, and single- ace-mul i-
laye s a e epo ed in [42]. Au ho s o he s udy [44]
in es iga ed DED-p oduced 18Ni300 ma aging s eel
in i s as-buil and aged s a es. Howe e , he e is a lack
o s udies whe e he s anda d mode o hea ea men
(solu ion annealing + aging) was applied o he ma ag-
ing s eel.
The e o e, in his wo k, he ul a-high-s eng h
1.2709 ma aging s eel p oduced by he DED ech-
nology is examined in e ms o mic os uc u e and
mechanical p ope ies changes depending on he wo-
s ep “solu ion annealing and aging” hea ea men .
The esul s a e compa ed o he equi alen s eel p o-
duced by he common L-PBF me hod.
Ma e ials and me hods
The 1.2709 ma aging s eel powde was used o p o-
duce samples wi h he DED echnology. The powde
was comme cially pu chased om P axai Su ace
Technologies. The pa icle size dis ibu ion (PSD,
Fig. 1) was measu ed by Lase Sca e ing Pa icle Size
Dis ibu ion Analyze LA-960 (HORIBA, L d.). The
chemical composi ion o he s eel powde was meas-
u ed using he induc i ely coupled plasma me hod by
he supplie and is p esen ed in Table 1.
Samples in he shape o cylinde s wi h a diame e
o 10 mm and heigh o 50 mm we e p oduced by
he DED me hod on InssTek MX-600 (COMTES FHT
a.s., Dob any, Czech Republic). Fo his pu pose, he
SDM800 op ical module was used. The p ocess pa am-
e e s a e lis ed in Table 2. A Spi al CF (con ou ill-
ing) s a egy was used o build he samples om he
ma aging s eel powde (Fig. 2). The building s a egy
consis s o p in ing in spi als, always s a ing in he
cen e o each laye . The “n” laye s we e p in ed clock-
wise while he “n + 1” laye s we e p in ed— he oppo-
si e way—coun e clockwise.
The a e age su ace po osi y o he samples p o-
duced by DED (namely, “as-buil ”) was measu ed
by h eshold me hod using ImageJ so wa e bo h in
he plane pa allel o he p in ing di ec ion (↑) and
pe pendicula o he p in ing di ec ion (┴). Hal
o he as-buil samples we e hea - ea ed by solu-
ion annealing (820 °C/1 h, ai cooling) and aging
(490 °C/6 h, ai cooling) acco ding o he wo ks o
o he s [7, 33, 40]. Fo his pu pose, a mu le u nace
(Ma inek MP05) was used. Hea - ea ed samples
we e named “as-buil  + SAT.” The ela i e den-
si y o he as-buil  + SAT hea - ea ed ma e ial was
measu ed only in he (↑) di ec ion. X- ay di ac ion
(XRD) analysis was used o de e mine he phase
composi ion o he ma aging s eel in di e en con-
di ions: powde , as-buil , and as-buil  + SAT. Fo
his pu pose, di ac ome e X´Pe PRO (PANaly i-
cal, Holland, Co Kα = 0.17929 nm) was used o scan
he ma e ial, he ange o 6–110° wi h a s ep size o
0.039°. The gene a o se ings o he di ac ome e
we e 40 mA and 35 kV.
The me allog aphic c oss-sec ions o he sam-
ples we e p epa ed by g inding on SiC pape s
(P240–P4000), polishing on wa e -based polyc ys-
alline diamond suspension wi h a pa icle size o
3 µm and inal polishing on colloidal silicon sus-
pension (Eposil F). E ching eagen Ni al 2 (98 ml
e hanol and 2 ml ni ic acid) was used o isual-
ize he mic os uc u e. A ligh op ical mic oscope
(LOM, Zeiss Axio Obse e D1m) and a scanning
Figu e1 Size dis ibu ion and cumula i e cu e o he 1.2709
ma aging s eel powde .
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elec on mic oscope (SEM, Tescan Mi a) we e used
o obse e he mic os uc u e o he 1.2709 ma aging
s eel. SEM (Tescan Ly a 3) equipped wi h an ene gy-
dispe si e spec oscopy de ec o (EDS, Ox o d
Ins umen s, 80 mm2) was used o de ec he chemi-
cal composi ion o he s uc u al componen s o he
s eel. The LOM mic og aphs o he me allog aphic
c oss-sec ions o he samples we e used o calcula e
he wid h and dep h o he mel pools. The SEM
mic og aphs we e used o calcula e he cell sizes
using ImageJ. De ailed mic os uc u e obse a ion
o he ma aging s eel in as-buil and as-buil  + SAT
condi ions was pe o med using ansmission elec-
on mic oscopy (TEM). Fo his pu pose, a hin oil
o each ma e ial was p epa ed using a ocused ion
beam (FIB) in SEM (FEI Quan a 3D FEG). Con en-
ional TEM, high- esolu ion ansmission elec on
mic oscopy (HRTEM), scanning ansmission elec-
on mic oscopy (STEM), and selec ed-a ea di ac-
ion (SAED) images we e cap u ed by Fei Tecnai
F20 ield emission gun TEM ope a ed a 200 kV
equipped wi h an EDS de ec o , which was used o
iden i y indi idual phases. Fo STEM, Z-con as
imaging was pe o med using a high-angle annula
da k ield (STEM–HAADF) de ec o . FFT calcula-
ions o HRTEM images using he digi al mic o-
g aph p og am we e used o iden i y indi idual
p ecipi a es. The indexa ion o di ac ion pa e ns
was pe o med using he C ysTBox so wa e [47].
To elimina e he po en ial in luence o he aniso-
opic beha io o he ma aging s eel, po osi y as
well as mic os uc u e and mic oha dness we e e al-
ua ed bo h in (↑) and (┴) di ec ions. Vicke s mic o-
ha dness (HV0.1) was measu ed on he FUTURE
TECH FM-700 machine wi h a 100 g load and 10 s
dwell ime. In each case, en measu emen s we e
made o achie e eliable s a is ics. Tensile es s we e
pe o med in he (↑) di ec ion o he samples on he
uni e sal es machine Ins on 5882. The es s ( h ee
o each ma e ial) we e pe o med a oom empe a-
u e wi h an ini ial s ain a e o 0.001 s−1. The sam-
ples o he ensile s ess–s ain es ing (Fig. 3) we e
p epa ed by machining om he DED-p in ed pa s.
Table 1 Chemical composi ion o he 1.2709 ma aging s eel (acco ding o he supplie )
Elemen Fe Ni Co Mo Ti Al Si Mn C
[w .%] Bal 18.1 9.0 5.0 1.1 0.1 0.1 0.02 0.09
Table 2 Pa ame e s o he DED p ocess
* DMT—a mode, when he p in e au oma ically adjus s he lase powe so ha he laye heigh is main ained while being con olled
using buil -in came as
Lase powe * (W) Scanning speed
(mm/min)
Powde eeding
speed (g/min)
Flow a e o
p o ec i e gas (l/
min)
Ha ch dis ance
(µm)
Laye heigh (µm) Lase beam
diame e (µm)
300–600 850 2.5 15 500 250 800
Figu e 2 Scheme o he DED p in ing s a egy o he sam-
ples wi h he dimensions: diame e = 10 mm, heigh = 50 mm.
(A ows show he p in ing di ec ion).
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Resul s and discussion
Powde cha ac e iza ion
Figu e 4 shows he mo phology and he mic os uc-
u e o he 1.2709 ma aging s eel powde . I can be
seen (Fig. 4) ha he powde is cha ac e ized by di -
e en sizes and shapes. Howe e , mos pa icles a e
sphe ical and su ounded by small sa elli e pa icles
on he su ace (Fig. 4a, yellow a ows). This shape
and p esence o sa elli es a e ypical cha ac e is ics
o powde s p oduced by he gas a omiza ion p ocess.
Howe e , sa elli e pa icles ha e been ound o be de -
imen al o addi i e manu ac u ing due o hei po en-
ial nega i e impac on he powde sp eading du ing
he p ocess. To p e en he o ma ion o sa elli e pa -
icles, i is ecommended o use he plasma a omiza-
ion me hod [48, 49]. Acco ding o he esul s o he
PSD measu emen (Fig. 1), he pa icle sizes anged
om 60 o 110 µm wi h a median size o 80.6 µm. This
size ange is signi ican ly highe han he size o pow-
de s ha a e used o he L-PBF me hod o addi i e
manu ac u ing o me al ma e ials [33, 50]. As shown
in Fig. 4b, he mic os uc u e o he 1.2709 ma ag-
ing s eel powde is cha ac e ized by dend i ic o cell
mo phology showing he p esence o a ew occasion-
ally ound po es (Fig. 4b, ed a ows). This ype o
mic os uc u e occu s due o a high cooling a e (up o
1 0 5 K s−1) du ing he gas a omiza ion p ocess [51, 52].
EDS analysis was used o de e mine he chemical
composi ion o he c oss-sec ion o he s eel powde .
One can see (Fig. 5, Table 3) ha he alloying elemen s
a e dis ibu ed inhomogeneously in he powde
mic os uc u e. I on (Fe) and cobal (Co) a e dis ib-
u ed mainly in he ma ix o he cell s uc u e. Con-
e sely, a eas be ween he cells (cell bounda ies) a e
deple ed o he abo e-men ioned elemen s bu a e
en iched wi h nickel (Ni), molybdenum (Mo), i anium
(Ti), and aluminum (Al) (Table 3, poin s 1–4). The
apid solidi ica ion p ocess du ing he gas a omiza ion
o powde d i es he seg ega ion o hea ie alloying
elemen s (such as Mo and Ni) o he cell bounda ies,
esul ing in solu e pa i ioning in he liquid phase and
cons ained di usion in he solid phase [53]. Al hough
Mo and Ti a e known as elemen s ha s abilize he e -
i e phase in s eels, in he case o he ma aging s eel,
hei en ichmen oge he wi h Ni enables he o ma-
ion o he aus eni e phase [7].
Mic os uc u e and phase composi ion
Figu e 6 (black spo s) shows he p esence o po es
in he mic os uc u e o he as-buil ma aging s eel,
which is ypical o addi i e manu ac u ing [6, 54].
Due o he p esence o po es o a ying sizes, i was
decided o classi y hem in o wo g oups: small po es
wi h a calcula ed diame e o 18.4 ± 3.2 µm and la ge
po es wi h a diame e o 66.1 ± 5.0 µm. Due o hei
egula ci cula shape, hey can be conside ed as gas
Figu e3 The dimensions (in mm) o samples p epa ed o en-
sile s ain–s ess es ing.
Figu e4 SEM mic og aphs
o mo phology (a) and c oss-
sec ion mic os uc u e (b)
o he 1.2709 ma aging s eel
powde . (Yellow a ows show
he sa elli e on he powde
su ace; ed a ows show
po es).
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Figu e5 SEM mic og aph and EDS chemical composi ion maps o he 1.2709 ma aging s eel powde .
Table 3 Chemical
composi ion [w .%] o
he 1.2709 ma aging s eel
powde acco ding o he EDS
analysis
[w .%]
Fe Ni Co Mo Ti Al
1 61.60 19.52 9.71 6.60 2.33 0.23
2 64.39 17.93 9.40 5.95 2.14 0.19
3 63.97 18.05 9.42 6.61 1.84 0.12
4 63.36 18.33 9.94 6.19 1.93 0.24
5 67.81 17.56 9.42 4.30 0.71 0.20
6 67.45 17.17 9.35 5.17 0.72 0.14
7 68.76 17.08 9.32 4.16 0.66 0.03
8 68.28 17.39 9.59 3.85 0.71 0.18
Figu e6 Rep esen a i e LOM images o he DED-p in ed 1.2709 ma aging s eel po osi y in he di ec ion pa allel o he p in ing di ec-
ion: (a) uppe pa , (b) middle pa ; and (c) lowe pa o he as-buil sample.
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po es [6, 54, 55]. This de ec occu s due o he en ap-
men o gas bubbles o med du ing ma e ial mel ing
and i s apid solidi ica ion. Also, he po osi y o eed-
s ock powde (as shown in Fig. 4b) can be ano he o i-
gin o he gas po e apping in he mol en ma e ial [54,
55]. The e o e, i is e y impo an o use de ec - ee
inpu ma e ial and ind he op imal p in ing pa am-
e e s. The ela i e densi y o he as-buil ma e ial was
calcula ed o be 99.89 ± 0.03 and 99.94 ± 0.02% in he (↑)
p in ing di ec ion and pe pendicula (┴) o he p in -
ing di ec ion, espec i ely. These esul s a e in good
ag eemen wi h he alues o he ela i e densi y o he
ma e ials p oduced by L-PBF echnology epo ed in
Re s. [7, 30, 56].
Figu e 7 shows he LOM mic og aphs o he 1.2709
ma aging s eel mic os uc u e in he as-buil s a e
ha is cha ac e ized by he p esence o mel pools.
The mel pool bounda ies copy he lase mo emen
acco ding o he scanning s a egy used du ing he
manu ac u ing p ocess. The measu ed dep h o mel
pools is equal o 590 ± 29 µm. This means ha lase
powe was s ong enough du ing DED o mel no
only he newly deposi ed powde laye wi h a heigh
o 250 µm (Table 2) bu also a leas one al eady solid-
i ied laye benea h i . The ma aging s eel p oduced
by L-PBF exhibi s smalle mel pools (60–130 µm,
depending on he lase se ings [7, 27]) compa ed o
ha p oduced by DED. The main eason o his end
is he di e ence be ween lase powe , which is lowe
in he case o L-PBF echnique [7, 8, 55], bu also he
powde pa icle size and he esul ing hickness o he
deposi ed powde [5].
Figu e 8 shows ha he mic os uc u e o he DED-
p in ed ma e ial is cha ac e ized by ine dend i ic o
Figu e7 LOM mic og aphs
o he as-buil 1.2709 ma ag-
ing s eel (a) pa allel o he
p in ing di ec ion and (b)
pe pendicula o he p in ing
di ec ion.
Figu e8 SEM mic og aph and EDS maps o he ma aging s eel in he as-buil s a e.
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J Ma e Sci (2025) 60:17933–17952
cellula mo phology inside he mel pools. The a e -
age cell size was calcula ed o be 2.4 ± 0.2 µm, which is
coa se han he app oxima ely 1 µm cell size o med
du ing he L-PBF me hod [9, 57]. Such a di e ence
can be explained by he cooling a e which is se e al
o de s o magni ude highe du ing he L-PBF p ocess
(up o 108 K s−1), hus p omo ing as e cooling and
hea dissipa ion wi hin he ma e ial olume compa ed
o he ma e ials p oduced by he DED echnique (cool-
ing a e up o 105 K s−1) [2, 6, 9, 55, 58]. The EDS maps
o he chemical composi ion and he weigh pe cen -
age o each elemen in he mic os uc u e o he DED
as-buil ma e ial a e shown in Fig. 8 and Table 4,
espec i ely. I can be seen ha he di e ence in he
alloying elemen s dis ibu ion in he cells ma ix and
cells bounda ies has he same cha ac e as i was in
he case o he powde (Fig. 5, Table 3). Signi ican
seg ega ion o Ni, Mo, Ti, and Al a he cell bounda-
ies occu s, while subs an ial deple ion o Fe and Co
in hese bounda ies is e iden . This phenomenon
was also obse ed in Re s. [16, 44, 59]. Mo eo e , he
au ho s in he Re s. [7, 20] ound ha no only Ni bu
also Mo and Ti p omo e he o ma ion o e ained aus-
eni e phase, which is loca ed in he cell bounda ies o
e en mel pools o addi i ely manu ac u ed ma aging
s eels (as abo e-men ioned in he case o he powde ).
Figu e 9a p esen s he b igh - ield TEM mic o-
g aph o he ma aging s eel mic os uc u e in i s as-
buil s a e. The SAED pa e ns o se e al g ains we e
examined. All SAED pa e ns demons a ed he p es-
ence o he same body-cen e ed cubic (BCC) s uc u e
o ma ensi e. In Fig. 9a in he uppe igh co ne ,
he e is a selec ed di ac ion pa e n o he BCC ma -
ensi e s uc u e in he zone axis (ZA) [111] inse ed
in he pic u e. Mo eo e , some sphe ical pa icles
we e obse ed in he TEM mic og aph (see Fig. 9b).
Acco ding o he esul s o he EDS analysis, he pa -
icle depic ed in Fig. 9b is en iched wi h Ti, Al, and
C. I can be said ha he pa icles a e incohe en p e-
cipi a es o med du ing he p in ing p ocess due o
he e y as p ecipi a ion kine ics o hese elemen s.
The p esence o p ecipi a es based on Ti and Al was
also obse ed in Re s. [9, 40]. Mo eo e , he p esence
o TiN was desc ibed in Re . [43], and TiO2 was ound
in he mic os uc u e o he L-PBF-p in ed ma aging
s eel in Re . [17]. I he e is ni ogen (N) p esen in he
ma aging s eel, Ti eac s wi h C and N o ming Ti(C,
N) ca boni ides [60], which we e no obse ed in ou
s udy. Figu e 9c shows disloca ion ne wo ks and a
high amoun o e y ine p ecipi a es. HRTEM mic o-
g aph shows se e al nanome e s long needle-shaped
cohe en phases (Fig. 9d). In he HRTEM mic og aph
(Fig. 9d), he e is a co esponding FFT image showing
di ac ion spo s o a ine p ecipi a e inse ed in he
uppe igh co ne . I was ound ha he in e plana
dis ances (d-spacing) o spo s 1 and 2 co espond o
he Ni3Mo0.5Ti0.5 phase. On he o he hand, d-spacing
o spo numbe 3 ma ched mainly wi h BCC ma -
ensi e, bu wi h he p ecipi a e p esence also. P ecipi-
a es wi h a size o abou 5–20 nm we e also obse ed
in he ma ix o he 1.2709 ma aging s eel p oduced by
he L-PBF echnique [9]. The o ma ion o p ecipi a es
du ing he addi i e manu ac u ing o s eels is caused
by he cyclic ehea ing o al eady deposi ed laye s du -
ing he deposi ion o new laye s. This p ocess is called
IHT and was also epo ed in Re s. [17, 41, 61].
Figu e 10 shows he ep esen a i e image o he
po e dis ibu ion in he as-buil  + SAT hea - ea ed
1.2709 ma aging s eel. I can be seen ha he dis ibu-
ion and size o po es in he ma aging s eel ha e no
Table 4 Chemical
composi ion [w .%] o
he 1.2709 ma aging s eel
powde acco ding o he EDS
analysis
[w .%]
Fe Ni Co Mo Ti Al
1 65.70 18.78 10.20 3.15 1.80 0.36
2 62.64 19.64 9.96 4.27 3.37 0.12
3 64.46 19.75 9.56 3.72 2.34 0.16
4 63.59 19.34 9.46 4.38 2.93 0.29
5 65.24 19.40 9.66 3.52 1.95 0.24
6 70.05 18.02 9.71 1.28 0.71 0.24
7 70.05 17.91 9.68 1.62 0.59 0.15
8 70.39 17.37 10.02 1.36 0.62 0.24
9 70.15 17.83 9.65 1.49 0.64 0.23
17940
J Ma e Sci (2025) 60:17933–17952
changed a e SAT hea ea men (Fig. 10), compa ed
o he as-buil ma e ial (Fig. 6). Mo eo e , he meas-
u ed ela i e densi y o he hea - ea ed ma e ial was
calcula ed o be 99.9 ± 0.02%, which is equal o he ela-
i e densi y o he as-buil sample, 99.89 ± 0.03%. I is
ecommended o employ ho isos a ic p essing (HIP)
as an e ec i e me hod o emo ing po es om he
ma e ial [62], bu also as a s ep o hea ea men ha
helps o homogenize he mic os uc u e o he ma ag-
ing s eel p oduced by AM [63].
Figu e 11 shows he LOM mic og aph o he as-buil
ma aging s eel a e SAT hea ea men . I appea s
ha he solu ion annealing + aging hea ea men has
caused changes in he ma e ial mic os uc u e. On
he o he hand, we can s ill obse e he bounda ies o
he mel pools he e (Fig. 11, yellow a ows). To ully
homogenize he mic os uc u e o AM-manu ac u ed
ma aging s eel, a homogeniza ion ea men a 960 °C
o 5 h was applied o he s eel be o e a solu ion
annealing s ep a 820 °C o 2 h [63–65].
Figu e9 B igh - ield TEM
mic og aphs o he as-buil
ma aging s eel (a), (b), (c),
and HRTEM mic og aph o a
e y ine p ecipi a e (d).
Figu e 10 Rep esen a i e LOM image o he as-buil + hea -
ea ed 1.2709 ma aging s eel po osi y.
17941
J Ma e Sci (2025) 60:17933–17952
he p esence o s uc u e de ec s, namely, po es. High
magni ica ion SEM mic og aphs (Fig. 17b, d) show
ha bo h as-buil and as-buil  + SAT ma aging s eel
ac u e su aces ha e a dimple-like mo phology cha -
ac e is ic o duc ile ma e ials [18, 38].
Conclusions
The de ailed cha ac e iza ion o he ul a-high-
s eng h 1.2709 ma aging s eel p oduced by addi i e
manu ac u ing using he DED echnique, ei he in i s
as-buil o as-buil  + hea - ea ed s a e, is desc ibed
and discussed in his wo k. The esul s a e also com-
pa ed o he same ma e ial p oduced by he L-PBF.
The ob ained esul s can be summa ized as ollows:
• The DED echnique allowed he p oduc ion o
almos ully dense 1.2709 ma aging s eel wi h an
a e age ela i e densi y o app oxima ely 99.9%.
• The DED-p in ed ma aging s eel showed cellula
o dend i ic mic os uc u e cha ac e is ics o addi-
i ely manu ac u ed s eels. An a e age cell size
o 2.4 ± 0.2 µm and an es ima ed mel pool dep h
o 590 ± 29 µm we e measu ed o be se e al imes
la ge compa ed o he s eel p oduced by he L-PBF
echnique.
• The i s s ep o he chosen hea ea men , namely,
solu ion annealing a 820 °C/1 h, was ound insu -
icien o dissol e he cha ac e is ic ine cellula
mic os uc u e o he DED-p in ed ma aging s eel
and ans o m i o a 100% ma ensi ic as i was
obse ed in he L-PBF-p in ed one.
• The in e me allic phase o Ni3Mo0.5Ti0.5 was
obse ed in he DED-p in ed s eel in bo h as-buil
and as-buil  + SAT hea - ea ed condi ions.
• The DED-p in ed s eel exhibi ed lowe alues o
TYS, UTS, and HV0.1 compa ed o he L-PBF-p o-
duced equi alen due o he coa se mic os uc u e.
Howe e , he SAT hea ea men caused ex ended
Figu e17 SEM mic og aphs
o he ac u e su aces o
he (a, b) as-buil and (c,
d) as-buil + SAT ma aging
s eel p oduced by DED. (Red
a ows show po es).
17948

J Ma e Sci (2025) 60:17933–17952
p ecipi a ion ha dening o he DED-p oduced
ma e ial wi h he Ni3Mo0.5Ti0.5 in e me allic phase
compa ed o he L-PBF-p oduced ma e ial, which
ha dened wi h he Ni3Mo phase.
Acknowledgemen s
This publica ion was suppo ed by he p o-
jec “Mechanical Enginee ing o Biological and
Bio-inspi ed Sys ems,” unded as P ojec No.
CZ.02.01.01/00/22_008/0004634 by P og amme
Johannes Amos Commenius, call Excellen Resea ch.
I was also suppo ed om he g an o Speci ic uni-
e si y esea ch—G an No. A1_FCHT_2024_007. We
acknowledge CzechNanoLab Resea ch In as uc u e
suppo ed by MEYS CR (LM2023051).
Au ho con ibu ions
Angelina S akošo á helped in me hodology, o mal
analysis, in es iga ion, da a cu a ion, and w i ing—
o iginal d a . Daniel K apil helped in in es iga ion,
da a cu a ion, and w i ing— e iew and edi ing. Filip
P ůša helped in in es iga ion and w i ing— e iew
and edi ing. Ma ek V onka helped in in es iga ion
and w i ing— e iew and edi ing. Pe S o a helped in
in es iga ion and w i ing— e iew and edi ing. Pa el
Lejček helped in o mal analysis and w i ing— e iew
and edi ing. Dalibo Voj ěch helped in concep ualiza-
ion, me hodology, o mal analysis, and w i ing—
e iew and edi ing.
Funding
Open access publishing suppo ed by he ins i u-
ions pa icipa ing in he CzechELib T ans o ma i e
Ag eemen .
Da a a ailabili y
The da a used in his manusc ip a e a ailable in he
Zenodo eposi o y a he ollowing link: h ps:// doi.
o g/ 10. 5281/ zenodo. 14056 749.
Decla a ions
Con lic o in e es  The au ho s decla e ha hey
ha e no known compe ing inancial in e es s o pe -
sonal ela ionships ha could ha e appea ed o in lu-
ence he wo k epo ed in his pape .
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