Essays – pee - e iewed
h ps://doi.o g/10.6092/issn.1825-1927/18870
i-lex – Ri is a di Scienze Giu idiche, Scienze Cogni i e ed In elligenza A i iciale. Vol. 16 n. 2 (2023)
ISSN 1825-1927
Mode a ion o illegal con en and social media sc aping.
P i acy and da a p o ec ion cons ain s in he p ocessing o publicly a ailable da a by law en o cemen
au ho i ies∗
Fla ia Giglio†
Abs ac .
Social media sc aping can be used in connec ion o a wide ange o law en o cemen asks, and o in es iga e a ious o ms
o c ime. A he same ime, hese p ac ices c ea e peculia undamen al igh s conce ns, linked o he igh s o p i acy, da a
p o ec ion and eedom o exp ession. To complica e he ma e , he ecen ly adop ed EU legal ins umen s on he mode a ion
o illegal con en c ea e new g ounds o po en ial social media moni o ing ac i i ies by law en o cemen au ho i ies, possibly
leading o an ehanced use o social media sc aping echniques. In ligh o hese legisla i e no el ies, he pape aims o p esen
po en ial undamen al igh s c i icali ies o he use o social media sc aping echnologies in his con ex , when aimed o collec
and p ocess publicly a ailable da a.
Keywo ds:
Social media sc aping, con en mode a ion, law en o cemen au ho i ies, c ime p e en ion
1 In oduc ion. Social media sc aping as a o m o Open Sou ce In elligence
Open Sou ce In elligence (OSINT) e e s o ac ions aimed o ga he and analyse da a ha is accessible o any indi idual o en i y,
wi hin he emi s o he igh agains c imes. Conside ing open sou ce da a as he aw ma e ial ha can be ex ac ed by publicly
a ailable su ces o collec e in o ma ion on a gi en subjec , OSINT ep esen s he s age whe e such in o ma ion is disc imina ed
and dis illed in o de o espond o a ques ion ha guides he sc eening o such sou ces.1The bene i s o OSINT o he ac i i ies
o law en o cemen au ho i ies (LEAs) in he c iminal jus ice domain has been ecognised by he Eu opean Union (EU), while also
spa king discussions abou po en ial undamen al igh s- ela ed conce ns on such p ac ices. In his ega d, i was obse ed ha
he use o OSINT should be pu in place wi h sufficien gua an ees o p o ec publicly a ailable pe sonal da a, such as including
se ings ha allow he end-use s o adap he possibili y o access pe sonal da a acco ding o he ac s and ci cums ances o he
use.2The p ac ice o moni o ing social media con en in o de o ex ac publicly a ailable da a om social ne wo ks is known
as Social Media In elligence (SOCMINT), a i alls unde he b oade umb ella o OSINT p ac ices.
Po en ial p i acy- ela ed c i icali ies o he LEAs’ ac i i ies aimed o epu pose publicly accessible da a om he In e ne a e
connec ed o he use o web c awling and web sc aping echnologies. Web c awle s a e ools used o na iga e he web in o de
o ga he sou ces and index hem, acco ding o ce ain c i e ia. Web sc aping, ins ead, e e s o he ac o ex ac ing da a om
p e iously iden i ied online sou ces.3The e o e, da a sc aping allows o e ie e uns uc u ed da a om he In e ne . This da a
∗This publica ion was p epa ed in he con ex o he FERMI p ojec , unded by he Eu opean Union’s Ho izon Eu ope esea ch and inno a ion p og amme
unde g an ag eemen No 101073980.
†KU Leu en, Cen e o IT & IP Law (CiTiP); la[email p o ec ed]
1. S eele, Robe Da id. “Open sou ce in elligence.” Handbook o in elligence s udies 42.5 (2007): 129-147.
2. She e, Anjuli. “Reading he In es iga o s hei Righ s: A e iew o li e a u e on he Gene al Da a P o ec ion Regula ion and open-sou ce in elligence
ga he ing and analysis.” The New Collec ion 3, Ox o d, 2020, 3-21.
3. Vanden B oucke, Seppe, Baesens, Ba , “F om web sc aping o web c awling.” P ac ical Web Sc aping o Da a Science. Bes p ac ices and examples
wi h Py hon, Ap ess, Be keley, 2018, 155-161.
Copy igh © 2023 Fla ia Giglio
This wo k is licensed unde he C ea i e Commons BY License.
h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/
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Mode a ion o illegal con en and social media sc aping. i-lex. Vol. 16 n. 2 (2023)
can, in u n, be s o ed and analysed in a cen al da abase. In he con ex o SOCMINT, his p ocess can be used o emo ion and
sen imen analysis pu poses, o example in o de o p edic he ou come o an elec ion based on wha use s sha e online. Fo his
ype o use, e ie ing pos s o commen s ha men ion a speci ic candida e’s name may no be necessa y, as sen imen analysis
algo i hms can in e ce ain in o ma ion abou indi iduals’ opinions e en when he analysed con en is no explici .4
In he con ex o LEAs’ ac i i ies, he esul s o an ho izon scanning exe cise conduc ed in 2022 on he use o OSINT by in es-
iga o s o eigh di e en coun ies leads o he conclusion ha LEAs make use o he la e ins umen o da a sc aping, as hey
analyse da a a ailable online. This is especially ue in he con ex o social media analysis, conside ed as one o he mos im-
po an capabili ies a ailable o he in es iga o s.5The s udy also highligh ed he abili y o such ins umen s o e u n a massi e
amoun o da a, wi h li le capaci y o limi he olume o he e ie ed in o ma ion. This cha ac e is ic ises doub s abou how o
assess he p opo ionali y o an in es iga ion wi h ega d o he access o da a.6
When i comes o de ec ing a ce ain ype o con en online, social media sc aping echniques ha e ie e da a om a ce ain
sou ce usually wo k along wi h na u al language p ocessing (NLP) lib a ies, as a means o o ganise he ga he ed da a in a s uc-
u ed way. NLP algo i hms allow o classi y sc aped con en agains a da abase o p e iously p o ided examples, no mally se s
o wo ds ha illegal o ha m ul con en is likely o con ain. As i will be u he explo ed in he nex sec ions o his pape ,
such algo i hms su e some undamen al limi a ions om a echnological poin o iew. These limi a ion add up o hose ha
cha ac e ised da a sc aping echniques in gene al.
The p esen pape aims o analyse he p i acy and da a p o ec ion cons ains ha should in in place in social media sc aping
p ac ices pu in place by LEAs, wi h a speci ic ocus on social media moni o ing and con en mode a ion ac i i ies. I i s
highligh s why social media con en can be a sou ce o publicly a ailable da a whose da a p o ec ion gua an ees should be kep in
high conside a ion, due o he connec ion be ween he igh s o p i acy and da a p o ec ion and he enjoymen o online eedom
o exp ession. In u n, i analyses he exis ing EU con en mode a ion landscape, wi h special ocus on some o he exis ing
p o isions ha exempli y he enhanced p esence o LEAs, and public ac o s in gene al, in he con ex o con en mode a ion.
A e wa ds, i highligh s he undamen al igh s conce ns a ising om he use o NLP algo i hms o ca y ou con en mode a ion
and ca ego ise publicly a ailable da a sc aped om social media. Finally, i explo es he legal s a us o publicly a ailable da a as
de ined in he EU legal amewo k, in he Eu opean Cou o Human Righ s (EC HR) and in he EU Cou o Jus ice (CJEU) case
law. Using he p inciples ex ac ed by his no ma i e amewo k, po en ial social media sc aping p ac ices pe o med by LEAs
a e assessed in ligh o he igh s o p i acy and da a p o ec ion.
The nex sec ion o he pape in es iga es he p i acy and da a p o ec ion conce ns a ising om he p ocessing o publicly a ailable
da a ex ac ed by social media con en . Due o he pi o al ole played by social media in os e ing eedom o exp ession, he
p o ec ion o his ca ego y o publicly a ailable da a om unduly in e e ences o public au ho i ies is pa icula ly challenging as
well as impo an in ensu ing he enjoymen o undamen al igh s.
2 The peculia s a us o social media as a sou ce o publicly a ailable da a
LEAs’ p ac ices in ol ing social media sc aping a e a ype o OSINT p esen ing i s own peculia i ies in ela ion o undamen al
igh s. Social media sou ces a e by na u e cha ac e ised by b oad isibili y and accessibili y. When i comes o moni o ing
ac i i ies o LEAs, his cha ac e is ic c ea es an asymme y be ween he isibili y o online social li e and police ac i i ies. This
asymme y can c ea e conce ns, especially wi h he iew o ex eme scena ios when he LEAs’ moni o ing ac i i ies become o
o e eaching ha e e y subjec is ea ed as a po en ial suspec , wi h a consequen “c iminalisa ion o online spaces”.7Mo eo e ,
in adi ional social media pla o ms, exp essions made h ough pos s o commen s can be easily associa ed wi h hei au ho s.
An example is Facebook, whose communi y guidelines equi ing o use he use s’ legal name was subjec o deba e, due o
4. Khde , Moaiad Ahmad, “Web sc aping o Web c awling. S a e o A , Techniques, App oaches and Applica ion.” In e na ional Jou nal o Ad ances in
So Compu ing & I s Applica ions 13.3 (2021), 144-168.
5. Baye l, Pe a Saskia, e al., “Fu u e Challenges and Requi emen s o Open Sou ce In elligence in Law En o cemen In es iga ions: Resul s om Ho izon
Scanning Exe cise.” Eu opean Law En o cemen Resea ch Bulle in 21 (2022), 21-38.
6. Idem.
7. T o ie , Daniel, “Open sou ce in elligence, social media and law en o cemen : Visions, cons ain s and c i iques.” Eu opean Jou nal o Cul u al S ud-
ies,18.4-5 (2015), 530–547.
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Mode a ion o illegal con en and social media sc aping. i-lex. Vol. 16 n. 2 (2023)
he alleged dis ega d o si ua ions whe e anonymi y can bene i o he exp ession o mino i ies and human igh s ac i is s.8
The e o e, compa ed o adi ional public spaces ha could be moni o ed by LEAs, he expec a ion o anonymi y o indi iduals
exp essing hemsel es on social ne wo ks is la gely diminished. These p i acy- ela ed p eoccupa ions can ha e a allou on
ano he undamen al igh : eedom o exp ession.
In he e a o social media, social ne wo ks amoun o a new public o um o g ea impo ance o exchange o ideas and in o ma ion,
ul ima ely in luencing he public deba e.9Gi en his s a us o social ne wo ks as acili a o s o eely exp ess opinions, i has
become c ucial o conside he implica ions on eedom o exp ession inhe en o any ac i i y aimed o moni o ing o analysing
wha is sha ed online.10 This is especially in ligh o he ac ha social media, and he In e ne as a whole, ha e become a
powe ul ins umen o poli ical ac i ism and social mo emen s, acili a ing he o ganisa ion o demons a ions and esis ance
ac s e e ywhe e in he wo ld, including in less democ a ic coun ies. In his con ex , he c ea ion o con en on social media
pla o ms, and he in e ac ions de i ing om i , gi e a powe ul chance o enhance collabo a ion and communica ion.11
The disp opo iona e use o social media sc aping echnologies can esul in a s a e o mass su eillance capable o ha ing a
chilling e ec on eedom o exp ession. This isk is enhanced when conside ing ha , in line wi h he OSINT logic, in o ma ion
abou he con en pos ed online can be combined wi h o he da a eely a ailable in mul iple In e ne sou ces, e u ning a e y
comp ehensi e pic u e o indi iduals o LEAs. The dange s o agg ega ing da a om mul iple sou ces was unde lined by he UK
In o ma ion Commissione ’ Office and o he da a p o ec ion au ho i ies in a join s a emen on da a sc aping and da a p o ec ion,
published in 2023. The s a emen poin ed ou ha his aspec o da a sc aping could lead o indi iduals losing powe o e hei
pe sonal da a, as in o ma ion ha hey decide o dele e could s ill be p ocessed and ci cula ed by en i ies which sc aped i . I
also acknowledged he isk o “moni o ing, p o iling and su eilling indi iduals” among hose o be conside ed when using da a
sc aping echniques.12
Con e sely, he expansion o pla o ms whe e o exp ess opinions has p o oundly changed he landscape o adi ional media,
a o ding an unp eceden ed eedom o indi iduals o sha e any ype o con en online. This enhanced eedom came wi h he
eme gence o dis o ions in he use o social media, such as he sha ing o malicious con en o he pe pe a ion o ha m ul ac ions
h ough online pla o ms. The misuse o social media can ha e se e e e ec s o he de imen o pe sons o socie y. In such cases,
he in e en ion o LEAs and he enac men o c iminal laws p o ec ing he public alues a s ake is called o .13
The sea ch o a ai balance be ween he need o LEAs o moni o social media and he p o ec ion o undamen al igh s is
he e o e pa icula ly challenging.
To complica e his scena io, con en mode a ion o online illegal con en eme ged as a ela i ely new a ea whe e LEAs can play
a ole, adding up o he g ounds a leas o social media c awling, and po en ially o social media sc aping. The nex sec ion o
his pape analyses he exis ing EU amewo k on con en mode a ion, and highligh s how his amewo k can impac on he ole
o LEAs in con en mode a ion p ac ices.
3 The EU legisla i e landscape on con en mode a ion and he ole o LEAs
The g owing a en ion o he policy deba e on he dissemina ion o o ms o illegal o ha m ul con en is demons a ed by he
ecen legisla i e ini ia i es a he EU le el o es ablish du ies o ca e o digi al pla o ms wi h ega d o ackling said con en . . The
in ol emen o LEAs in ackling ce ain ypes o con en can de i e om he ac ha hei dissemina ion is a c iminal o ense pe
8. Sande , Ba ie, “F eedom o exp ession in he age o online pla o ms: he p omise and pi alls o human igh s-based app oach o con en mode a ion.”
Fo dham In e na ional Law Jou nal, 43.4 (2020), 939-1006.
9. Vladimi Kha i ono . Russia, App no 10795/14 (EC HR 23 June 2020), pa . 33. Melike . Tu key, App no 35786/19 (15 June 2021), pa . 44. Magya
Helsinki Bizo ság . Hunga y [GC] App no 18030/11 (EC HR 8 No embe 2016), pa . 168.
10. Sco , Je amie D. “Social media and go e nmen su eillance: The case o be e p i acy p o ec ions o ou newes public space.” Jou nal o Business
and Technology Law, 12.2 (2017), 151-164.
11. Sando al-Almazan, Rod igo, Gil-Ga cia, G. Ramon, “Towa ds cybe ac i ism 2.0? Unde s anding he use o social media and o he in o ma ion echnologies
o poli ical ac i ism and social mo emen s.” Go e nmen In o ma ion Qua e ly, 31.3 (2014), 365-378.
12. UK In o ma ion Commissione ’s Office and o he s, “Join s a emen on da a sc aping and he p o ec ion o p i acy”, Augus 2023. h ps://ico.o g.uk/media/
abou - he-ico/documen s/4026232/join -s a emen -da a-sc aping-202308.pd
13. Coe, Pe e . “The social media pa adox: an in e sec ion wi h eedom o exp ession and he c iminal law.” In o ma ion & Communica ions Technology
Law 24.1 (2015), 16-40.
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Mode a ion o illegal con en and social media sc aping. i-lex. Vol. 16 n. 2 (2023)
se, o i is made o he wise illegal. This is he case o e o is con en , as de ined in he Te o is -Con en Regula ion (TERREG)14
h ough a e e ence o he Coun e -Te o ism Di ec i e15, o o he dissemina ion o child sexual abuse ma e ial online,16 o which
he EU is cu en ly ac ing in o de o ensh ine a speci ic se o ules in a egula ion.17 Mo eo e , he conce ns abou he e ec s o
disin o ma ion ha e led he EU Membe S a es o ake legisla i e ini ia i es o ackle he phenomenon, which some imes esul ed
in he c iminalisa ion o ce ain o ms o alse in o ma ion wi h a po en ial o cause socie al ha ms.18 Addi ionally, LEAs can be
appoin ed wi h asks ela ed o he moni o ing o con en sha ed online when non-legisla i e ini ia i es p o ide o such measu es
in o de o sa egua d public o de , o o he ele an in e es s such as he in eg i y o elec ion p ocesses, ha can be unde mined
by he sp ead o ha m ul con en i sel .19 The p o isions ensh ined in he TERREG and DSA ha a e he eby analysed p o ide
an example o how he EU legisla o ied o add ess his necessi y.
The TERREG, adop ed in 2021, ep esen ed an impo an s ep in he di ec ion o egula ing he sp ead o a ype o con en ha
has been made uni o mly illegal ac oss he EU.20 Mo e ecen ly, he Digi al Se ices Ac (DSA) was adop ed wi h he aim o
ha monise ules imposed on digi al se ices p o ide s conce ning he mode a ion o illegal con en .21 While he TERREG only
ocused on e o is con en , de ining i by e e ence o he de ini ions o e o is o enses as delinea ed in he Coun e -Te o ism
Di ec i e22, he DSA de ined “illegal con en ” as any con en which has been made illegal ei he by EU law o by domes ic
laws o Membe S a es.23 In o he wo ds, he p o isions ensh ined in he legal ins umen s can apply di e en ly ac oss he EU,
depending on which ype o con en has been made illegal in he na ional ju isdic ions. Howe e , i is no ewo hy ha he DSA
shows a willingness o he EU legisla o o ackle he wo ying phenomenon o online disin o ma ion. Va ious eci als o he
DSA highligh ha he ins umen was concei ed o add ess socie al isks om dissemina ion campaigns.24 Mo eo e , e y
la ge online pla o ms and e y la ge sea ch engines25 a e obliged o pe o m a isk assessmen o a numbe o sys emic isks
o hei pla o ms26, in o de o ake adequa e mi iga ing measu es.27 One o he sys emic isks igge ing hese obliga ions
conce ns “any ac ual o o eseeable nega i e e ec s on ci ic discou se and elec o al p ocesses, and public secu i y”.28 While his
o mula ion is e y b oad, he de ini ion o his isk esona es wi h he con en o o me EU policy documen s add essing he
ma e o disin o ma ion. In pa icula , he communica ion o he Eu opean Commission adop ed in 2018 o de ine a common
EU app oach o disin o ma ion iden i ies he hampe ing o democ a ic poli ical and policy-making p ocesses as one o he h ea s
posed by his phenomenon.29
The nex wo subsec ions p o ide an in-dep h analysis o how he TERREG and he DSA encou age LEAs o moni o social media
spaces in o de o ackle illegal con en , bu also wi h a b oade iew o p e en and con ol c imes.
14. Regula ion (EU) 2021/784 o he Eu opean Pa liamen and o he Council o 29 Ap il 2021 on add essing he dissemina ion o e o is con en online,
[2021] OJ C 110 (TERREG).
15. Di ec i e (EU) 2017/541 o he Eu opean Pa liamen and o he Council o 15 Ma ch 2017 on comba ing e o ism and eplacing Council F amewo k
Decision 2002/475/JHA and amending Council Decision 2005/671/JHA, [2017] OJ C 177 (Coun e -Te o ism Di ec i e).
16. Di ec i e 2011/93/EU o he Eu opean Pa liamen and o he Council o 13 Decembe 2011 on comba ing he sexual abuse and sexual exploi a ion o child en
and child po nog aphy, and eplacing Council F amewo k Decision 2004/68/JHA, [2011] L 194/1.
17. P oposal o a Regula ion o he Eu opean Pa liamen and o he Council laying down ules o p e en and comba child sexual abuse, [2022] COM(22)209.
18. Ó Fa haigh, Ronan, Na ali Helbe ge , Naomi Appelman. “The pe ils o legally de ining disin o ma ion.” In e ne policy e iew 10.4 (2021), 2022-40.
19. an Hoboken, Jo is, Ronan Ó. Fa haigh. “Regula ing Disin o ma ion in Eu ope: Implica ions o Speech and P i acy.” UC I ine Jou nal o In e na ional,
T ansna ional and Compa a i e Law 6 (2021), 9-36.
20. TERREG (n. 13).
21. Regula ion (EU) 2022/2065 o he Eu opean Pa liamen and o he Council o 19 Oc obe 2022 on a Single Ma ke Fo Digi al Se ices and amending
Di ec i e 2000/31/EC (Digi al Se ices Ac ) [2022] OJ L 277 (DSA).
22. TERREG (n. 13), a . 2(7).
23. DSA (n. 18), a . 3(h).
24. DSA (n. 18), eci als 2-9-69-83-84-88-95-104-106-108.
25. DSA (n. 18), a . 33.
26. DSA (n. 18), a . 34.
27. DSA (n. 18), a . 35.
28. DSA (n. 18), a . 34.1(c).
29. Communica ion om he Commission o he Eu opean Pa liamen , he Council, he Eu opean Economic and Social Commi ee and he Commi ee o he
Regions, Tackling online disin o ma ion: a Eu opean App oach [2018] COM/2018/236.
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3.1 The ole o LEAs in iden i ying and emo ing illegal con en
Bo h he TERREG and he DSA a e examples o legal ins umen s ha ins i u ionalise he possibili y o compe en au ho i ies
o issue emo al o de s in hei speci ic scope.30 While he compe en au ho i ies empowe ed by he Membe S a es o issue such
o de s do no ha e o be necessa ily LEAs, a leas he p ocess o na ional designa ion pu suan o he TERREG shows how he
Membe S a es mos ly selec ed police bodies o ca y ou his unc ion.31
Mo eo e , he DSA es ablished ules on he so-called “ us ed lagge s”. These en i ies a e designa ed based on hei pa icula
expe ise in he a ea o illegal con en , hei independency om online pla o ms’ p o ide s, and hei diligence, accu acy and
objec i i y in ca ying ou hei asks.32 Such en i ies ha e, like any o he use o online pla o ms, he possibili y o lag an
allegedly illegal con en o he p o ide s o online pla o ms o ha e i emo ed, pu suan o he e ms and condi ions o he
se ice o o a EU o domes ic law making ha con en illegal.33 Howe e , con a y o o he indi iduals en i led o eso o
his no ice and ac ion mechanism, he us ed lagge s’ no ices mus be gi en p io i y in he p ocessing by online pla o ms. As
con i med by he eci als o he DSA, he s a us o us ed lagge s can be ecognised, among o he s en i ies, also o na ional LEAs
o Eu opol.34
The concep o “ us ed lagge ” is no new in he a ea o con en mode a ion, as i esembles he unc ioning o he al eady
exis ing In e ne Re e al Uni s (IRUs) in he a ea o e o is con en . The EU In e ne Re e al Uni was es ablished wi hin
he Eu opean Coun e -Te o ism Cen e o he EU Agency o Law En o cemen Coope a ion (Eu opol) in 2015 wi h he aim o
suppo EU Membe S a es in hei coun e - e o ism e o s by ackling e o is con en .35 I s es ablishmen was unc ional o
coo dina e he ac i i ies o he na ional IRUs ac oss he EU. The mechanism o e e als, which implies a no ice made by LEAs
based on he e ms and condi ions o online pla o ms, is e e ed o in he eci als o he TERREG, as a means al e na i e o
emo al o de s ha can be used o ackle e o is con en online.36 This ool was c i icised by he Fundamen al Righ s Agency
(FRA) in i s commen s o an ea ly p oposal o he TERREG, which aimed o ins i u ionalise i h ough a dedica ed p o ision. The
FRA exp essed i s conce ns wi h ega d o he ac ha he p oposal did no clea ly delinea e he ci cums ances whe e he e e al
mechanism was o be p e e ed o a emo al o de , wi h a isk o he o me being used because o less s ingen equi emen s –
and diminished sa egua ds – a he na ional le el.37 While he p o ision was no included in he inal ex o he TERREG, he
mechanism is s ill in place a bo h he EU and na ional le el. Mo eo e , he compe ences o he EU IRU we e ecen ly enla ged
beyond he scope o ackling e o is con en , o o he ypes o dange ous in o ma ion. In gene al, he EU IRU has shown a ce ain
deg ee o lexibili y in adap ing i s ange o ac ions o di e en ca ego ies o con en depending on na ional LEAs’ needs.38
The IRUs ha e been iden i ied as one o he a eas whe e online pla o ms and public au ho i ies’ coope a ion esul s in a co-
p oduc ion o secu i y.39 In ac , while LEAs a e en i led o use e e als, he inal assessmen abou a lagged con en is le o
he disc e ion o online pla o ms, which decide based on hei e ms and condi ions. This aspec di e en ia es he IRUs om he
us ed lagge s, as he la e a e en i led, pu suan o he DSA, o lag con en ha is ei he agains he e ms and condi ions o
online pla o ms o agains EU o Membe S a es’ law.40 Howe e , he cha ac e isa ion o us ed lagge s signi ican ly esembles
ha o he IRUs, and enewed he ques ion o oppo uni y o allowing LEAs o ac on his g ound, ins ead o making use o he
30. TERREG (n. 13), a . 3, DSA (n 18), a . 9.
31. Eu opean Commission, Lis o na ional compe en au ho i y (au ho i ies) and con ac poin s, h ps://home-a ai s.ec.eu opa.eu/policies/in e nal-
secu i y/coun e - e o ism-and- adicalisa ion/p e en ion- adicalisa ion/ e o is -con en -online/lis -na ional-compe en -au ho i y-au ho i ies-and-
con ac -poin s_en
32. DSA (n. 18), a . 22.
33. DSA (n. 18), a . 16.
34. DSA (n. 18), eci al 61.
35. Council o he Eu opean Union, “Jus ice and Home A ai s Council, 12-13 Ma ch 2015”, 2015, h ps://www.consilium.eu opa.eu/en/mee ings/jha/2015/03/
12-13/.
36. TERREG (n. 13), eci al 40.
37. Opinion o he Eu opean Union Agency o Fundamen al Righ s, P oposal o a Regula ion on p e en ing he dissemina ion o e o is con en online
and i s undamen al igh s implica ions, 2019.
38. Kilpa ick, Jane, Jones, Ch is, “Empowe ing he police, emo ing p o ec ions: he new Eu opol Regula ion”, S a ewa ch, 2022. h ps://www.s a ewa ch.
o g/media/3615/empowe ing- he-police- emo ing-p o ec ions-new-eu opol- egula ion.pd
39. Bellano a, Rocco, De Goede, Ma ieke, “Co‐P oducing Secu i y: Pla o m Con en Mode a ion and Eu opean Secu i y In eg a ion.” JCMS: jou nal o
common ma ke s udies 60.5 (2022), 1316-1334.
40. DSA (n. 18), a . 22.
h ps://doi.o g/10.6092/issn.1825-1927/18870 21
Mode a ion o illegal con en and social media sc aping. i-lex. Vol. 16 n. 2 (2023)
emo al o de mechanisms. Due o anspa ency and ule o law conce ns, he possibili y ensh ined in he DSA o designa e
LEAs and Eu opol as us ed lagge s has been c i icised.41
Due o he impo ance o he dissemina ion o con en on he In e ne o exe cise eedom o exp ession, ini ia i es ying o ackle
illegal con en a e subjec o a close sc u iny in he academic communi y. As no ed in a epo o 2023 abou legisla i e ini ia i es
aken ac oss he wo ld o comba disin o ma ion, such ini ia i es can ha e a chilling e ec on eedom o exp ession, due o he
agueness o he de ini ions o illegal con en and he some imes disp opo iona e sanc ions associa ed wi h i s sp ead.42 Simila
conce ns we e exp essed in occasion o he adop ion o he TERREG, due o he di e gence o in e p e a ions ac oss he EU
abou wha amoun s o e o is con en .43 The TERREG i sel demons a es he awa eness o he EU legisla o abou he isk
o con en mode a ion p ac ices o become an ins umen o silence mino i ies o dissen ing opinions in he poli ical ealm. In
ac , one o i s p o isions speci ies ha ma e ial which ep esen s an exp ession o polemic o con o e sial iews in he cou se
o public deba e, shall no be conside ed o be e o is con en .44 In his ega d, i has also been no ed how impo an i is o
dis inguish be ween e o is con en and con en aising awa eness abou e o ism, which should no be banned. In gene al, a
common difficul y in con en mode a ion ac i i ies is ha ce ain ypes o con en , such as e o is and ex emis con en , a e
mo e complica ed o uni o mly de ine compa ed o o he , such as child sexual abuse ma e ial.45
In eason o i s ecen adop ion, and he b oad scope o he DSA wi h ega d o wha cons i u es illegal con en , i s impac on
social media moni o ing p ac ices by LEAs in he quali y o us ed lagge s emains o be seen. Howe e , he unc ioning o IRUs
al eady p o ides an example o how LEAs a e in ol ed in pa olling social media. Gi en he amoun o in o ma ion a ailable
online, IRUs eso o OSINT capabili ies o de ec illegal con en online.46 Besides he huge numbe o pieces o con en and
online pla o ms analysed47, he 2021 Consolida ed Annual Repo o Eu opol s a es ha , once iden i ied, he con en is manually
assessed by a Uni ’s expe o e i y whe he i has w ong ully been ca ego ised as e o is .48 This ac i i y adds up o ha o he
na ional IRUs, which p o ide Eu opol wi h he open sou ce in o ma ion hey collec ed.49 In u n, all he in o ma ion ob ained
hanks o his ac i i y is hen included in a cen alised da abase. In ac , one o he main in e es s o he EU IRU is no only
o de ec illegal con en , bu also o e ie e i , as i alls wi hin he compe ence o Eu opol, p o iding a legal basis o such
e en ion.50
Mo eo e , while he EU IRU was o iginally c ea e o ackle e o is con en , i s each was b oadened in ela ion o i s coope -
a ion wi h na ional IRUs. In 2021, i s asks included ackling con en ela ed o igh -wing iolen ex emism, online e o is
p opaganda and iolen jihadis ideology, mig an smuggling du ing he “Bela us C isis”. Mo eo e , i also ac ed in he con ex
o an In e ne A chi e pla o m aimed o s eng hen public-p i a e coope a ion in con en mode a ion.51 The analysis o he EU
IRU’s wo k shows how he connec ion be ween social media ac i i ies and o line c imes can jus i y a policy-making app oach
enla ging he g ounds o con en moni o ing. The po en ial o LEAs’ moni o ing ac i i ies o go beyond he me e de ec ing o
illegal con en is discussed in he nex subsec ion.
41. Komai is, Kons an inos, Rod iguez, Ka i za, Schmon Ch is oph, “En o cemen O e each Could Tu n Ou To Be A Real P oblem in he EU’s Digi al
Se ices Ac ”, Elec onic F on ie s Founda ion, 2022. h ps://www.e .o g/deeplinks/2022/02/en o cemen -o e each-could- u n-ou -be- eal-p oblem-
eus-digi al-se ices-ac
42. Lim, Gab ielle, B adshaw, Saman ha, “Chilling Legisla ion: T acking he Impac o ”Fake News” Laws on P ess F eedom In e na ionally.” Cen e o
In e na ional Media Assis ance, 2023. h ps://www.cima.ned.o g/wp-con en /uploads/2023/06/CIMA-Chilling-Legisla ion_web_150ppi.pd
43. Be hélémy, Chloé, “EU Te o is Con en Online Regula ion Could Cu ail F eedom o Exp ession ac oss Eu ope.” EDRi, 2021. h ps://ed i.o g/ou -
wo k/eu- e o is -con en -online- egula ion-could-cu ail- eedom-o -exp ession-ac oss-eu ope/
44. TERREG (n. 13), a . 1.3.
45. Chang, B ian. “F om In e ne Re e al Uni s o In e na ional Ag eemen s; Censo ship o he In e ne by he UK and EU.” Columbia Human Righ s Law
Re iew 49 (2017), 114-212.
46. Chang (n. 43), p. 135.
47. Eu opol Consolida ed Annual Ac i i y Repo , 2021. h ps://www.eu opol.eu opa.eu/cms/si es/de aul / iles/documen s/Consolida ed%20Annual%
20Ac i i y%20Repo %202021.PDF.
48. Eu opol EU In e ne Re e al Uni T anspa ency Repo , 2021. h ps://www.eu opol.eu opa.eu/cms/si es/de aul / iles/documen s/EU_IRU_T anspa ency_
Repo _2021.pd -.
49. Chang (n. 43), p. 135.
50. Bellano a, De Goede (n. 37).
51. Kilpa ick, Jane, Jones, Ch is (n. 39).
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3.2 The ole o LEAs beyond he iden i ica ion and emo al o illegal con en
While no all o he con en ha is made illegal unde EU law leads o i s dissemina ion being a c iminal o ense unde EU o
Membe S a es’ law, he connec ion be ween he sp ead o illegal con en online and he isk o commission o ce ain o ms o
c imes was highligh ed in he EU policy deba e on con en mode a ion. P io o he adop ion o he TERREG and he DSA, he
Commission ecognised, in a mo e gene al communica ion on he mode a ion o illegal con en , ha LEAs ha e a du y o p osecu e
c imes, and online pla o ms a e esponsible o p e en ing ha hei se ices a e misused in o de o commi hem.52 The e o e,
he in e sec ion be ween he dissemina ion o ce ain con en and he a ea o c iminal jus ice can esul in a po en ial o e lapping
be ween LEAs’ asks and he moni o ing o social media beyond he ackling o illegal con en . In pa icula , LEAs can be
in ol ed in moni o ing con en published on social ne wo ks as a esponse o he s ic connec ion be ween he dissemina ion o
said con en and he commission o c iminal o enses in he o line wo ld. In o he wo ds, social media moni o ing ac i i ies can
se e he pu pose o ac in a c ime p e en ion pe spec i e, by analysing social media con en o de ec and an icipa e po en ial
c iminal o ense.
The connec ion be ween he dissemina ion o ce ain con en online and he possibili y o online ac i i ies esul ing in a b oad
ange o h ea s is con i med by he DSA In i s eci als, he egula ion speci ies ha he concep o illegal con en should be
de ined in ela ion o exis ing ules in he o line en i onmen . Thus, i should encompass any in o ma ion ha no only is made
illegal by a speci ic law, bu is also connec ed o illegal ac i i ies in gene al. As an example o online con en ha can signal
c iminal o enses, he DSA men ions he non-consensual sha ing o p i a e images, online s aking, he sale o non-complian o
coun e ei p oduc s, copy igh s in ingemen s.53
The moni o ing o social media p o ides LEAs wi h an a o dable sou ce o in o ma ion o obse e indi idual beha iou s and so-
cial ela ions. Due o he sociological p emise ha he obse a ion o indi iduals in social en i onmen s can help gain knowledge
abou u u e c imes, moni o ing ac i i ies de i ing om he necessi y o mode a e illegal con en can esul in u he ac ions by
LEAs.54 The analysis and social media da a can be use no only o ake down ha m ul con en , bu o di ec LEAs’ e o s in hei
c ime p e en ion ac i i ies. The e o e, da a ex ac ed o con en mode a ion pu poses can be also used in o he , and b oade ,
con ex s. An example is he possibili y o using social media da a in e ed by he con en sha ed online o make beha iou al p e-
dic ions abou indi iduals. AI-d i en p edic i e models a e e sa ile, as hey can be used wi h any amoun o publicly a ailable
pe sonal da a e ei ed om social media in o de o make a b oad ange o p edic ions. In combina ion wi h ce ain assump ions
on he way human belie s and choices a e o med, such p edic ions can esul in conclusions on mo i a ions and inclina ions
ha a e no always accu a e. In he case o p edic ions o LEAs based on publicly a ailable da a, he e is isk o social con ol
and s igma isa ion de i ing om hese p ac ices, which can in u n ha m he au onomy o indi iduals in exp essing hemsel es
online.55
In ligh o he possibili y o social media da a o be used o pu poses ha go beyond wha is adi ionally unde s ood as con en
mode a ion, i is all he mo e impo an o ca e ully assess he impac o da a sc aping echniques on he p o ec ion o pe sonal da a
ha a e publicly a ailable. Such an e alua ion should be ca ied ou by conside ing he echnological ea u es o da a sc aping
p ac ices, and in pa icula , in he con ex o social media, he p emises and pi alls o NLP algo i hms in de ec ing illegal con en ,
o suspicious ac i i ies in gene al. The nex sec ion will explo e he undamen al igh s’ conce ns a ising om hese echnological
means.
4 The applica ion o social media sc aping echnologies in he law en o cemen
domain. Na u al Language P ocessing echniques o classi y online con en
As al eady obse ed, NLP echnologies a e a p ecious ool in o de o de ec and ca ego ise ce ain ypes o online con en .
Howe e , i has been no ed ha such echnologies, while widely used, a e no ye a a de eloping s age allowing hei use wi hou
52. Communica ion om he Commission o he Eu opean Pa liamen , he council, he Eu opean Economic and Social commi ee and he Commi ee o he
Regions, Tackling Illegal Con en Online Towa ds an enhanced esponsibili y o online pla o ms [2017] COM/2017/0555.
53. DSA (n. 18), eci al 12.
54. Susse , Daniel, “P edic i e policing and he e hics o p eemp ion.” The e hics o policing: New pe spec i es on law en o cemen (2021), 268-292.
55. Ploug, Thomas. “The igh no o be subjec ed o AI p o iling based on publicly a ailable da a—p i acy and he excep ionalism o ai p o iling.” Philosophy
& Technology 36.1 (2023), 14.
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any human supe ision.56
Fi s , NLP algo i hms a e no able o ake in o accoun con ex ual clues and ci cums ances ha , o ce ain ypes o con en , is
essen ial in o de o assess i s na u e.57 This is, o example, he case o e o is con en , o which he impo ance o con ex in
he iden i ica ion is made explici in he eci als o he TERREG58, and disin o ma ion, as alsehood o a piece o in o ma ion is
an highly con ex ual elemen .59 This poin is connec ed o he inhe en difficul y in ca ego ising ce ain ypes o con en . In some
cases, such as wi h ega d o iolen ex emis con en , de ining wha alls wi hin his ca ego y can be challenging due o he lack
o an uni o mly accep ed de ini ion, as opposed o he case o o he illegal con en , such as child sexual abuse ma e ial, which
is mo e s aigh o wa dly iden i iable.60 Secondly, he ma gin o e o o such echnologies may esul in w ong ul labelling o
con en , due o he difficul ies o iden i ying ha m ul con en online by ma ching he con en wi h a p e-de ined se o wo ds. In
o he wo ds, alse posi i e and alse nega i es a e a isk o be conside ed.61 Thi dly, as a ecen epo o he Fundamen al Righ s
Agency ou lined h ough an empi ical esea ch how algo i hms used o iden i y ha e speech a e suscep ible o be biased, and hei
use can lead o disc imina o y e ec s o pe sons, based, o example, on hei eligious o poli ical affilia ion.62
No wi hs anding hese limi a ions, he ange o possible applica ions o NLP echnologies in he con ex o LEAs’ ac i i ies
seems wide. A b ie li e a u e e iew o esea ch p ojec s in es iga ing he po en ial o NLP o he c iminal jus ice a ea e eals
ha his echnology is p oposed in he con ex o social media moni o ing as a po en ial solu ion o in es iga e illici COVID-19
p oduc sales63, human afficking64, eligious and poli ical ex emism.65 Mo eo e , NLP’s po en ial uses o LEAs ha e also been
iden i ied in si ua ions whe e he sp ead o illegal con en i sel ep esen s he sou ce o socie al ha m, as opposed o scena ios
whe e i is connec ed o ul e io c imes pe pe a ed o line. This is he case o s udies in es iga ing he use o NLP and i s
limi a ions o ackle ha e speech66 and disin o ma ion.67
The ongoing discussion abou he use o da a sc aping echnologies on social media by using NLP equi es a legal analysis o he
p i acy and da a p o ec ion implica ions o using such echniques o moni o online en i onmen s. The aim o his analysis is o
d aw mo e gene al conclusions abou he possible impac o such echnologies o undamen al igh s and eedoms in he a ea
o law en o cemen . The nex sec ion explo es he legal s a us o publicly a ailable da a collec ed om social media and hei
p o ec ion a he EU le el.
5 The legal s a us o publicly a ailable da a collec ed om social media
The p esen sec ion discusses he s a us o publicly a ailable da a om a p i acy and da a p o ec ion s andpoin , hen applying he
ou comes o he analysis o social media sc aping p ac ices pe o med by LEAs. Fi s ly, i analyses wha p o ec ion is g an ed o
publicly a ailable da a pu suan o he EU da a p o ec ion amewo k. Secondly, i analyses p i acy and da a p o ec ion gua an ees
a o ded in ele an judgemen s o he EC HR. Finally, i ocuses on he CJEU case law, by ex ac ing some use ul p inciples o
guide he law ul p ocessing o publicly a ailable da a om he EU Cou ’s decisions.
56. K o o , Vlad, Leise Sil a. “Legali y and e hics o web sc aping.” Twen y- ou h Ame icas Con e ence on In o ma ion Sys ems, New O leans (2018).
57. Go wa, Robe , Bonns, Reuben, Ka zenback, Ch is ian “Algo i hmic con en mode a ion: Technical and poli ical challenges in he au oma ion o pla o m
go e nance.” Big Da a & Socie y 7.1 (2020), 2053951719897945.
58. TERREG (n. 13), eci al 11.
59. Pielemeie , Jason. “Disen angling disin o ma ion: Wha makes egula ing disin o ma ion so difficul ?.” U ah Law Re iew 4 (2020), 917-940.
60. Chang (n. 43), p. 137.
61. Go wa, Binns, Ka zenback (n. 53).
62. Fundamen al Righ s Agency, Bias in algo i hms. A i icial In elligence and disc imina ion, 2022.
63. Mackey, Tim Ken, e al. “Big da a, na u al language p ocessing, and deep lea ning o de ec and cha ac e ize illici COVID-19 p oduc sales: in o eillance
s udy on Twi e and Ins ag am.” JMIR Public Heal h and Su eillance 6.3 (2020), 360-376.
64. G anizo, Se gio L., e al. “De ec ion o possible illici messages using na u al language p ocessing and compu e ision on wi e and linked websi es.” IEEE
Access 8 (2020), 44534-44546.
65. To eg osa, Ja ie , e al. “A su ey on ex emism analysis using na u al language p ocessing: de ini ions, li e a u e e iew, ends and challenges.” Jou nal
o Ambien In elligence and Humanized Compu ing 14.8 (2023), 9869-9905.
66. Pole o, Fabio, e al. “Resou ces and benchma k co po a o ha e speech de ec ion: a sys ema ic e iew.” Language Resou ces and E alua ion 55 (2021),
477-523.
67. de Oli ei a, Nicollas R., e al. “Iden i ying ake news on social ne wo ks based on na u al language p ocessing: ends and challenges.” In o ma ion 12.38
(2021).
h ps://doi.o g/10.6092/issn.1825-1927/18870 24
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5.1 The EU legal amewo k
F om a da a p o ec ion poin o iew, he ac i i ies in ol ing he sc aping and classi ica ion o da a om con en sha ed on social
media amoun o p ocessing o pe sonal da a when he de ec ion o illegal con en implies ha such con en can be associa ed
o he ci il iden i y o a use . In o he wo ds, such echnologies make a ce ain da a subjec iden i iable, hus alling wi hin he
scope o he EU da a p o ec ion amewo k.68 The p ocessing a ains in his case o pe sonal da a ha a e publicly a ailable online.
Pe sonal da a is conside ed as publicly a ailable when i s access is no limi ed o a speci ic g oup o pe sons, wi h di e en nuances
abou wha should amoun o such a ee access. Howe e , ega dless o he di e gencies o e he de ini o y app oach o publicly
a ailable da a, he EU legal sys em ex ends da a p o ec ion gua an ees o publicly a ailable da a, e en in he law en o cemen
con ex , as e iden om he Eu opol legal amewo k.69
The 2016 Eu opol Regula ion men ions da a de i ing om publicly a ailable sou ces among hose ha he EU agency can p ocess
in he cou se o i s ac i i ies.70 Non heless, he es ic ions ensh ined in he egula ion on he possibili y o sha e publicly a ailable
da a wi h p i a e pa ies71, as well as he igh s o e asu e, ec i ica ion o access es ic ion o which da a subjec s a e en i led
wi h ega d o his ype o da a72, con i ms ha he public a ailabili y does no en ail a elease om any obliga ion o espec da a
p o ec ion p inciples.
Pe sonal da a ha can be e ie ed om con en sha ed online ep esen s a peculia ype o publicly a ailable con en , o wo
o de s o easons. Fi s o all, he da a mining on social media can allow o ex ac implici and po en ially use ul in o ma ion
ha ega ds sensi i e da a o he use s, such as hei poli ical affilia ion and eligious belie s. This aspec can be especially
p oblema ic in he con ex o p o iling o be used in p edic i e policing ac i i ies.73 Secondly, while o he publicly a ailable
da a is made a ailable online by hi d pa ies, he con en ha is sha ed online is made a ailable by he publishe s hemsel es,
igge ing he applica ion o a speci ic egula o y amewo k when LEAs p ocess, in pa icula , sensi i e da a o he da a subjec s.
Unde he Law En o cemen Di ec i e (LED), go e ning he p ocessing o pe sonal da a by compe en au ho i ies in ela ion o
he p e en ion, de ec ion o p osecu ion o c imes74, special ca ego ies o pe sonal da a, including da a pe aining o poli ical
o philosophical belie s, should only be p ocessed when s ic ly necessa y and based on speci ic legal g ounds, subjec o app o-
p ia e sa egua ds o undamen al igh s.75 One o he g ounds jus i ying he p ocessing is he ac ha sensi i e da a ha e been
mani es ly made public by he da a subjec .76 F om he le e o he law i can be d awn ha , while he p ocessing o publicly
a ailable sensi i e da a by LEAs is possible in his case, he p ocessing s ill needs o comply wi h he subs an ial equi emen o
s ic necessi y, and he p ocedu al equi emen s o p o iding app op ia e sa egua ds o da a subjec s.
Bo h he Wo king Pa y 29 (WP 29) and he Eu opean Da a P o ec ion Boa d (EDPB) con ibu ed o delinea ing he meaning o
“mani es ly public”. While a clea in en ion o he da a subjec o make pe sonal da a a ailable should be p esen o conside he
p ocessing law ul, he WP 29 p o ided some speci ica ions wi h ega d o publicly a ailable da a in social media. In his case,
mos o he indi iduals publishing con en online do no expec hei da a o be accessible by police au ho i ies. A combina ion
o elemen s should play a ole in he assessmen abou his expec a ion o p i acy, such as he accessibili y o he sou ce whe e
68. Regula ion (EU) 2016/679 o he Eu opean Pa liamen and o he Council o 27 Ap il 2016 on he p o ec ion o na u al pe sons wi h ega d o he p ocessing
o pe sonal da a and on he ee mo emen o such da a, and epealing Di ec i e 95/46/EC (Gene al Da a P o ec ion Regula ion) [2016] OJ L 119, a . 4(1).
69. Go schalk, Thilo. “The Da a-Laund oma ? Public-P i a e-Pa ne ships and Publicly A ailable Da a in he A ea o Law En o cemen .” Eu opean Da a
P o ec ion Law Re iew 6 (2020), 21-40.
70. Regula ion (EU) 2016/794 o he Eu opean Pa liamen and o he Council o 11 May 2016 on he Eu opean Union Agency o Law En o cemen Coope a ion
(Eu opol) and eplacing and epealing Council Decisions 2009/371/JHA, 2009/934/JHA, 2009/935/JHA, 2009/936/JHA and 2009/968/JHA [2016] OJ L
135 (2016 Eu opol Regula ion), a . 17.2.
71. 2016 Eu opol Regula ion (n. 66), a . 37.
72. Regula ion (EU) 2022/991 o he Eu opean Pa liamen and o he Council o 8 June 2022 amending Regula ion (EU) 2016/794, as ega ds Eu opol’s
coope a ion wi h p i a e pa ies, he p ocessing o pe sonal da a by Eu opol in suppo o c iminal in es iga ions, and Eu opol’s ole in esea ch and
inno a ion [2022] OJ L 169.
73. Mi ou, Lilian, e al., “Social media p o iling: A Panop icon o Omniop icon ool?.” P oceedings o he 6 h Con e ence o he Su eillance S udies
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74. Di ec i e (EU) 2016/680 o he Eu opean Pa liamen and o he Council o 27 Ap il 2016 on he p o ec ion o na u al pe sons wi h ega d o he p ocessing
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