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E a o polymnioides- a no el Hg hype accumula o plan in 1
ecuado ian ain o es acid soils wi h po en ial o mic obe-2
associa ed phy o emedia ion 3
4
I ene Chamba 5
Depa amen o de Química 6
Uni e sidad Técnica Pa icula de Loja 7
San Caye ano Al o s/n, 8 110104 Loja, Ecuado . 9 Phone: (+593) 7 370 1444 ex 3024 10 i [email protected] 11 12
Daniel Rosado* 13
Depa amen o de Química y Ciencias Exac as 14
Uni e sidad Técnica Pa icula de Loja 15
San Caye ano Al o s/n, 16 110104 Loja, Ecuado . 17 Phone: (+593) 7 370 1444 ex 3041 18
dj osado@u pl.edu.ec 19
20
Depa amen o de Ingenie ía Química y Ambien al 21
Uni e sidad de Se illa 22
Camino de los descub imien os s/n, 23 41092 Se illa, Spain. 24 Phone: (+34) 954 487 274 25
dan [email protected] 26
27
Ca olina Kalinho 28
Depa amen o de Ciencias Na u ales 29
Uni e sidad Técnica Pa icula de Loja 30
San Caye ano Al o s/n, 31 110104 Loja, Ecuado . 32 Phone: (+593) 7 370 1444 ex 3024 33
cgkalinho @u pl.edu.ec 34
35
Thangaswamy Sel a aj 36
Depa amen o de Ciencias Na u ales 37
Uni e sidad Técnica Pa icula de Loja 38
San Caye ano Al o s/n, 39 110104 Loja, Ecuado . 40 Phone: (+593) 7 370 1444 ex 3024 41
sel a aj [email protected] 42
43
Aminael Sánchez-Rod íguez
44
Depa amen o de Ciencias Na u ales 45
Uni e sidad Técnica Pa icula de Loja 46
San Caye ano Al o s/n, 47
*Re ised manusc ip wi h no changes ma ked
Click he e o iew linked Re e ences
HIGHLIGHTS:
Hg accumula ion capaci y was s udied in h ee plan species.
Hg in acid soil s udied is highe han he Ecuado ian h eshold (0.1 mg kg-1).
Concen a ions o Hg in oo s and lea es we e highe han in s ems.
All plan s showed a buscula myco hizal ungi coloniza ion in hei oo s.
E a o polymnioides showed high po en ial as an Hg hype accumula o .
*Highligh s (3 o 5 bulle poin s (maximum 85 cha ac e s including spaces pe bulle poin )
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110104 Loja, Ecuado . 48 Phone: (+593) 7 370 1444 ex 3024 49 asanchez2@u pl.edu.ec 50
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Manuel Jesús Gazquez 52
Depa amen o de Física Aplicada 53
Escuela Supe io de Ingenie ía 54
Uni e sidad de Cádiz 55
Campus de Pue o Real a enida República Saha ahui s/n 56
11510, Pue o Real, Cádiz, España 57
Phone: (+34) 956 01 60 78 58
manuel.gazquez.[email p o ec ed]m 59
60
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR: 61
* Depa amen o de Química y Ciencias Exac as, Uni e sidad Técnica Pa icula de Loja, San Caye ano Al o 62
s/n, 11 01 608 Loja, Ecuado . Tel.: (+593) 7 370 1444 ex 3041; E-mail add ess: dj osad[email p o ec ed] 63
(Daniel Jesús Rosado Alca ia). 64
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Abs ac 67
Me cu y (Hg) accumula ion capaci y was assessed in h ee plan species (Axonopus 68
comp essus, E a o polymnioides, and Miconia zamo ensis) ha g ow on soils pollu ed by 69
a isanal small-scale gold mines in he Ecuado ian ain o es . Indi iduals o h ee species 70
we e collec ed a wo sampling zones: i) an in ensi e zone (IZ, 4.8 mg Hg kg-1 o soil) 71
whe e gold ex ac ion con inues o occu , and ii) a na u al zone (NZ, 0.19 mg Hg kg-1 o 72
soil). In addi ion, he pe cen age o a buscula myco hizal ungi (AMF) coloniza ion was 73
de e mined in plan oo s and se en ungal mo pho ypes isola ed om hizosphe ic soil. 74
Resul s sugges a acili a ion ole o na i e and pollu ion adap ed AMF on Hg 75
phy oaccumula ion. E.g., E. polymnioides inc eased Hg accumula ion when g owing wi h 76
g ea e AMF coloniza ion. We concluded ha E. polymnioides is a good candida e o he 77
design o mic obe-assis ed s a egies o Hg emedia ion a gold mining a eas. The 78
conso ia be ween E. polymnioides and he AMF isola ed in his s udy could be 79
ins umen al o ge a deepe unde s anding o he AMF ole in Hg phy oaccumula ion. 80
81
Keywo ds: Hea y me als; bio emedia ion; pollu ion; a isanal scale gold mining; 82
a buscula myco hizal ungi; sou he n Ecuado 83
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1. In oduc ion 85
Gold (Au) p ice has ipled in he las 10 yea s and a isanal small-scale gold mining 86
(ASGM) has inc eased subs an ially in u al a eas all o e he wo ld (Ga cía e al., 2015; 87
Veiga e al., 2014). A ound 16 million people a e di ec ly in ol ed in his ac i i y 88
nowadays, p oducing 380-450 ons o gold annually. In many cases, he p ocess used in 89
ASGM o Au ex ac ion is me cu y (Hg) amalgama ion, ha consis s in g inding he 90
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mine al ( aw ma e ial) and mixing i wi h Hg (Secca o e e al., 2014). Du ing 91
amalgama ion, an Au-Hg alloy is p oduced and hea ed in open essels o sepa a e bo h 92
me als om undesi ed ma e . Pu e Au and ola ilized Hg a e hen ob ained. 93
94
Hg is one o he mos oxic hea y me als and a global pollu an ha biomagni ies h ough 95
he ood chain, posing a h ea o human and animal heal h (Na a o e al., 2009; Pi one e 96
al., 2009). ASGM using amalgama ion is es ima ed o elease in o he en i onmen 37% o 97
global ai emissions o Hg and 1400 ons yea -1 o Hg di ec ly o he soil and wa e sheds 98
(Gibb and O’Lea y, 2014). I is also esponsible o Hg emissions ha lead o massi e 99
ae ial Hg con amina ion and pollu ion o e es ial ecosys ems h ough ain all deposi ion 100
(727 ons yea -1) no only a ASMG si es bu also a o he a eas (Secca o e e al., 2014; 101
Uni ed Na ions En i onmen P og amme, 2013). Anomalously high concen a ions o Hg 102
(o e 4 mg Hg kg-1 soil) a e epo ed by se e al s udies whe e e he Hg amalgama ion 103
p ocess is p ac iced (Ga cía e al., 2015; Te án-Mi a e al., 2013). Howe e , ola iliza ion 104
o Hg om soil and wa e occu s and Hg e u ns o he a mosphe e gene a ing a cycle, wi h 105
ola iliza ion om soil being mo e ele an han om he oceans (Bje egaa d and 106
Ande sen, 2007). Plan s con ibu e o ola iliza ion o Hg by up aking Hg om soil and 107
eleasing i in o he a mosphe e h ough s oma a in a p ocess called phy o ola iliza ion (Ali 108
e al., 2013). 109
110
Communi ies li ing nea by and downs eam ASGM a e exposed o Hg apo , and egula ly 111
consume ood hea ily con amina ed wi h me hyl me cu y (MeHg) (Gibb and O’Lea y, 112
2014). Elemen al Hg and MeHg a e oxic o he ne ous, diges i e, and immune sys em. 113
They can cause men al e a da ion, seizu es, ision and hea ing loss, delayed de elopmen , 114
language diso de s, and memo y loss, being a al in some cases (Wo ld Heal h 115
O ganiza ion, 2006). Reducing he impac s o ASGM on human heal h and he 116
en i onmen has become a majo conce n o socie y and many go e nmen s wo ldwide. 117
Thus, educing he use o Hg in ASGM was included in he Minama a Con en ion on Hg, 118
signed in 2013 in Minaman a, Japan (Uni ed Na ions En i onmen P og amme, 2013). 119
120
Se e al echniques o encapsula e and s abilize Hg a e being esea ched o educe he 121
impac o Hg emissions a ASGM si es, such as bio emedia ion and, especially, 122
phy o emedia ion (Mani and Kuma , 2014). Hg phy o emedia ion wi h so called me al 123
hype accumula o plan s has a ac ed in e es as an inexpensi e, low-impac and isually 124
benign echnique compa ed o adi ional physical app oaches (Lo es ani e al., 2012). 125
126
His o ically, he e m "hype accumula o " has unde gone signi ican changes since i was 127
de ined by B ooks e al. (1977). The i s de ini ion was "plan s wi h Ni concen a ions 128
highe han 1000 mg kg-1 d y weigh”. La e , Bake and B ooks (1989) ex ended he concep 129
o mo e me als and de ined hype accumula o s as plan species which accumula e g ea e 130
han 100 mg kg-1 d y weigh Cd, o g ea e han 1000 mg kg-1 d y weigh Ni, Cu and Pb o 131
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g ea e han 10000 mg kg-1 d y weigh Zn and Mn in hei shoo s. Howe e , o he au ho s 132
sugges ha c i e ia a e unnecessa ily conse a i e ( an de En e al., 2013). Nowadays, 133
hype accumula o s a e de ined as plan s ha achie e 100- old highe shoo me al 134
concen a ion, compa ed o c op plan s o common non-accumula o plan s (Ba celó and 135
Poschen iede , 2003; Chamba e al., 2016; Redondo-Gómez, 2013). Thus, hey ha e 136
emendous po en ial o emedia ion o me als in he en i onmen . 137
138
Many plan species ha e been ca aloged as Hg hype accumula o s (Angle e al., 2001; 139
Lo es ani e al., 2012), e.g. Ja opha cu cas and Pipe ma gina hum om opical 140
ain o es s and Rumex indu a us and Ma ubium ulga e om he Ibe ian Peninsula. P. 141
ma gina hum eached Hg issue concen a ions in he ange o 0.53-6 mg kg-1 (Ma ugo-142
Neg e e e al., 2016) and hose om he Ibe ian Peninsula showed 8.3-67.2 mg kg-1 o Hg 143
in hei oo s (Mo eno-Jiménez e al., 2006). P asad and De Oli ei a (2003) ound 144
As e aceae amily membe s as one o he bes hype accumula o plan species and a good 145
candida e o phy o emedia ion compa ed o se e al o ganism, including myco hizal and 146
non-myco hizal ungi, abou 400 hype accumula ing ag icul u al, ege able c ops and 147
o namen als plan s (As e aceae, B assicaceae, Ca yophyllaceae, Cype aceae, 148
Cunouniaceae, Fabaceae, Flacou iaceae, Lamiaceae, Poaceae, Violaceae, and 149
Euphobiaceae). 150
151
Finding na i e hype accumula o plan s o he ASGM a eas has gained a en ion du ing 152
ecen yea s. Na i e me al hype accumula o plan s a e ha mless o na i e biodi e si y, 153
equi e less handling and acclima iza ion and a e also, in mos cases, highly ole an o he 154
con aminan s ha need o be emo ed (Sa ma, 2011). Howe e , na i e hype accumula o 155
plan s a e di icul o cul i a e some imes, and may ha e low g ow h a es and biomass, 156
lowe ing he me al up ake (Gol apeh e al., 2013). In his sense, myco hizal ungi li e 157
associa ed o mos o he highe plan s in di e en o ms, wi h a buscula myco hizal ungi 158
(AMF) associa ions wi h he oo s o e es ial plan s being he mos widesp ead. AMF 159
modi y he bioa ailabili y and mobili y o oxic me als in he soil and acili a e me al 160
up ake by he plan s as well as inc ease he hos plan s biomass p oduc ion in pollu ed 161
ecosys ems (Leung e al., 2013; Teixei a e al., 2014). AMF cons i u e a b idge o nu ien 162
and hea y me al anspo om soils o plan oo s, such as N, P, K, Ca, S, Zn, Co, Ni and 163
Cu h ough ex ensi e hyphal ne wo k. They also bind me als in he hyphae ou side he oo , 164
p e en ing me als o mo e o he ae ial pa s o he plan and, in he case o Hg, p e en ing 165
ola iliza ion oo (Sa wa e al., 2017). Then, na i e AMF ha e a isen as p omising 166
al e na i e and as an inno a i e ool o eplace o supplemen p esen ea men p ocesses 167
in o de o assis phy o emedia ion. 168
169
This esea ch has wo main objec i es. Fi s ly, o assess he po en ial o h ee na i e plan s 170
as Hg hype accumula o s in Chinapin za (Zamo a-Chinchipe p o ince, sou heas Ecuado ), 171
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a si e wi h a long ASGM adi ion. Secondly, o e alua e AMF coloniza ion in he plan 172
species and he spo es o he mos p ominen AMF isola ed. 173
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2. Ma e ials and Me hods 175
2.1. S udy a ea 176
As shown in Figu e 1, he s udy a ea is loca ed in Chinapin za (Zamo a-Chinchipe 177
P o ince, sou heas Ecuado ), beside he Condo moun ain ange, nea o he Pe u ian 178
bo de (a 1854 masl; 4°02'16.6"S 78°34'14.9"W). Zamo a-Chinchipe P o ince is well 179
known by i s ASGM ac i i y: a ound 23% (282.998 ha) o he o al su ace is dedica ed o 180
ASGM (Sache and Báez, 2011). The s udy a ea was di ided in o wo zones: (1) a na u al 181
zone (NZ) ee o in luence o ASGM and (2) an in ensi e zone (IZ) highly de e io a ed by 182
ASGM ha con inues o occu . 183
184 Figu e 1. Map o he sampling poin s. 185
186
2.2. Plan and soil sampling and p ocessing 187
Th ee abundan plan s p esen in NZ and IZ we e selec ed as po en ial Hg 188
hype accumula o s: Axonopus comp essus (SW.) P. Beau (Poaceae), E a o polymnioides 189
DC. (As e aceae), and Miconia zamo ensis Gleason (Melas oma aceae). Se en indi iduals 190
o each species and hei hizosphe e soil we e aken as samples in each o he wo zones, 191
i.e. a o al o 42 indi iduals and i s su ounding soil. 192
193
Acco ding o he ecommenda ions o Tack and Ve loo (1996), sampling ook place a 194
om ac i e oads and he su ace o he esh plan ma e ial was checked o be ee o dus . 195
In he labo a o y, plan samples we e washed wi h ul a-pu e wa e (Me ck-Millipo e Milli-196
Q), placed in o pape bags and d ied in an o en a 60°C o one week. Soil samples (0.5-1.0 197
kg each) we e d ied a 60°C un il cons an weigh . D ied samples (plan issues and soil) 198
we e weighed and mechanically g ounded using a s ainless s eel g inde (pa icle diame e 199
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100 μm) o diges ion. In he case o A. comp essus, expe imen s we e ca ied ou only in 200
oo s and lea es, since i lacks o a eal s em. A. comp essus shows a pseudo s em o med 201
by igh ly packed o e lapping lea shea hs, like in o he membe s o Poaceae amily. 202
203
2.3. Soil physicochemical pa ame e s 204
Soil pH was de e mined on a soil:wa e mix u e (1:2.5) by a po en iome ic me hod 205
(Jawo ska e al., 2016). Soil o ganic ma e (SOM) was de e mined by he Walkley & 206
Black me hod (Rial e al., 2016; Walkley and Black, 1934). A ailable phospho us (P), 207
ino ganic ni ogen (NH4) and po assium (K), we e ex ac ed in an Olsen modi ied ex ac 208
pH 8.5 (Olsen and Somme s, 1982), and quan i ied by pho ocolo ime y-blue 209
phosphomolybda e (P), pho ocolo ime y-blue indo enol (NH4), and a omic abso p ion 210
spec oscopy (AAS). Ca ionic exchange capaci y (CEC) was measu ed in ammonium 211
ace a e bu e ed a pH 7 wi h ba ium chlo ide, and inally soil ex u e was de e mined by 212
he me hod o Bouyucos (Day, 1982). All measu emen s we e pe o med on se en 213
eplica es. 214
215
2.4. Hg quan i ica ion in soil and plan samples 216
D ied samples we e weighed, 0.2 g o each plan issue ( oo s, s em and lea es) pe 217
indi idual and 1 g o hizosphe e soil, and we e le o soak in aqua egia, i.e. a mix u e o 218
HCl and HNO3 in a 3:1 a io ( / ), o a week. Nex , hey we e diges ed on an open hea 219
block (en i onmen al exp ess 54 Ho block SC154) o 2 h. A e cooling, he samples we e 220
dilu ed o 100 ml wi h HCl 0.1 M and s o ed un il me al de e mina ion. To al Hg 221
concen a ion was de e mined ollowing he hyd ide-gene a ion echnique in an a omic 222
abso p ion spec opho ome e (Pe kin-Elme , AANALYST-400). A Hg s anda d calib a ion 223
cu e (100, 200, and 300 μgl-1) was p epa ed in 10 ml o an acid mix u e con aining 1.5% 224
HNO3 by iplica es. Two blank samples we e also un simul aneously o es ima e 225
backg ound me al con amina ion om he diges ion p ocedu e. Fo each sample, 10 ml o 226
acid mix u e con aining 1.5% HNO3 we e added o 5 mL o he diges ion mix u e (p epa ed 227
by iplica es). Hg was de e mined using an aqueous solu ion o 3% (w/ ) NaBH4 in a 1% 228
(w/ ) NaOH solu ion eshly p epa ed and il e ed as educing agen . An elec odeless 229
discha ge lamp was used (Olmedo e al., 2013). Analy ical g ade chemical eagen s and 230
highly pu i ied deionized wa e we e always used. 231
232
2.5. Hg phy oex ac ion capaci y calcula ion 233
To e alua e he Hg phy oex ac ion capaci y o selec ed plan species, he bioaccumula ion 234
ac o (BF) was calcula ed as he a io be ween he Hg concen a ions in 3 plan issues 235
( oo , s em, lea es) and hose in i s co esponding hizosphe e soil sample: BF=C issue/Csoil 236
(González and González-Chá ez, 2006). C issue and Csoil a e Hg concen a ions (mg Hg kg-1 237
o d y weigh ). To e alua e he plan s abili y o ans e Hg om soil o hei ae ial pa s, 238
he ansloca ion ac o (TF) was calcula ed as he a io be ween Hg concen a ions in ae ial 239
plan pa s (lea es and s em) and hose in he plan oo : TF= Cae ial/C oo s (Chopin e al., 240
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2008; Conesa e al., 2006). Cae ial and C oo s a e Hg concen a ions (mg Hg kg-1 o d y 241
weigh ). 242
243
2.6. Quan i ica ion o AMF coloniza ion and spo es mo pho ypes 244
Roo samples om he h ee species we e collec ed a he NZ and he IZ o de e mine he 245
p esence o AMF coloniza ion (%AMFcol). Roo s we e washed ho oughly wi h unning 246
wa e o emo e o ganic deb is and soil pa icles and cu in o small segmen s o 1 cm in 247
leng h. AMF coloniza ion was assessed in each oo segmen ollowing he me hod o 248
(Gio anne i and Mosse, 1980). B ie ly, oo segmen s we e s ained wi h 0.05% yphan 249
blue in lac ophenol, and hen washed wi h clea lac ophenol o emo e he excess o he 250
colo an . A o al o 25 s ained oo segmen s we e andomly selec ed o each plan species 251
and moun ed on mic oscopic slides ( i e segmen s pe slide). AMF coloniza ion was hen 252
assessed mic oscopically based on he p esence o a blue s ain. The pe cen age o oo 253
coloniza ion was calcula ed pe plan species using he a io o e ec i ely s ained segmen s 254
(p esence o coloniza ion) o he o al o mic oscopically analyzed oo segmen s o he 255
pa icula species pe 100. Measu emen s we e pe o med o h ee eplica es o each plan 256
species in wo sampling zones. 257
258
AMF mo pho ypes associa ed wi h he oo s o E. polymnioides and M. zamo ensis we e 259
isola ed h ough he es ablishmen o ap cul u es. Fi e izosphe ic soil samples pe plan 260
species we e placed in 2 l po s plan ed wi h a highly colonizable plan hos (A ena sa i a 261
L.) du ing i e mon hs. To ill each po , esh izosphe ic soil samples we e 1:1 mixed wi h 262
s e ilized qua zi ic sand (s eam-s e ilize ed sand a 100°C o h pe iods o wo hou s each). 263
A e plan ing, A. sa i a plan s we e subjec ed o a egime o i iga ion suspension o wo 264
weeks o u he p omo e AMF spo ula ion (Mo on e al., 1995). AMF spo es ha 265
occu ed in ap po s a e i e mon hs we e isola ed by sie ing 50 g o soil ollowed by 266
cen i uga ion in suc ose, as ecommended by Sie e ding e al. (1991). Pools o spo es 267
sha ing he same mo phology we e c ea ed unde a s e eomic oscope (40x) and u he 268
sepa a ed in o mo pho ypes by colo and size. Pho og aphs o each mo pho ype we e 269
ob ained om pe manen mic oscope slides p epa ed using poly inyl alcohol-lac ic acid-270
glyce in (PVLG) (Koske and Tessie , 1983) as moun ing media unde a compound 271
mic oscope. Mo pho ypes we e mo phologically desc ibed based on he numbe , size and 272
o namen a ion o spo e walls, eac ion o Melze eagen (iodine-po assium iodide-chlo al 273
hyd a e), and o he c i e ia such as ype o hyphal a achmen s and cica ix i p esen . 274
Taxonomic iden i ica ion down o gene a le el and o species le el when possible was 275
pe o med acco ding o an on-line AMF species ca alogue and desc ip ions a ailable a he 276
In e na ional Cul u e Collec ion o Myco hizal Fungi web si e 277
(h p://in am.ca .w u.edu/index.h ml) ollowing he classi ica ion gi en by some au ho s 278
(Redecke e al., 2013). 279
280
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2.7. S a is ical analysis 281
SPSS e sion 20 so wa e was used o ca y ou - es s and ANOVA es s. The es was 282
used o de e mine whe he he e we e signi ican di e ences be ween wo means 283
co esponding o wo g oups. Fo example, es was used o elucida e i he e we e 284
signi ican di e ences be ween bo h zones in soil physicochemical pa ame e s. The 285
ANOVA es was used o es ablish signi ican di e ences be ween mo e han wo means, 286
co esponding o se e al g oups. I allows d awing conclusions abou Hg concen a ions in 287
plan issues, bioaccumula ion and ansloca ion ac o s and AMF coloniza ion and 288
ichness. 289
290
3. Resul s 291
3.1. Soil physicochemical pa ame e s and Hg concen a ions 292
Acidic pH, high Fe and low N, P and K concen a ions we e eco ded in all soil samples 293
om bo h he NZ and he IZ (Table 1). The e we e small di e ences be ween soils om he 294
sampling zones on mos o he assayed pa ame e s wi h he excep ion o N, and as 295
expec ed, Hg concen a ions (p<0.05). N and Hg we e ound a highe concen a ions in 296
soil samples om he IZ. 297
298
Table 1. Soil pa ame e s om he sampling zones. NZ: na u al mining zone; IZ: in ensi e 299
mining zone. Values a e exp essed as mean o se en independen measu emen s ± s anda d 300
de ia ion 301
Soil pa ame e
Sampling zone
NZ
IZ
pH (H2O)
4.3 ± 0.5
4.1 ± 0.5
SOM (%)
2.8 ± 0.9
2.4 ± 0.5
N (mg kg-1)
44.8 ± 6.5
85.3 ± 10.5
P (mg kg-1)
6.9 ± 0.9
8.6 ± 2.3
K (cmol kg-1)
0.14 ± 0.03
0.12 ± 0.07
CEC (cmol kg-1)
6.3 ± 1.4
6.9 ± 1.2
Fe (mg kg-1)
505 ± 154
664 ± 207
Hg (mg kg-1)
0.19 ± 0.09
4.8± 1.2
S (mg kg-1)
33.2 ± 3.9
123.1 ± 41.5
302
As i can be seen in Table 1, sul u is an impo an componen o he acidic soils we 303
s udied. Sul u concen a ion in he IZ is almos ou imes ha o he NZ. The subs an ial 304
inc ease o sul u in he IZ compa ed o he NZ e lec s he gold mining p ac ices in he IZ. 305
In addi ion, i is impo an o discuss he po en ial implica ions o high sul u con en s o 306
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0.5-1.0 mg Hg kg-1 in plan issues can p oduce g ow h dep ession (Kaba a-Pendias, 2011), 462
E. polymnioides showed an ele a ed ole ance o his hea y me al. In addi ion, E. 463
polymnioides displayed he leas oo - o-lea es Hg ansloca ion, in con as o A. 464
comp essus, which has he abili y o ansloca e an impo an ac ion o he accumula ed 465
Hg om he oo s o i s lea es, especially a he IZ (2.16). Based on hese indings, E. 466
polymnioides could be seen mainly as a Hg s abilize species while A. comp essus capable 467
o phy hoex ac ing Hg (inco po a ion and edis ibu ion o he ae ial pa s o he plan ). 468
469
Rega dless he inal goal o a emedia ion s a egy, hea y me al phy oex ac ion is desi able 470
in s ages whe e app op ia ely cu ing and inal disposal o he ae ial plan biomass has been 471
p e iously co e ed. In con as , phy os abiliza ion could be mo e a o able in less 472
accessible loca ions, whe e plan oo s and hizosphe ic mic obial in e ac ions can 473
inmobilize Hg, educing i s inco po a ion in o g ound and/o wa e bodies and ood chain 474
(Sa ma, 2011). In a geog aphical se ing like ha o Chinapin za, wi h limi ed accessibili y, 475
highly dense opical o es s and many ASGM si es a ound a wa e s eam ha goes 476
di ec ly in o downs eam communi ies, Hg phy os abiliza ion is p e e ed o e 477
phy oex ac ion. A highly e icien accumula o and ole an plan such as E. polymnioides 478
could ep esen an a ac i e s a egy o he en i onmen al emedia ion o Chinapin za 479
soils a ec ed by ASGM. E en mo e, conside ing i is na i e o he a ea, an inc ease in i s 480
popula ion size o emedia ion pu poses should no ep esen an ecological ea 481
482
On he o he hand, ola iliza ion o Hg0 by anspi a ion is a possible ou e o Hg 483
de oxi ica ion in plan s (Mo eno e al., 2008). Fu u e s udies a e essen ial o e alua e he 484
phy o ola iliza ion o Hg and he possible con ibu ion o ai pollu ion o his na i e plan . 485
486
487
5. Conclusions 488
E. polymnioides (As e aceae amily) showed high po en ial as an Hg hype accumula o 489
plan wi h highe a ini y o myco hizal associa ion help ul o su i e agains me al 490
oxici y. Thus, i is a sui able candida e o be conside ed as an Hg hype accumula o when 491
designing en i onmen al iendly and sus ainable s a egies o Hg emedia ion a ASGM 492
a eas. A deepe unde s anding o AMF ole in Hg phy oex ac ion should be paid a special 493
a en ion in u u e s udies. The a ailabili y o E. polymnioides, oge he wi h he associa ed 494
AMF di e si y isola ed in he p esen s udy, could be ins umen al o his ask. 495
496
Acknowledgemen s 497
This wo k had he inancial suppo o : (1) Na ional Sec e a y o Highe Educa ion, 498
Science, Technology and Inno a ion o he Republic o Ecuado (SENESCYT om i s 499
ac onym in Spanish) in he ame o he P ome eo P ojec ; (2) UTPL Sma Land ini ia i e, 500
esea ch p og am PROY_CCNN_1138. 501
502
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