In e na ional Jou nal o Social Science and Human Resea ch
ISSN (p in ): 2644-0679, ISSN (online): 2644-0695
Volume 08 Issue 10 Oc obe 2025
DOI: 10.47191/ijssh / 8-i10-42, Impac ac o - 8.007
Page No: 7887-7897
IJSSHR, Volume 08 Issue 10 Oc obe 2025 www.ijssh .in Page 7887
The C ime o Fo ging Seals and Documen s o Agencies and O ganiza ions
and Judicial P ac ice in Vie nam
Canh, T an Tuan
Lec u e , Facul y o Law, Ton Duc Thang Uni e si y; PhD Candida e, Facul y o C iminal Law, Ho Chi Minh Ci y Uni e si y o
Law
ORCID: h ps://o cid.o g/0009-0004-0215-8458
ABSTRACT: In he con ex o digi al ans o ma ion and he apid expansion o elec onic ansac ions, he c ime o o ging seals
and documen s o agencies and o ganiza ions has become inc easingly complex, employing sophis ica ed me hods ha se iously
h ea en s a e adminis a i e o de and legal secu i y in social ela ions. This o ense no only di ec ly unde mines he legi imacy
and c edibili y o agencies and o ganiza ions bu also e odes public us in he legal sys em. The a icle examines he p o isions o
he 2015 Penal Code o Vie nam (as amended in 2017, 2025) on he c ime o o ging seals and documen s, cla i ying i s cons i u i e
elemen s and applicable penal ies. I u he e iews judicial p ac ice h ough selec ed judgmen s o highligh di icul ies in p o ing
c iminal in en , dis inguishing adminis a i e om c iminal liabili y, and add essing eme ging challenges posed by o ge y in he
digi al en i onmen . By d awing on compa a i e insigh s om selec ed o eign legal sys ems, he a icle p oposes legisla i e
e inemen s and judicial guidelines o imp o e he e ec i eness o c iminal jus ice in p e en ing and comba ing o ge y o seals
and documen s.
KEYWORDS: c iminal Law, documen , judicial p ac ic, o ge y, seal, Vie namese law.
A. INTRODUCTION
The o ense o “ o ge y o seals and documen s o agencies and o ganiza ions” is s ipula ed in A icle 341 o he 2015
C iminal Code (as amended and supplemen ed in 2017 and 2025) and is classi ied as one o he c imes in inging upon he S a e’s
adminis a i e managemen o de . Seals and documen s se e as legal ins umen s o e i y he law ulness and au hen ici y o
decisions, ansac ions, and ac s o agencies and o ganiza ions. Acco dingly, he ac o o ging o using o ged seals and documen s
no only di ec ly ha ms he agencies, o ganiza ions, and indi iduals conce ned bu also unde mines he c edibili y o he S a e
appa a us and h ea ens public us in he legal sys em and go e nmen al ins i u ions.
In ecen yea s, judicial p ac ice has shown ha c imes in ol ing he o ge y o seals and documen s ha e become
inc easingly complex, o en associa ed wi h o he o enses such as aud o p ope y app op ia ion, ax e asion, smuggling, o he
legaliza ion o pe sonnel iles and adminis a i e p ocedu es. Published c iminal judgmen s e eal ha in many cases, o ende s
exploi ed loopholes in he law and de iciencies in managemen mechanisms o commi o ge y o illici gain. A he same ime,
wi hin he con ex o digi al ans o ma ion and he g owing p e alence o elec onic documen s, o ge y has become mo e
sophis ica ed, posing di icul ies o judicial au ho i ies in de ec ing, collec ing e idence, and dis inguishing be ween adminis a i e
iola ions and c iminal o enses.
Al hough he Vie namese C iminal Law p o ides ela i ely speci ic p o isions on his o ense, p ac ical applica ion
con inues o expose se e al sho comings: inconsis en in e p e a ion o he cons i u i e elemen s o he c ime; challenges in p o ing
he subjec i e elemen (mens ea) o o ende s; o e lap wi h adminis a i e sanc ions; and he absence o comp ehensi e p o isions
add essing o ge y in he digi al en i onmen . These limi a ions no only a ec he e ec i eness o c ime p e en ion and con ol
bu also call o imp o emen s in legisla ion and judicial p ac ice.
Agains his backd op, he p esen a icle examines he opic “Fo ge y o seals and documen s o agencies and o ganiza ions
and judicial p ac ice in Vie nam” wi h he ollowing key objec i es: (i) o analyze he cu en c iminal law p o isions on his o ense
and i s cha ac e is ic legal elemen s; (ii) o su ey judicial p ac ice h ough selec ed c iminal judgmen s; (iii) o iden i y p ac ical
di icul ies and obs acles in he applica ion o law; and (i ) o p opose legisla i e e o ms and judicial o ien a ions aimed a
enhancing he e ec i eness o comba ing o ge y o seals and documen s in he con empo a y con ex .
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B. CONTENT
1. SEALS, DOCUMENTS, AND FORGERY
Gene al o e iew o seals and documen s
In ci il law sys ems, he seal (cache ) and he documen (U kunde) a e ecognized as wo undamen al legal ins umen s
ensu ing he au hen ici y o in o ma ion and ansac ions. Unlike he common law sys em, whe e e idence is p ima ily es ablished
h ough es imony and judicial p eceden , ci il law places pa icula emphasis on ma e ial ins umen s ha se e bo h e iden ia y
and gua an ee unc ions in legal and adminis a i e li e.
A seal cons i u es a o m o iden i ying ma k, ypically managed and used by compe en agencies o o ganiza ions, o he
pu pose o ce i ying he au hen ici y and law ulness o documen s. In adi ional unde s anding, a seal is ega ded as he imp in o
a seal de ice a ixed on o a documen wi h s amping ink (Joong Lee e al., 2011). Seals ha e wo key ea u es: he pic o ial de ice
o symbol, which may be pe sonalized o highly con en ional, and he su ounding insc ip ion, he legend, which iden i ies he
au ho o ins i u ional au ho i y o he documen o which he seal was a ached (Lau a J. Wha ley, 2019).
Ac oss many legal sys ems, seals embody he unc ion o sa egua ding public us , as hey a e closely linked o he
legi imacy o a public ins i u ion o au ho i y, while also dis inguishing be ween o icial and uno icial documen s (Komnenić e
al., 2017). Unde Vie namese law, a seal is a special ins umen egis e ed and managed by compe en S a e au ho i ies, used o
au hen ica ion on documen s and pape s o agencies, o ganiza ions, and S a e o iceholde s. Pu suan o Dec ee No. 99/2016/ND-
CP, A icle 3, seals include: seals bea ing he Na ional Emblem, seals bea ing symbols, and seals wi hou symbols, which may be
used in he o m o we seals, embossed seals, minia u e seals, o wax seals.
“Fo ge y is o he wha poe y is o p ose”. This pi-quan s a emen by a con inen al ju is in ac poin s o a ea u e in he
de elopmen o c ime which has been he cause o many changes in ou law (JW Cecil Tu ne , 1946). A documen , in i s b oad
sense, is unde s ood as any medium ha eco ds in o ma ion, including pape -based w i ings, ce i ica es, con ac s, elec onic da a,
o any eco d ha may be used o e i y a ac , a igh , o a legal obliga ion. In legal schola ship, documen s a e no me ely ma e ial
in na u e bu also embody bo h e iden ia y alue and he legal signi icance o he in o ma ion eco ded (Seid K asniqi, 2025). A
documen is also ega ded as in o ma ion a ached o a da a ca ie , whose con en and o m emain unchanged when he ca ie is
con e ed, including pape documen s, documen s on o he ca ie s, and elec onic documen s. Speci ically: pape documen s a e
hose c ea ed on pape ; documen s on o he ca ie s a e hose c ea ed on media o he han pape ; and elec onic documen s a e hose
c ea ed in he o m o da a messages (Mai Do, 2024).
F om he pe spec i e o legal s a us, he seals and documen s o agencies and o ganiza ions a e no me ely adminis a i e
ins umen s, bu possess a special legal s anding wi hin he Vie namese legal sys em. Fi s , he seal is o icially ecognized by he
S a e as an au hen ica ing ma k, ep esen ing he will and au ho i y o an agency o o ganiza ion in he issuance o documen s and
pape s (Dec ee No. 99/2016/ND-CP). The seal unc ions as a ool ha e lec s legal capaci y, con e ing en o ceabili y upon
documen s and ensu ing hei ecogni ion unde he law. Thus, he seal is no only o in e nal adminis a i e signi icance bu also
ca ies ex e nal legal e ec , gua an eeing eliabili y in adminis a i e, ci il, and comme cial ela ions.
As o documen s o agencies and o ganiza ions, hei legal alue lies in he ac ha hey a e ega ded as legal e idence in
social ela ions, capable o e i ying legal ac s, legal ac s, o he legal s a us o a subjec . Fu he mo e, he Law on Elec onic
T ansac ions 2023 (A icle 14) a i ms ha elec onic da a shall ha e he same legal alidi y as adi ional documen s, p o ided ha
condi ions o in eg i y and accessibili y a e me . This ex ension b oadens legal p o ec ion o elec onic documen s, which a e
becoming inc easingly p e alen in he digi al e a.
F om a c iminal law pe spec i e, he special legal s a us o seals and documen s is e lec ed in he ac ha he 2015
C iminal Code (as amended and supplemen ed in 2017 and 2025) de o es a speci ic p o ision (A icle 341) o he o ense o o ging
and using o ged seals and documen s o agencies and o ganiza ions. The c iminaliza ion o such conduc demons a es ha he
S a e ega ds seals and documen s as objec s equi ing special p o ec ion, since any in ingemen upon hem simul aneously
cons i u es an in ingemen upon he adminis a i e managemen o de , as well as he anspa ency and au hen ici y o legal and
social li e.
Acco dingly, seals and documen s wi hin he legal sys em a e no me e “inanima e objec s,” bu se e as in e media ies o
ansmi ing he will and decisions o agencies and o ganiza ions. When hese ins umen s a e o ged o unlaw ully used, he in eg i y
o he legal sys em i sel is impai ed. The e o e, de ining and cla i ying he concep s o seals and documen s, along wi h hei legal
s a us, is a undamen al and indispensable s ep be o e analyzing he cons i u i e elemen s o he o ense o o ging seals and
documen s o agencies and o ganiza ions.
Fo ge y o Seals and Documen s o Agencies and O ganiza ions
F om a legal pe spec i e, o ge y is unde s ood as he ac o c ea ing o al e ing a gi en objec so as o alsi y i s inhe en
au hen ici y. Ac oss di e en legal sys ems, he subs ance o “ o ge y” may a y, ye he e is consensus on wo undamen al
elemen s: (i) conduc ha dis o s objec i e u h; and (ii) he in en o consequence o misleading o he s. Jescheck de ines i as:
“Fo ge y is any manipula ion ha dis o s he au hen ici y o a legally ele an objec ” (Jescheck, 1988).
In in e na ional c iminal law heo y, o ge y is unde s ood as he ac o c ea ing, al e ing, ep oducing, o using o ged
documen s o seals o audulen pu poses. Typically, he ac o o ge y in ol es wo componen s: (i) he objec i e elemen , which
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is he al e a ion o c ea ion designed o alsi y au hen ici y, and (ii) he subjec i e elemen , which is he in en o decei e in o de o
ob ain unlaw ul bene i o o cause ha m o o he s (Hadi & Paino, 2015).
In Vie namese c iminal legal schola ship, he concep o o ge y is app oached in a na owe sense, closely linked o objec s
o legal alue such as seals, pape s, and documen s. Acco dingly, o ge y is de ined as he unlaw ul c ea ion o al e a ion o seals,
documen s, o pape s ha dep i es hem o hei inhe en au hen ici y, he eby in inging upon he S a e’s adminis a i e
managemen o de .
Fo ged seals and documen s may pe ain o agencies and o ganiza ions ha ac ually exis and a e ope a i e a he ime o
o ge y, bu hey may also in ol e hose o dissol ed o e en ic i ious en i ies (Ho Chi Minh Ci y Uni e si y o Law, 2022):
(i) Fo ge y o seals and documen s o exis ing agencies o o ganiza ions is he mos common ype in p ac ice. The o ged
seal o documen ypically belongs o a S a e agency, social o ganiza ion, en e p ise, o p o essional body ha legi ima ely exis s.
Such o ge y easily engende s us among a ge ed indi iduals, as i exploi s he inhe en c edibili y and legal s anding o he
espec i e agency o o ganiza ion. Consequen ly, he po en ial ha m o he adminis a i e managemen o de and o ci il and
economic ansac ions is subs an ial.
(ii) Fo ge y o seals and documen s o agencies o o ganiza ions ha ha e been dissol ed o a e no longe ope a ional. E en
when an en i y has ceased o exis , c ea ing seals o documen s “in i s name” may s ill decei e o he s, since no all indi iduals a e
awa e o he legal s a us o a dissol ed en i y. The social dange in his case lies in he po en ial o con usion, which may esul in
se ious legal, economic, and social consequences.
(iii) Fo ge y o seals and documen s o agencies o o ganiza ions ha ne e legally exis ed. This scena io in ol es en i ies
ha ha e ne e had legal exis ence bu whose names a e ab ica ed by o ende s who hen c ea e o ged seals and documen s o lend
a semblance o “legi imacy” o audulen ac s. In p ac ice, nume ous aud cases ha e in ol ed he es ablishmen o so-called
“phan om companies” o “ghos o ganiza ions” accompanied by o ged seals and documen s. Al hough he o ged objec s ne e had
eal legal exis ence, such conduc is none heless c iminal, as i in inges upon he S a e’s au ho i y o egula e he issuance and use
o seals and documen s, ac i i ies ha mus be s ic ly con olled. The social consequences emain he same: decep ion, legal
unce ain y, and insecu i y in ansac ions.
The ac o o ging seals o agencies and o ganiza ions appea s in di e se o ms, anging om adi ional manual echniques
o inc easingly sophis ica ed echnological me hods. The ake seals and s amps hemsel es a e made by hand o , con e sely, hey
a e d awn by hand. In he s anda d o m o a i icial seal s amps, he sizes o ci cula , ec angula , and iangula ypes di e , while
signs such as le e o ms, dis o ions, size, and mu ual a angemen a e c ea ed (Ka imo , 2024). The ab ica ion o unau ho ized
eng a ing o seals, whe he by adi ional manual me hods o mode n echnologies such as compu e eng a ing, CNC machining,
o e en 3D p in ing, emains he mos common o m. Once c ea ed, o ged seals can be easily used in nume ous ansac ions o
legi imize documen s o conceal unlaw ul ac s. In addi ion, e asing o al e ing genuine seals o o iginal documen s, such as
modi ying s okes o he seal, blu ing, supplemen ing, o edi ing con en , is also a equen me hod. This is pa icula ly dange ous
when o ende s gain access o he o iginal documen s and in e ene wi hou aising immedia e suspicion. Imi a ion o a signa u e is
a e y common case o o ge y in e e yday li e. The main o ge ’s pu pose is he mo phological ep oduc ion o he au hen ic
specimen, odecei e he ecipien o he documen in p ac ice. Fo ging is usually an ac o aud, bu some imes i could also aim
in acili a ing se e al bu eauc a ic p ocedu es. In such cases he consen o he o iginal signe is qui e o en in ep oducing
he o iginal model o squiggle (Pa los Kipou as, 2022).
Ad anced seal o ge y me hods include li hog aphy and eng a ing by compu e -aided manu ac u ing (CAM) echniques.
Hand eng a ing is ime consuming and equi es high-le el hand skills o duplica e an o iginal seal and he e o e is no being used
any longe as a popula seal o ge y me hod. Li hog aphy uses a ilm mask o a seal imp ession pa e n scanned om an o iginal
seal imp ession o c ea e a ake seal e ched on ligh -sensi i e ma e ials. The CAM me hod uses high-p ecision compu e -aided
eng a ing machines o ca e a desi ed seal pa e n on a solid ma e ial (Joong Lee e al, 2012). In he digi al en i onmen , he use o
g aphic so wa e ( o example, Pho oshop) o c ea e images o o ged seals, o scan and edi documen empla es and hen p in hem
in colo o dissemina e alsi ied PDF/Wo d iles has been documen ed in nume ous cases; his modus ope andi enables o ende s o
mass-p oduce o ged documen s a low cos and wi h a low ini ial de ec ion a e.
Fo ge y o documen s may ake he o m o comple e ab ica ion (whe e an o ende c ea es an en i ely ic i ious documen
ha bea s he name o an agency o o ganiza ion o gene a e us , o example, coun e ei d i ing licences, iden i y ca ds, o ehicle
egis a ion pape s); al e a ion o e asu e o genuine documen s ( his does no c ea e a new documen bu in e enes in an o iginal
documen o change i s con en , such as modi ying igu es, da es, names, o o icial i les); and inse ion o alse in o ma ion (adding
ab ica ed con en o a documen so ha i acqui es a di e en legal e ec om he o iginal).
2. THE CRIME OF FORGING SEALS AND DOCUMENTS UNDER VIETNAMESE LAW
In he Vie namese c iminal law sys em, p o isions on c imes in inging upon he o de o s a e adminis a i e managemen
a e a anged in o a sepa a e g oup, e lec ing he special ole o adminis a i e managemen in social li e. A icle 341 o he 2015
C iminal Code (as amended in 2017 and 2025) s ipula es wo o enses unde he same p o ision, namely “Fo ge y o seals and
documen s o agencies and o ganiza ions” and “Use o o ged seals o documen s o agencies and o ganiza ions.” This a icle is
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one o he mos impo an p o isions wi hin his g oup o o enses. Wi hin he scope o his pape , he au ho will ocus solely on
analyzing and cla i ying he c ime o o ging seals and documen s o agencies and o ganiza ions.
Acco ding o he con en o A icle 341, he ac o o ging o using o ged seals and documen s o agencies and
o ganiza ions is conside ed socially dange ous conduc ha di ec ly in inges upon he au hen ici y and legali y o documen s, which
cons i u e he ounda ion o all s a e adminis a i e ac i i ies and legal ela ions. This p o ision no only aims o p o ec he
c edibili y and legali y o agencies and o ganiza ions bu also con ibu es o ensu ing s abili y and anspa ency in ci il, economic,
adminis a i e, and c iminal ansac ions.
Gi en i s impo ance, A icle 341 has been inhe i ed and u he de eloped om he p o isions o he 1999 C iminal Code,
wi h e isions and supplemen s made o be e espond o new ci cums ances, pa icula ly as me hods o o ge y ha e become
inc easingly sophis ica ed and in e wined wi h a ious ypes o c ime. A no able ea u e is ha A icle 341 no only add esses he
ac o o ging seals and documen s bu also c iminalizes hei use, he eby demons a ing he legisla u e’s comp ehensi e app oach
o p e en ing and comba ing his ca ego y o o enses.
Fo ge y o seals and documen s is o en commi ed o he pu pose o illici gain, concealing iola ions, o legi imizing
legal p ocedu es. I is equen ly associa ed wi h o he o enses such as aud, smuggling, ax e asion, o co up ion. The e o e, he
s udy o A icle 341 is no only signi ican in heo e ical e ms o p ope ly iden i ying he legal na u e o he c ime bu also ca ies
subs an ial p ac ical alue in enhancing he e ec i eness o adjudica ion and he igh agains such o enses in he cu en con ex .
Acco dingly, when examining he cons i uen elemen s o he o enses unde A icle 341, i is essen ial o cla i y ou elemen s: he
p o ec ed legal in e es , he objec i e elemen , he subjec i e elemen , and he subjec o he c ime, as de ailed below:
Fi s ly, he p o ec ed legal in e es unde A icle 341 is he o de o s a e adminis a i e managemen , speci ically he p ope
unc ioning and c edibili y o agencies and o ganiza ions; he law ul igh s and in e es s o agencies, o ganiza ions, and ci izens;
and public con idence in he au hen ici y o documen s and seals. Ac s o o ging o using o ged documen s gene ally do no di ec ly
in inge upon a speci ic p ope y igh (unless accompanied by audulen conduc ), bu a he impai he e iden ia y alue and he
capaci y o o icial ins umen s o gua an ee o igin and au hen ici y in s a e adminis a ion and legal ela ions. The di ec objec o
his o ense consis s o seals, documen s, o o he o icial pape s o agencies and o ganiza ions. A seal is a special ins umen
egis e ed and supe ised by a compe en s a e au ho i y, used o a ix o documen s o agencies, o ganiza ions, o s a e o icials.
These include seals bea ing he Na ional Emblem, seals wi h symbols, and seals wi hou symbols, which may exis in o ms such
as we seals, embossed seals, minia u e seals, o wax seals. As o documen s and o he pape s, his ca ego y e e s o ins umen s
issued by s a e agencies, social o ganiza ions, economic en i ies, o socio-poli ical o ganiza ions, such as d i ing licenses, passpo s,
bi h ce i ica es, o social insu ance books.
Secondly, he objec i e elemen : The o ense o o ging seals o documen s o agencies and o ganiza ions is a o mal
c ime (o ense o me e conduc ). This means ha he legisla o equi es only he ac i sel as he decisi e elemen o es ablishing
c iminal liabili y, ega dless o whe he any ac ual consequence occu s. The cen al ac o his c ime is o ge y, he di ec
in e e ence wi h he legally p o ec ed objec , mani es ed in he c ea ion o an en i ely new seal o documen , o he al e a ion o a
genuine one, he eby p oducing a coun e ei e sion capable o decei ing o he s. Fo ins ance, eng a ing a coun e ei seal in he
name o a s a e body o o ganiza ion; p in ing documen s pu po ing o be issued by an exis ing agency o o ganiza ion, o e en by
one ha ne e exis ed. Fo ge y may also be ca ied ou by e asing o modi ying in o ma ion in o icial eco ds o agencies and
o ganiza ions. The mos no able ea u e o his o ense is ha he ac o o ge y i sel su ices o cons i u e he c ime, ega dless o
whe he he o ged seal o documen has been used. This is because he me e exis ence o such coun e ei s inhe en ly poses a isk
o he au hen ici y o legal ins umen s and unde mines public us in he unc ioning o agencies and o ganiza ions.
Thi dly, he subjec i e elemen o he o ense: The subjec i e elemen o he c ime o o ging seals o documen s o agencies
and o ganiza ions is es ablished on he basis o di ec in en . The o ende is ully awa e ha his o he conduc in ol es he o ge y
o use o o ged seals o documen s, ecognizes he social dange o such conduc , o esees he possibili y o ha m ul consequences,
and ei he wishes o o consciously dis ega ds he occu ence o such consequences. A dis inc i e ea u e he e is ha he pu pose
o ob aining bene i s o pe sonal gain is no a manda o y elemen o he es ablishmen o his c ime. The me e in en ional ac o
o ging o using o ged seals o documen s is su icien o c iminal liabili y, since he immedia e dange lies in he iola ion o he
au hen ici y o legal ins umen s and in he e osion o public us in he s a e’s egula o y mechanisms. In p ac ice, howe e , he
pu poses o commi ing his c ime a e di e se, anging om economic gain (e.g., alsi ying documen s o app op ia e p ope y o
o commi aud in public p ocu emen ) o poli ical o adminis a i e pu poses (e.g., ab ica ing pe sonal eco ds, alsi ying
documen s o school admission o employmen applica ions). Ne e heless, Vie namese law does no ea such pu poses as
cons i u i e elemen s o he basic o ense, bu a he as ac o s e lec ing he deg ee o social dange and se ing as g ounds o
de e mining penal ies. This legisla i e app oach demons a es ha he co e elemen is he in ingemen upon he legal alidi y o
seals and documen s, no he speci ic bene i pu sued by he o ende . Fu he mo e, i should be emphasized ha his o ense does
no admi negligence. I an indi idual uses o ged seals o documen s wi hou knowledge and wi hou he possibili y o ecognizing
hei alsi y, such conduc does no cons i u e a c iminal o ense, hough i may gi e ise o adminis a i e o ci il liabili y.
Fou hly, he subjec o he o ense: The subjec o he c ime o o ging seals o documen s o agencies and o ganiza ions
is an o dina y subjec , meaning ha any indi idual aged 16 o abo e who possesses c iminal capaci y may become he o ende .
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The C iminal Code does no equi e he o ende o hold an o icial posi ion, au ho i y, o belong o a speci ic g oup o special
subjec s. Consequen ly, he scope o subjec s unde A icle 341 is a he b oad, encompassing a wide ange o o ge y p ac ices in
eali y, om indi iduals ou side agencies o o ganiza ions o hose wo king wi hin he s a e appa a us bu who do no exploi hei
o icial posi ion o au ho i y in commi ing he o ense.
3. DISCUSSIONS
Judicial P ac ice in Vie nam
In judicial p ac ice in Vie nam, he c ime o o ging seals o documen s o agencies and o ganiza ions cons i u es one o
he o enses ha equen ly appea s, o en linked o audulen ac s in adminis a i e, ci il, and economic ela ions. Such o enses
a e commonly associa ed wi h he o ge y o d i e ’s licenses, na ional iden i ica ion ca ds, land use igh ce i ica es, co po a e
eco ds, o o he ypes o documen s employed in s a e managemen ac i i ies. No ably, a signi ican numbe o cases a e connec ed
o c edi aud, eal es a e ansac ions, and e en high- ech c imes, whe e o ende s employ g aphic so wa e o ab ica e seals and
coun e ei elec onic documen s.
Table 1: S a is ics on C iminal Cases Publicly Adjudica ed by Cou s a all Le els
S . No
Yea
No. o Cases
1
2020
42.639
2
2021
46.412
3
2022
50.055
4
2023
55.127
5
2024
58.439
Sou ce: Sup eme People’s Cou o Vie nam, Po al o Publica ion o Cou Judgmen s and Decisions
Table 2: S a is ics on he numbe o judgmen s and decisions conce ning he o ense o o ging seals and documen s o
agencies and o ganiza ions
S . No
Yea
No. o Cases Judgmen
No. o Cases Decision
To al
1
2020
176
13
189
2
2021
271
15
286
3
2022
362
31
393
4
2023
541
25
566
5
2024
611
41
652
Sou ce: Sup eme People’s Cou o Vie nam, Po al o Publica ion o Cou Judgmen s and Decisions
Da a om he online po al o judgmen s and decisions published by he Sup eme People’s Cou o Vie nam indica e ha
du ing he pe iod 2020-2024, he numbe o publicly adjudica ed c iminal cases showed a s eady upwa d end. Speci ically, he
o al numbe o c iminal cases inc eased om 42,639 cases in 2020 o 58,439 cases in 2024, ep esen ing an app oxima e 37%
g ow h wi hin i e yea s. This e lec s no only he o e all ise in c iminal ac i i ies bu also he judicial sys em’s e o s o ensu e
anspa ency and de e ence h ough public p osecu ion and adjudica ion.
Wi hin his b oade con ex , he o ense o o ging seals and documen s o agencies and o ganiza ions (A icle 341 o he
Penal Code) has also demons a ed a ma kedly inc easing p e alence. In 2020, he cou sys em handled 189 cases ela ed o his
o ense; by 2024, he numbe had isen o 652 cases, an inc ease o 3.45 imes wi hin jus i e yea s. In e ms o g ow h a e, he
o ense unde A icle 341 expanded much as e han he o e all g ow h o c iminal cases. While he o al numbe o c iminal cases
du ing 2020–2024 inc eased by sligh ly mo e han 37%, cases in ol ing A icle 341 su ged by o e 245%.
The p opo ion o cases unde A icle 341 in he o al numbe o c iminal cases has also inc eased signi ican ly. In 2020,
his o ense accoun ed o app oxima ely 0.44% o all c iminal cases (189/42,639). By 2024, he p opo ion had isen
o 1.12% (652/58,439). Al hough he absolu e pe cen age emains ela i ely small, he nea ly h ee old inc ease in p opo ion
indica es ha his ype o c ime is becoming inc easingly complex, di icul o con ol, and po en ially an eme ging conce n in
adminis a i e managemen and c iminal jus ice.
In e ms o s uc u e, wi hin he cases in ol ing A icle 341, judgmen s o e whelmingly ou numbe ed decisions ( o
example, in 2024 he e we e 611 judgmen s compa ed o 41 decisions). This sugges s ha he majo i y o cases we e b ough o ial
and esul ed in inal ulings, whe eas dismissals, suspensions, o o he p ocedu al decisions ep esen ed only a small ac ion. Such
a pa e n demons a es ha in es iga ion, p osecu ion, and adjudica ion o his o ense a e gene ally e ec i e, wi h case iles being
su icien ly obus o a oid equen suspension o al e a ion o p ocedu al decisions.
Thus, he s a is ical da a no only e lec he quan i a i e inc ease bu also highligh he g owing complexi y and dange
posed by he o ense o o ging seals and documen s. This se es as an impo an empi ical basis o u he esea ch and legisla i e
IJSSHR, Volume 08 Issue 10 Oc obe 2025 www.ijssh .in Page 7892
imp o emen in c iminal law, as well as o s eng hening o ensic expe ise, applying echnological ools o de ec o ged
documen s, and ensu ing he e iciency and imeliness o judicial p oceedings.
Assessmen o Judicial P ac ice
Ac s ela ed o he o ge y o seals and documen s o agencies and o ganiza ions can be classi ied in o he ollowing g oups:
Fi s ly, ac s o me ely o ging seals o documen s o agencies and o ganiza ions:
The e m “me ely o ging” e e s o cases in which he o ende ’s conduc is limi ed o eng a ing, manu ac u ing, e asing,
al e ing, o c ea ing o ged seals o documen s o agencies and o ganiza ions, wi hou ye using hem o pu suing any u he speci ic
c iminal pu pose. This may include si ua ions whe e he o ende p oduces o ged seals o documen s o s o age, sa ekeeping, o
sale o o he s in need o using hem. The dis inc i e ea u e o his g oup is ha he conduc di ec ly in inges upon he S a e’s
adminis a i e managemen o de , wi hou necessa ily esul ing in conc e e consequences such as p ope y app op ia ion o e asion
o legal obliga ions.
In p ac ice, nume ous cases demons a e ha o ende s o en specialize in he “p oduc ion” o coun e ei seals o sale o
indi iduals in need o o ged documen s and eco ds. This phenomenon is no inciden al; a he , i has e ol ed in o a
p o essionalized and comme cialized o m o c iminal ac i i y. In essence, such conduc gi es ise o an “unde g ound ma ke ” ha
supplies he ins umen s necessa y o commi a wide ange o o enses, including aud and misapp op ia ion o p ope y, ax
e asion, comme cial aud, as well as alsi ica ion o ec ui men iles and academic c eden ials. Unlike he isola ed case o an
indi idual o ging a seal solely o pe sonal use, he ac o “p oducing o sale” embodies elemen s o o ganized and p o i -d i en
c iminal en e p ise. I di ec ly unde mines he S a e’s adminis a i e managemen o de , while indi ec ly h ea ening a ious o he
domains ( inance, educa ion, labo , e c.). Fo his eason, Vie namese c iminal law ea s he ac s o o ging, possessing, o ading
coun e ei seals as su icien o es ablish c iminal liabili y, wi hou equi ing p oo o ac ual ha m ul consequences.
Mos o ende s engaged in he p oduc ion o coun e ei seals o sale a e d i en by he mo i e o economic gain. The
culpabili y he e lies in di ec in en : o ende s a e ully awa e ha hei conduc iola es he law, ye p oceed in o de o ob ain
p o i . This mo i e agg a a es he dange ousness o he o ense, as g ea e p o i incen i izes b oade p oduc ion, he eby ueling
he p oli e a ion o c ime in a chain-like manne . Today, he p oduc ion o coun e ei seals is no longe pa icula ly di icul due o
digi al echnology. Wi h only basic p in ing equipmen and design so wa e, coun e ei seals o high p ecision can be c ea ed. Many
p oduc ion si es ope a e co e ly unde he guise o p in ing o pho ocopy se ices, posing challenges o au ho i ies in de ec ing
and p o ing he o ense. This eali y unde sco es he u gen need o s eng hen in es iga i e measu es and p omo e in e -agency
coo dina ion o e ec i ely con ol he phenomenon.
Case 1: Due o inancial di icul ies, Le Nha T and Huynh Thao N concei ed he idea o p oducing coun e ei medical
examina ion ce i ica es o p o i . In Augus 2022, T sea ched he In e ne and pu chased one ound seal o “Dis ic S Hospi al”,
one squa e seal bea ing he wo ds “HEART – LUNGS NORMAL”, one squa e seal wi h he wo ds “DISTRICT S HOSPITAL –
FEES PAID”, one squa e seal wi h he wo ds “NEGATIVE”, oge he wi h six sample physician signa u es, all ob ained om an
uniden i ied indi idual. T acqui ed an au hen ic empla e o a Dis ic S Hospi al medical ce i ica e, pho ocopied i mul iple imes,
and p epa ed he necessa y equipmen , including a lap op, a colo p in e , and o he ools o manu ac u e coun e ei documen s. To
acili a e dis ibu ion, T c ea ed an online ne wo k h ough he websi e “Communi y Heal h”, a Facebook page en i led “Ins an
Medical Ce i ica es”, and a Zalo accoun “Communi y Heal h” o each po en ial cus ome s. In e es ed cus ome s would p o ide
hei phone numbe s, pho os, and deli e y add esses. Each coun e ei medical ce i ica e was sold o 170,000 VND, including
deli e y ees. A e ecei ing cus ome de ails, T inse ed he cus ome ’s pho og aph in o he empla e, illed in pe sonal in o ma ion,
and hen pe sonally signed and a ixed he coun e ei physician signa u es along wi h he seals o Dis ic S Hospi al. The audulen
ope a ion was e en ually de ec ed. Du ing in es iga ion, T and N admi ed o ha ing p oduced app oxima ely 600 coun e ei
medical ce i ica es, illici ly gaining a o al o 174,653,990 VND. Thei conduc was p osecu ed and bo h we e con ic ed o he
o ense o o ging seals and documen s o agencies o o ganiza ions unde A icle 341 o he Vie namese Penal Code.
1
In his case, T and N did no use he coun e ei medical ce i ica es o hemsel es, no did hey di ec ly employ hem o
commi o he c imes (such as aud o unlaw ul app op ia ion o p ope y o e asion o legal obliga ions). Ins ead, hey mass-
p oduced coun e ei medical ce i ica es o sale o indi iduals in need. This cons i u es a ypical o m o “pu e o ge y,” namely,
he manu ac u e and supply o alsi ied documen s, he eby ans o ming hem in o an illici “commodi y”. The 2015 Penal Code,
unde A icle 341, s ipula es ha he me e ac o o ging seals o documen s o an agency o o ganiza ion is su icien o cons i u e
a c iminal o ense, wi hou he necessi y o p o ing any esul ing ha m. In his case, he applica ion o A icle 341 was en i ely
app op ia e, gi en ha he conduc had al eady eached a high le el o social dange .
Secondly, o ge y o seals o documen s o agencies and o ganiza ions o he pu pose o legi imizing adminis a i e
p ocedu es:
1
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In p ac ice, his o m o o ge y is ela i ely common and se es a a ie y o pu poses, anging om legalizing p o essional
quali ica ions, oca ional ce i ica es, business licenses, and ehicle egis a ion pape s, o alsi ying medical eco ds o es esul s
in o de o ci cum en s a e egula o y equi emen s.
The common ea u e o his conduc is ha pe pe a o s do no me ely seek o ob ain o ged documen s o casual use, bu
mo e undamen ally aim o conceal hei lack o legal eligibili y o o ab ica e a alse legal s a us so as o engage in ac i i ies
o he wise es ic ed by law. Consequen ly, his ype o o ge y p oduces a dual dange : i unde mines he au hen ici y, c edibili y,
and au ho i y o s a e managemen , while simul aneously posing a di ec isk o social o de , public sa e y, and, in ce ain a eas such
as cons uc ion, heal hca e, and anspo a ion, e en he li es and p ope y o o he s.
Case 2: In July 2021, du ing he COVID-19 ou b eak, egula o y measu es equi ed indi iduals o p esen a nega i e
SARS-CoV-2 es esul o pass h ough qua an ine checkpoin s. Unwilling o ha e his employees unde go es ing and seeking o
sa e cos s, Chu Huu D concei ed he plan o ab ica e “SARS-CoV-2 Tes Resul ” ce i ica es o his deli e y s a . To ca y ou
his plan, on 14/8/2021 D bo owed an au hen ic “SARS-CoV-2 Tes Resul ” issued o T an Huu G (o iginally issued by he hospi al
on 04/7/2021). D scanned ha ce i ica e in o a PDF ile and s o ed i on his pe sonal compu e . Using Co elDRAW X7, D edi ed
he da e on he documen o 14/8/2021. He hen duplica ed he PDF, al e ed he con en o ead “Cao Hoang L, age: 0/4/2004”, and
changed he da e o 10/8/2021. A e comple ing he edi s, D p in ed wo colo copies o he “SARS-CoV-2 Tes Resul ”, one bea ing
he name T an Huu G and he o he bea ing he name Cao Hoang L. Du ing use, he coun e ei es esul s o G and L we e de ec ed
by en o cemen au ho i ies. Chu Huu D was con ic ed o he o ense o o ging seals and documen s o agencies and o ganiza ions
unde A icle 341 o he Penal Code.
2
In he abo e case, he SARS-CoV-2 es esul issued by he hospi al is legally ega ded as an adminis a i e medical
documen issued by a compe en au ho i y. I s unc ion is o ce i y a ac ual s a us di ec ly ela ed o public sa e y (nega i e/posi i e
esul ), he eby se ing as a condi ion o ul illing an adminis a i e p ocedu e, speci ically, passing qua an ine checkpoin s, which
equi ed p oo o a nega i e es esul du ing he COVID-19 pandemic. Acco dingly, such es esul s all wi hin he ca ego y o
o icial documen s o agencies and o ganiza ions p o ec ed by law. Howe e , D engaged in ac s o o ge y bo h in o m and in
subs ance: he scanned an au hen ic documen , digi ally al e ed i s con en s (da es and pe sonal names) using g aphic so wa e, and
p in ed ou o ged e sions o use. This conduc cons i u es he c ea ion o coun e ei documen s ha appea au hen ic while
con aining alsi ied in o ma ion. Pu suan o A icle 341 o he Penal Code, he o ense o o ging seals o documen s o agencies
and o ganiza ions is es ablished once he ac o o ge y occu s, wi hou equi ing any ma e ial consequence o a ise. The e o e, he
c iminal p osecu ion o D in his case was en i ely consis en wi h he cu en legisla i e app oach in Vie nam.
Case 3: Du ing a ou ine pa ol, he C iminal Police Team no iced Vu Hoang H beha ing suspiciously and p oceeded o
conduc an inspec ion. The o ice s disco e ed ha H was in possession o a p o essional cons uc ion p ac ice ce i ica e suspec ed
o be o ged. H was hen b ough in o u he in es iga ion. The in es iga ion e ealed ha H had also hi ed an uniden i ied
indi idual o ab ica e a coun e ei B2 d i e ’s license aining ce i ica e and a d i ing es esul summa y epo , paying 3,000,000
VND o he o ge ies. The pu pose o acqui ing hese documen s was o decei e law en o cemen o ice s du ing po en ial
inspec ions. Fu he inqui ies unco e ed ha T an Hoang M, who wo ked in he cons uc ion sec o , had epea edly been subjec o
adminis a i e penal ies due o his lack o a alid p o essional cons uc ion p ac ice ce i ica e. Wi hou such ce i ica ion, M was
legally ba ed om di ec ly unde aking cons uc ion con ac s and had o ely on o he s wi h p ope c eden ials. A ound Janua y
2022, M app oached H and eques ed assis ance in p ocu ing a o ged ce i ica e. H ag eed, s a ing ha he would hi e someone o
make he o ge y a a cos o 2,000,000 VND. M subsequen ly p o ided H wi h a pho ocopy o his iden i y ca d and a 4x6
pho og aph, along wi h de ails o he cons uc ion ield in which he ce i ica e was o be o ged, sending he in o ma ion ia Zalo.
Be o e M could ob ain he o ged documen , howe e , he was a es ed by he police. As a esul , bo h Vu Hoang H and T an Hoang
M we e con ic ed unde A icle 341 o he Vie namese Penal Code o he o ense o o ging seals and documen s o agencies and
o ganiza ions.
3
In his case, bo h Vu Hoang H and T an Hoang M engaged in he alsi ica ion o documen s wi h he in en o legi imizing
adminis a i e p ocedu es in he ields o cons uc ion managemen and oad a ic. Speci ically, H p ocu ed o ged documen s,
including a cons uc ion p ac ice ce i ica e, a d i e ’s license, and a d i ing es eco d, o he pu pose o ci cum en ing inspec ion
by compe en au ho i ies. Simila ly, M, who had been es ic ed in his p o essional ac i i ies and was unable o independen ly
pa icipa e in cons uc ion ende s, eques ed H o ob ain a o ged cons uc ion p ac ice ce i ica e in o de o sa is y he o mal legal
equi emen s o p ojec bidding. Thus, nei he H no M me ely “possessed” coun e ei documen s o p i a e use; a he , hei
objec i e was o c ea e he appea ance o legal eligibili y and o o malize adminis a i e p ocedu es so as ei he o pa icipa e in
egula ed ac i i ies o o e ade s a e con ol. This elemen is cen al o assessing he heigh ened social dange posed by hei conduc .
F om a legal pe spec i e, al hough A icle 341 o he 2015 Penal Code es ablishes c iminal liabili y o he ac o alsi ying
seals and documen s issued by s a e bodies and o ganiza ions, p ac ice demons a es ha he demand o “p ocedu al legi imiza ion”
2
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IJSSHR, Volume 08 Issue 10 Oc obe 2025 www.ijssh .in Page 7894
h ough o ged documen s emains widesp ead. This, in u n, sus ains a pe sis en “unde g ound ma ke ” o he p oduc ion and
ci cula ion o coun e ei pape s. Acco dingly, beyond imposing s ic c iminal sanc ions, i is necessa y o he S a e o ein o ce
mechanisms o elec onic au hen ica ion, enhance in e -agency da a connec i i y, and mo e explici ly de ine he legal
esponsibili ies o indi iduals who use o ged documen s o he pu pose o legi imizing adminis a i e p ocedu es.
Thi dly, alsi ica ion o seals and documen s o agencies and o ganiza ions o he pu pose o commi ing o he c imes:
One o he mos p e alen o ms o documen alsi ica ion is when o ged seals and documen s a e employed as ins umen s
o commi ing o he o enses, pa icula ly aud, embezzlemen , abuse o posi ion and powe , o a ious economic c imes. Judicial
p ac ice demons a es ha , in many cases, o ende s do no me ely s op a p oducing coun e ei documen s; a he , hei ul ima e
aim is o use such o ged pape s as ools o misapp op ia e asse s o ob ain unlaw ul bene i s. Examples include o ging land use
igh ce i ica es o secu e bank loans, ab ica ing pe sonal iden i y eco ds o app op ia e p ope y, o alsi ying o icial employmen
pape s and academic diplomas in o de o ob ain posi ions wi hin s a e ins i u ions.
This ype o conduc no only unde mines he au hen ici y and c edibili y o s a e-issued documen s bu also gene a es mo e
se e e legal consequences compa ed o ac s o “me e ab ica ion.” In nume ous cases, o ged documen s ha e become he “ga eway”
enabling la ge-scale aud, esul ing in subs an ial inancial losses and e oding public us in adminis a i e and judicial sys ems.
Acco dingly, he social dange posed by such conduc is conside ed pa icula ly g a e. This also explains why, in judicial p ac ice,
cou s equen ly impose s ic e sanc ions, some imes applying mul iple cha ges concu en ly ( o example, A icle 341 in
conjunc ion wi h A icle 174 o he Penal Code on aud and misapp op ia ion o p ope y).
Case 4: On 13 No embe 2023, Nguyen Minh T ab ica ed a land use igh ans e con ac and o ged he signa u e o
no a y Vo Thuy L, oge he wi h he signa u es o La Van H, T an Thanh S, and T an Thi C. He also coun e ei ed he seal bea ing
he wo ds “NOTARY,” he pe sonal seal o “Vo Thuy L,” and he o icial ound seal o No a y O ice C, wi h he in en o
misapp op ia e 100,000,000 VND om M . La Van H. The audulen conduc was de ec ed, and T was p osecu ed o audulen
app op ia ion o p ope y (A icle 174 o he Penal Code) in conjunc ion wi h o ge y o seals and documen s o agencies and
o ganiza ions (A icle 341 o he Penal Code).
4
The case o Nguyen Minh T se es as a ypical illus a ion o alsi ica ion o seals and documen s o he pu pose o
commi ing aud. The essence o he conduc was no limi ed o he “p oduc ion” o o ged ins umen s; a he , he o ged
documen s unc ioned as he di ec means o c ea ing us , legi imizing he ansac ion, and he eby decei ing and dispossessing
he ic im. This demons a es he close nexus be ween A icle 341 o he Penal Code and A icle 174 on audulen app op ia ion
o p ope y. F om a legal pe spec i e, he conduc was o pa icula social dange because i no only unde mined he au hen ici y
and c edibili y o no a ial ac i i ies, which se e as a sa egua d o he legali y o ci il and comme cial ansac ions, bu also di ec ly
caused inancial loss o he ic im. No a iza ion is in ended o ope a e as a “legal shield” p o ec ing he law ul in e es s o pa ies in
ansac ions; howe e , he coun e ei ing o no a ial seals and signa u es e odes public con idence in bo h no a ial ins i u ions and
he judicial sys em a la ge. In e ms o c iminal liabili y, he Cou ’s decision o con ic unde bo h o enses was en i ely
app op ia e. The o ense o o ge y unde A icle 341 add esses he in ingemen upon he S a e’s adminis a i e managemen o de ,
whe eas he o ense o aud unde A icle 174 e lec s he immedia e ha m ul consequence o p ope y misapp op ia ion. Such dual
quali ica ion o he conduc ensu es comp ehensi e adjudica ion and a i ms he p inciple ha whe e a single cou se o conduc
in inges mul iple dis inc legal in e es s, he o ende mus bea c iminal liabili y o each co esponding o ense.
Case 5: In ea ly No embe 2017, Nguyen Van T en ed a sel -d i e ca om Le Van C, he owne o a ca en al se ice,
unde a en-day lease con ac . C handed o e he ehicle oge he wi h i s accompanying documen s, including he ehicle
egis a ion ce i ica e, inspec ion ce i ica e, and insu ance ce i ica e. Upon he expi a ion o he lease, T e u ned he ca o C and
signed a new en al con ac o ano he e m. Du ing he en al pe iod, T me D, who exp essed in e es in pu chasing he ehicle.
T ob ained D’s phone numbe and p omised o con ac him once he had a ca a ailable. A ha ime, T was hea ily indeb ed and,
lacking he means o epay his deb s, concei ed he plan o selling he en ed ca o ob ain money o pe sonal use. To ca y ou his
scheme, T loca ed an online accoun ia Facebook o e ing coun e ei documen s. T p o ided he pe sonal de ails o Le Van C and
he ehicle in o ma ion, and o de ed a alsi ied iden i y ca d and a o ged ehicle egis a ion ce i ica e in he name o Le Van C,
o he p ice o 1,500,000 VND. On 25 No embe 2017, T me D a a ca é, in oduced himsel as Le Van C, and p esen ed he
o ged documen s. On ha basis, T and D concluded a pu chase ag eemen o he ehicle in he amoun o 580,000,000 VND. On
14 Decembe 2017, when C a emp ed o con ac T o demand he e u n o he ehicle, T eques ed an ex ension o he lease and
hen cu o all communica ion. The audulen scheme was subsequen ly unco e ed, and Nguyen Van T was con ic ed o
bo h o ge y o documen s o agencies and o ganiza ions (A icle 341 o he Penal Code) and audulen app op ia ion o
p ope y (A icle 174 o he Penal Code).
5
The case o Nguyen Van T, who en ed a sel -d i e ca and subsequen ly o ged he ehicle egis a ion ce i ica e, iden i y
ca d, and ela ed documen s in o de o esell he en ed ca o a hi d pa y o 580,000,000 VND, cons i u es a ypical example
4
Sup eme People’s Cou , O icial Elec onic Po al o he Publica ion o Judgmen s and Decisions o he Cou s; A ailable a :
h ps://congbobanan. oaan.go . n/2 a1886920 1c n/chi- ie -ban-an
5
Sup eme People’s Cou , O icial Elec onic Po al o he Publica ion o Judgmen s and Decisions o he Cou s; A ailable a :
h ps://congbobanan. oaan.go . n/2 a1864916 1c n/chi- ie -ban-an
IJSSHR, Volume 08 Issue 10 Oc obe 2025 www.ijssh .in Page 7895
o o ge y o seals and documen s o agencies and o ganiza ions o he pu pose o audulen app op ia ion o p ope y. The
essence o he decei ul conduc lies in he use o o ged documen s o conceal he u h and c ea e he imp ession o he buye (M .
D) ha he ansac ion was law ul, he eby enabling he misapp op ia ion o p ope y o conside able alue. F om a legal pe spec i e,
T’s conduc in inged upon wo dis inc legal in e es s: (i) he S a e’s adminis a i e managemen o de , h ough he alsi ica ion
and use o documen s issued by compe en au ho i ies; and (ii) he p ope y igh s o indi iduals, by unlaw ully app op ia ing M .
D’s money and w ong ully e aining M . C’s ehicle. Acco dingly, he cou ’s decision o con ic T o bo h o ences unde A icle
341 o he Penal Code ( o ge y o seals and documen s o agencies and o ganiza ions) and A icle 174 ( audulen app op ia ion o
p ope y) was consis en wi h he p inciples o c iminal law, ensu ing ha he c iminal liabili y accu a ely e lec ed he na u e and
ull scope o he o ending conduc . A no able ea u e o his case is he ins umen al ole o he o ged documen s. They no only
se ed o “legi imize” he pu po ed owne ship o he ca bu also unc ioned as he decisi e means o decei ing he ic im,
pe suading him ha he selle was indeed he law ul owne . Wi hou such o ged documen s, i would ha e been di icul o T o
success ully ca y ou he audulen scheme. This demons a es he in insic link be ween he o ence o o ge y o seals and
documen s o agencies and o ganiza ions and p ope y- ela ed o ences o app op ia ion. F om a b oade social s andpoin , he case
unde sco es he ala ming ease wi h which indi iduals can access documen - o ging se ices ia social ne wo ks. Wi h minimal cos
and wi hin a sho ime ame, T was able o ob ain a comple e se o o ged pape s su icien o mislead he ic im and alida e an
unlaw ul ansac ion. This eali y calls o u gen measu es, including: (i) s ic e egula ion o p in ing and p oduc ion o o icial
documen s; (ii) mo e igo ous o e sigh o ci il ansac ions o signi ican alue; and (iii) he de elopmen o elec onic da abases
o acili a e swi e i ica ion and au hen ica ion o documen s, he eby educing he isks o o ge y and i s use in c iminal ac i i y.
F om he o egoing case s udies, i becomes e iden ha A icle 341 o he Penal Code me ely se s ou a gene al p o ision
on he o ence o o ge y o seals and documen s o agencies and o ganiza ions, wi hou p o iding de ailed guidance on
dis inguishing be ween ins ances o “independen o ge y” and hose o o ge y commi ed wi h he pu pose o acili a ing ano he
o ence. In p ac ice, once o ged documen s a e ac ually employed in he commission o ano he c ime, p osecu ing au ho i ies o en
pu sue cha ges o bo h o ences simul aneously. Howe e , his app oach can gi e ise o di icul ies in applica ion, pa icula ly
whe e i is necessa y o es ablish whe he he “in en o commi ano he c ime” exis ed om he ou se . Acco dingly, o ensu e
consis ency in judicial p ac ice, i is essen ial ha he Sup eme People’s Cou o he Sup eme People’s P ocu acy issue in e p e a i e
guidance on his ma e . F om a p e en i e pe spec i e, he de elopmen and implemen a ion o digi al mechanisms o documen
e i ica ion and au hen ica ion, such as QR codes o na ional elec onic da abases, would signi ican ly educe he po en ial o o ged
documen s o be exploi ed in c iminal ac i i ies.
Recommenda ions
F om he o egoing analysis o he cu en legal amewo k and judicial p ac ice conce ning he o ence o o ge y o seals
and documen s o agencies and o ganiza ions, i is appa en ha , al hough he 2015 Penal Code (as amended in 2017 and 2025) has
es ablished an impo an legal basis o add essing his ca ego y o o ences, a numbe o di icul ies emain in p ac ice.
The apid de elopmen o digi al echnologies, he p oli e a ion o elec onic ansac ions, and he g owing demand o he
legaliza ion o adminis a i e p ocedu es o he commission o p ope y- ela ed c imes ha e ende ed o ge y me hods inc easingly
sophis ica ed and complex. Technological ad ances and image-p ocessing so wa e ha e become widely accessible, while low-cos
scanne s and p in e s acili a e he al e a ion o documen s wi h ela i e ease (Ran ee Sukhija, Munish Kuma & M. K. Jindal,
2025). Agains his backd op, he need o imp o e he legal amewo k and enhance he e ec i eness o i s applica ion is p essing,
no only o ensu e de e ence bu also o mee p e en i e equi emen s in he new con ex . On his basis, he au ho ad ances he
ollowing ecommenda ions:
Fi s ly, i is necessa y o p o ide a mo e p ecise de ini ion o he scope o “seals and documen s o agencies and
o ganiza ions.” In a numbe o cases, ac s o o ge y ha e no been con ined o adi ional pape -based documen s (such as iden i y
ca ds, passpo s, o land-use igh ce i ica es), bu ha e also ex ended o elec onic eco ds, digi al da a, and elec onic signa u es.
The de ini ion o “documen ” has expanded beyond physical pape s o encompass elec onic eco ds, digi al images, and in angible
o ms o da a. This b oade concep ualiza ion aligns wi h he mode n digi al en i onmen in which in angible o ms o in o ma ion
may possess ull legal signi icance (Sadullae Jaxongi Djamshedo ich, 2025). Fo ins ance, in he case o Chu Huu D, he accused
o ged a Co id-19 es ce i ica e by scanning and digi ally al e ing a PDF ile. Howe e , he cu en law p o ides no explici
guidance on whe he such elec onic documen s all wi hin he ambi o A icle 341 o he Penal Code. This legal gap c ea es
unce ain y in adjudica ion and ca ies he isk o o ende s escaping liabili y. Acco dingly, he s a u o y de ini ion mus be expanded
and cla i ied o explici ly co e elec onic documen s and digi al da a, he eby ensu ing consis ency wi h he eali ies o he digi al
ans o ma ion p ocess.
Secondly, a clea dis inc ion mus be d awn be ween ac s o o ge y commi ed o pe sonal use and ac s o o ge y in ended
as ins umen s o he commission o o he c imes. In p ac ice, ce ain cases in ol e o ge y me ely o legi imize adminis a i e
o mali ies ( o example, he use o a coun e ei p o essional ce i ica e in cons uc ion o a oid adminis a i e penal ies). In
con as , o he cases in ol e o ge ies se ing as essen ial ools o commi aud and misapp op ia e p ope y (such as Nguyen Van
T, who used alsi ied documen s o sell a en ed ca ). Ye , in judicial p ac ice, cou s o en apply A icle 341 in conjunc ion wi h
o he o ences, which c ea es di icul y in dema ca ing he bounda ies o c iminal liabili y. Fo his eason, au ho i a i e guidance
