Resea ch Pape
Recommended ci a ion: Oquendo-Colon, N. O., Li, X., Zahee , M., & Finelli, C. J.
(2025). The Role o Ins uc ional P ac ices on he Academic Adjus men o
Enginee ing College S uden s wi h A en ion De ici and Hype ac i i y Diso de
(ADHD). In Kangaslampi, R., Langie, G., Jä inen, H.-M., & Nagy, B. (Eds.), SEFI
53 d Annual Con e ence. Eu opean Socie y o Enginee ing Educa ion (SEFI),
Tampe e, Finland. DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17631602.
This Con e ence Pape is b ough o you o open access by he 53 d Annual Con e ence
o he Eu opean Socie y o Enginee ing Educa ion (SEFI) a Tampe e Uni e si y in
Tampe e, Finland. This wo k is licensed unde a C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion-NonComme cial-Sha e Alike 4.0 In e na ional License.
THE ROLE OF INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICES ON THE ACADEMIC
ADJUSTMENT OF ENGINEERING COLLEGE STUDENTS WITH
ATTENTION DEFICIT AND HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER (ADHD)
N.O. Oquendo-Colóna,1, X. Lib, M. Zahee c, C.J. Finellid
a Uni e si y o Michigan, Ann A bo , MI, Uni ed S a es, 0000-0003-2369-6103
b Uni e si y o Michigan, Ann A bo , MI, Uni ed S a es, 0000-0002-2620-1690
c Uni e si y o Michigan, Ann A bo , MI, Uni ed S a es
d Uni e si y o Michigan, Ann A bo , MI, Uni ed S a es, 0000-0001-9148-1492
Con e ence Key A eas: Imp o ing highe enginee ing educa ion h ough
esea ching enginee ing educa ion, Di e si y, equi y and inclusion in ou uni e si ies
and in ou eaching
Keywo ds: ac i e lea ning, ADHD, enginee ing college s uden s, lec u e
ABSTRACT
This pape p esen s a s udy on how ins uc ional p ac ices impac he academic
adjus men o enginee ing college s uden s wi h A en ion-De ici /Hype ac i i y
Diso de (ADHD). While ADHD b ings unique cogni i e s eng hs, adi ional
academic en i onmen s—especially in enginee ing—can pose challenges. Exis ing
esea ch highligh s he di icul ies aced by s uden s wi h ADHD du ing he ansi ion
o college, bu ew s udies explo e how speci ic ins uc ion a ec s hei adjus men .
This s udy add esses ha gap by examining how lec u e-based and ac i e lea ning
app oaches suppo o hinde s uden s' academic adjus men , including academic
ansi ion and s udy skills. Guided by ou concep ual amewo k, we add ess he
ques ion: How do speci ic ins uc ional p ac ices impac he academic adjus men o
enginee ing s uden s wi h ADHD? Th ough hema ic analysis o in e iews wi h
enginee ing s uden s wi h ADHD, we ound ha bo h lec u e-based and ac i e
lea ning ins uc ional se ings p esen challenges o s uden s’ academic adjus men
and ha s uden s’ s udy skills (one elemen o academic adjus men ) a e especially
a ec ed by ype o ins uc ion.
1 INTRODUCTION
A en ion-De ici /Hype ac i i y Diso de (ADHD) can signi ican ly shape how
enginee ing college s uden s na iga e academic li e, pa icula ly in luencing hei
academic adjus men — he p ocess o adap ing o new lea ning en i onmen s,
managing s udy skills, and mee ing ins i u ional expec a ions (C edé & Kuncel, 2008;
1 Co esponding Au ho
N. Oquendo-Colón
[email p o ec ed]
Tin o, 1993; Pasca ella & Te enzini, 2005; Taylo e al., 2020; Taylo & Zaghi, 2022).
While s uden s wi h ADHD o en demons a e s eng hs in c ea i i y and inno a i e
hinking—quali ies ele an o enginee ing— hey may s uggle o align hei lea ning
app oaches wi h adi ional academic s uc u es (Lagacé-Leblanc e al., 2025; Le le
e al., 2016; Taylo e al., 2020). When ins uc ional p ac ices ail o accommoda e
he unique needs and s eng hs o hese s uden s, hei abili y o adjus academically
may be u he impeded.
Resea ch has highligh ed he impo ance o ins uc ional p ac ices in s uden s’
academic success. Fo example, ins uc o s can use suppo i e communica ion o
build posi i e appo (Pe y & F anklin, 2006), employ ac i e lea ning s a egies o
add ess di icul ies wi h passi e ins uc ion (Le le e al., 2016, P ince, 2004), se
clea cou se objec i es o inc ease anspa ency (Winkelmes, 2023), p o ide high-
quali y eedback o help s uden s moni o hei p og ess (Angelo & C oss, 1993;
Le le e al., 2016; Pe y & F anklin, 2006; S iggins, 2002), and highligh he
ele ance o cou se con en o sus ain mo i a ion (Le le e al., 2016; Sedgwick e al.,
2019). Howe e , he e is a gap in exis ing esea ch as ew s udies ha e del ed in o
how s uden s wi h ADHD a e in luenced by pa icula ins uc ional p ac ices. This
s udy esponds o ha gap by in es iga ing how lec u e-based and ac i e lea ning
en i onmen s a ec s uden s’ abili y o adap and succeed in hei academic se ing.
2 METHODOLOGY
2.1 Concep ual F amewo k
The concep ual amewo k guiding his s udy is illus a ed in Figu e 1. In ou b oade
esea ch, we examine he ela ionships be ween indi idual s uden expe iences (i.e.,
class oom expe ience, academic adjus men , and sense o belonging) and academic
success (Li e al., 2025; Oquendo-Colón e al., 2023, 2024); while o his p ojec , we
ocus speci ically on he ela ionship be ween ins uc ional p ac ices and academic
adjus men . Gi en he subs an ial e idence suppo ing he bene i s o ac i e lea ning
o e lec u e-based ins uc ion, we examine wo ypes o ins uc ion: (1) lec u e-
based, in which he ins uc o deli e s con en while s uden s passi ely ecei e
in o ma ion, and (2) ac i e lea ning, which engages s uden s h ough discussions,
g oup wo k, and p oblem-sol ing ac i i ies. D awing om ou p e ious wo k, we
explo e wo key componen s o academic adjus men : (1) academic ansi ion,
de ined as he p ocess o adap ing o new academic phases, including changes in
oles, ou ines, and ela ionships (Schlossbe g, 2005), and (2) s udy skills, e e ing
o he echniques used o comple e lea ning asks (Gall e al., 1990), such as ime
managemen , o ganiza ion, no e- aking, and es p epa a ion (Li e al., 2025;
Oquendo-Colón e al., 2023, 2024).
2.2 Pa icipan s
A e ecei ing app o al om ou Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d (IRB), we ec ui ed
enginee ing college s uden s wi h ADHD a a esea ch-in ensi e ins i u ion loca ed in
he Midwes e n Uni ed S a es. We emailed a andom sample o 1,800 o he 11,104
en olled enginee ing s uden s, in i ing hem o pa icipa e in ou s udy i hey had
p e iously ecei ed a o mal ADHD diagnosis. We collec ed pa icipan s’
demog aphic in o ma ion using an in- ake su ey. We asked s uden s o indica e
whe he hey had p e ious expe ience lec u e-based ins uc ion and/o ac i e
lea ning ins uc ion and, i hey had, o pa icipa e in ei he (1) a ocus g oup
add essing lec u e-based ins uc ion and/o one add essing ac i e lea ning o (2) an
in e iew add essing bo h ypes o ins uc ion. A o al o 26 enginee ing s uden s wi h
ADHD pa icipa ed in he s udy.
Fig. 1. Concep ual amewo k (Oquendo-Colón e al., 2023), based on Te enzini and
Reason’s College Impac Model (Te enzini and Reason, 2005)
2.3 Da a Collec ion
We conduc ed nine 90-minu e ocus g oups ( ou add essing lec u e-based
ins uc ion, wi h 13 o al pa icipan s, and i e add essing ac i e lea ning, wi h 18
o al pa icipan s) and six 60-minu e indi idual in e iews (add essing bo h ypes o
ins uc ion). The ocus g oups we e held ei he in pe son o ia Zoom, while he
indi idual in e iews we e conduc ed exclusi ely h ough Zoom. Fo bo h he ocus
g oups and in e iews, we p o ided a handou a he s a o each session o de ine
key e ms and p esen ou aming o he indi idual s uden expe ience o ensu e
pa icipan s’ unde s anding o ele an esea ch elemen s (Oquendo-Colón e al.,
2024). Using a semi-s uc u ed p o ocol, we hen explo ed h ee main aspec s o he
indi idual s uden expe ience (class oom expe ience, sense o belonging, and
academic adjus men ). Las ly, we in i ed pa icipan s o sha e any addi ional
hough s. In his s udy, we ocus on he ela ionship be ween ins uc ional p ac ices
(one elemen o he class oom expe ience) and bo h academic ansi ion and s udy
skills ( he wo elemen s o academic adjus men ).
2.4 Da a Analysis
We ansc ibed all ocus g oup and in e iew da a e ba im, anonymized he da a,
and used MAXQDA24 (Gizzi and Rädike , 2021) o analyze hem. In he i s ound
o coding, we used a deduc i e app oach (Saldaña, 2016) o de elop a codebook
based on p e-de ined codes om ou concep ual amewo k. Speci ically, ou
esea che s independen ly coded he ansc ip s, collabo a i ely e ined he
codebook, and e iewed he codes o ensu e in e -code eliabili y. In he second
ound o coding, we adop ed an induc i e app oach o iden i y and ca ego ize
eme ging hemes. This second pa o he analysis in ol ed h ee esea che s.
3 RESULTS
He e, we summa ize he key indings o ou esea ch.
THE COLLEGE EXPERIENCE
O ganiza ional
con ex
PEER ENVIRONMENT
INDIVIDUAL STUDENT
EXPERIENCE
Academic adjus men
Academic ansi ion
S udy skills
Class oom expe ience
Ins uc ional p ac ices
S uden esponses
Sense o belonging
Class oom belongingness
Enginee ing belongingness
Academic
success
P ecollege
cha ac e is ics
and expe iences
3.1 Academic ansi ion
The ansi ion om high school o college p esen s dis inc challenges o
enginee ing s uden s wi h ADHD, pa icula ly in adap ing o new academic
expec a ions, s udy demands, and ins uc ional o ma s. Pa icipan s in his s udy
e lec ed on how bo h lec u e-based and ac i e lea ning en i onmen s shaped hei
academic ansi ion, in luencing hei lea ning s a egies, mo i a ion, and abili y o
manage cou se expec a ions.
Lec u e-based ins uc ion was a cen al ea u e o s uden s’ ea ly unde g adua e
expe ience, o en p o iding he s uc u e and p edic abili y ha acili a ed hei ini ial
adjus men . Camila no ed ha his o ma helped he emain in enginee ing:
“…mos ly my eshman and sophomo e yea s, all o he cou ses we e lec u e-based,
… and I hink I do a lo be e wi h he lec u es and s ic deadlines.” Howe e , he
ansi ion o college e ealed gaps in s uden s’ academic p epa a ion. Cla a sha ed,
“…and hen college, i 's di e en . I ac ually do ha e o s udy, and since I' e ne e
s udied, I don' know how o.”
Some s uden s also e lec ed on shi ing dynamics wi h ins uc o s, mo ing om high
school en i onmen s ha emphasized pe sonal accoun abili y o college se ings ha
equi ed g ea e sel -di ec ion. Fo o he s, lec u e-based cou ses we e cogni i ely
demanding and less compa ible wi h p e iously e ec i e lea ning s a egies.
Alejand o discussed he exhaus ion associa ed wi h exam p epa a ion du ing his
unde g adua e yea s, al hough he epo ed de eloping mo e e ec i e s a egies in
g adua e school. Simila ly, Leo explained ha he passi e lea ning app oaches ha
had wo ked in high school—such as “lea ning by osmosis”—we e no longe e ec i e
in college, equi ing g ea e in en ionali y. Rose, diagnosed wi h ADHD du ing
college, ound he unspoken academic expec a ions especially challenging. Despi e
hese challenges, s uden s like Vic o ia and Gab iel adap ed o e ime, e ining hei
s udy app oaches and elying on pee collabo a ion o succeed.
In e ms o cou ses ea u ing ac i e lea ning, s uden s e lec ed on how he
ins uc ional p ac ices in luenced hei academic ansi ion. Fo some, ansi ioning
om hands-on, p ojec -based high school en i onmen s o mo e exam-hea y college
cou ses was di icul . Isabel sha ed, “In high school cu iculum was all in e ac i e and
hands-on p ojec s… I ne e ook inals o exams in high school, which didn' help
when I go o college… I was lea ning so much be e in high school because o ha
en i onmen .”
To manage he adjus men , Valen ina educed he cou se load o eassess he
app oach and de elop mo e e ec i e s a egies. O he s, like Samuel and James,
no ed ha college equi ed g ea e sel -di ec ion. James desc ibed a s a egy he
de eloped o syn hesize and o ganize ma e ial: “One hing I s a ed doing las yea
was I would go back h ough all my no es and w i e he big ideas in o de … and y
and connec he p ac ice p oblem… o hose speci ic ideas.” While some s uden s
adap ed success ully, o he s ound ac i e lea ning en i onmen s s ess ul,
pa icula ly in compe i i e cou ses. Amelia adop ed ea ly-s a s a egies o keep
pace wi h pee s bu exp essed conce n abou he p essu e such cul u es c ea ed.
Da id emphasized ha college equi ed mo e abs ac hinking and independen
engagemen wi h complex ma e ial—o en wi hou explici guidance—ma king a
signi ican shi om he s uc u ed lea ning o high school.
3.2 S udy skills
In e ms o s udy skills, we iden i ied ou key ca ego ies, which we desc ibe he e.
3.2.1 No e- aking
No e- aking eme ged as a c i ical s a egy o bo h engagemen and comp ehension,
pa icula ly in lec u e-based cou ses. Se e al pa icipan s emphasized he alue o
handw i en no es o e digi al ools, ci ing imp o ed ocus and e en ion. Pa icipan s
also discussed no e- aking o ma s, such as using adi ional pen and pape and
in ol ing digi al de ices. Camila, o example, no ed ha w i ing by hand acili a ed
ac i e engagemen du ing lec u es and suppo ed la e in o ma ion p ocessing. While
handw i en no es we e p e e ed by many, some s uden s used digi al ools o
suppo hei lea ning. Valen ina sha ed he expe ience using an iPad, highligh ing i s
con enience and po abili y, e en hough i ini ially a ec ed he e en ion: “I solely
used he iPad, I didn' e ain any hing, ha i 's ligh , and I don' ha e o ca y a ound
a on o no ebooks so wha I ound ha I hink, wo ks be e .” O he s, such as Isabel,
emphasized he impo ance o in eg a ing no e- aking wi h b oade s udy s a egies,
including e iewing lec u e no es alongside cou se ma e ials and using hem o
de elop ques ions o o ice hou s.
No e- aking was also an essen ial s udy skill in ac i e lea ning en i onmen s,
hough pa icipan s epo ed mixed expe iences wi h i s e ec i eness. Some, like
Valen ina, acknowledged pas challenges wi h digi al no e- aking and made
delibe a e changes o hei s a egies in esponse. O he s main ained a mo e
con en ional app oach, using no e- aking selec i ely based on he na u e o he
con en . A a explained: “I hink, o me a lo o i is like no e aking. The e's some
s u whe e i 's like memo iza ion ha you kind o jus ha e o go h ough o ypically
you ha e like a chea shee o wha e e o exams you jus pu i on he e.”
Addi ionally, Isabel desc ibed how cla i y om ins uc o s ega ding exam con en
helped he ocus he no e- aking e o s mo e e ec i ely. This poin s o he ole o
ins uc o guidance no only in shaping lea ning expec a ions bu also in suppo ing
s uden s’ s a egic engagemen wi h cou se ma e ial.
3.2.2 Time managemen and o ganiza ion
Time managemen and o ganiza ion eme ged as signi ican challenges o many
pa icipan s, pa icula ly in lec u e-based cou ses. Se e al s uden s desc ibed
employing s uc u ed sys ems o manage hei academic esponsibili ies and s ay on
ack. Lucia, o example, used Google Calenda o plan s udy sessions, alloca e
ime o cou sewo k, and include b eaks o main ain ocus and p oduc i i y. Simila ly,
Alejand o adop ed a highly egimen ed scheduling app oach, o ganizing his s udy
ime a ound c edi hou s and adjus ing o majo deadlines. He also emphasized ha
ixed deadlines we e pa icula ly help ul in managing his ADHD: “I don' like lexibili y
on deadlines, uh I don' know i his is heal hy o no i i 's jus my coping mechanism.
I hink ha ha ing a deadline helps a lo because i 's some hing ha i doesn' mo e
i 's some hing ha you a ach o.”
While s uc u ed s a egies like calenda s and ixed deadlines we e o en e ec i e,
many s uden s s ill s uggled wi h ime managemen , pa icula ly in ac i e lea ning
se ings. Some, like John, epo ed di icul y concep ualizing ime, leading o las -
minu e s udying, while James ound lenien deadlines hinde ed his abili y o s ay on
ack: “P o esso s who a e …mo e o less lenien on deadlines … ha 's wha I’d say I
eally eally s uggled wi h.” E elyn and Le i also no ed ha smalle , clea ly de ined
asks we e easie o manage han la ge, open-ended ones. Fo o he s, ac i e
lea ning en i onmen s helped imp o e ime managemen by o e ing consis ency
and engagemen h ough weekly assignmen s and collabo a i e p oblem-sol ing.
Ma ia app ecia ed egula deli e ables, while Le i ound hese se ings aligned wi h
his s eng hs: “[Ac i e lea ning aligned wi h my s udy skills] p e y good, I'd say
especially when I was ahead and I could help alk h ough p oblems wi h people and
help hem lea n he ma e ial.” Alejand o desc ibed how an ac i e lea ning cou se
augh him o be mo e lexible despi e a iable wo kloads: “I hink ha i helped me
ha e a mo e lexible uh schedule and ime managemen … i was an impo an class
o me.” Simila ly, Lucia no ed ha sol ing p oblems in class educed he need o
s udy ou side o class.
3.2.3 Tes p epa a ion
In lec u e-based cou ses, s uden s employed a a ie y o es p epa a ion
s a egies, anging om passi e e iew o no es o mo e s uc u ed exam
simula ions. Se e al pa icipan s, including So ia and Camila, epo ed elying on
e iewing handw i en no es and summa izing key concep s, o en wi hou ex ensi e
p epa a ion. O he s uden s emphasized he alue o p ac ice exams and p oblem-
sol ing exe cises in p omo ing deepe unde s anding and e en ion. John no ed,
“Cou ses ha o ce you o do p ac ice p oblems o homewo k and s u do help you
s ay engaged wi h he con en and help wi h s udying.” When a ailable, well-
s uc u ed esou ces such as pas exams, lec u e eco dings, and p oblem banks
signi ican ly suppo ed s uden s’ p epa a ion. Howe e , he absence o such
ma e ials c ea ed us a ion and unce ain y o some s uden s. E a exp essed
di icul y p epa ing o exams when he e was a misma ch be ween class con en and
es expec a ions: “…we'd ge an exam whe e we had o apply he heo e ical s u o
a p oblem we' e ne e seen be o e, and ne e had a homewo k p oblem o e on he
exam, and ha was so ho ible, i was eally eally aw ul.”
In ac i e lea ning en i onmen s, es p epa a ion s a egies a ied widely ac oss
pa icipan s. Se e al s uden s emphasized he use ulness o p ac ice exams and
embedded p oblem-sol ing ac i i ies in educing anxie y and cla i ying expec a ions.
A a desc ibed how cou se s uc u e suppo ed he s udy habi s: “I like looking o
example p oblems, looking o s u o e iew and I hink ha i jus , he way ha he
s uc u ed he class. I jus makes i easie o do ha and easie o unde s and wha 's
expec ed o you and wha migh show up on he exams.” Isabel also ound ha
ac i e lea ning o ma s be e aligned wi h he s udy s a egies, pa icula ly when
p ac ice p oblems we e closely ied o exams. A he same ime, some s uden s s ill
encoun e ed di icul ies. Oli ia no ed s uggles wi h p oc as ina ion and in o ma ion
e en ion, while Owen desc ibed challenges in na iga ing es p epa a ion unde
p essu e, especially when aced wi h dense ma e ial. Despi e he a ailabili y o clea
and concise lec u e no es, he ound i di icul o disce n which de ails we e essen ial,
con ibu ing o es anxie y: “Ou p o esso is supe o ganized, his lec u e no es a e
ac ually e y clea , concise... bu o me i 's like I could go ead all o he no es, Oh, I
need o emembe his one small, iny de ail ha I p obably don' need o, I jus like
spi al eally easily and ge anxious.”
3.2.4 Ins uc ional p ac ices alignmen wi h s udy skills
S uden s’ expe iences wi h lec u e-based cou ses a ied in e ms o how well he
o ma aligned wi h hei s udy skills. Some s uden s epo ed ha lec u e-based
ins uc ion had minimal impac on hei s udy app oach. Fo example, Lucia sha ed
ha she elied on he own s a egies o compensa e o momen s o ina en ion
du ing lec u es: “I wouldn' say ha he o ma had an in luence on my s udy
skills....o e all I'm able o comple e all my wo k and do p e y well.” Simila ly, Vic o ia
indica ed ha he s udy me hods emained la gely independen o cou se o ma ,
wi h mos o he lea ning occu ing ou side o class. Con e sely, o he s uden s
ound ha lec u e-based o ma s equi ed hem o adap hei s udy s a egies. Ana
no ed ha he lack o egula assignmen s o ced he o de elop s onge sel -
egula ion, hough i emained a challenge. So ia exp essed ha while lec u e-based
cou ses o en equi ed addi ional ime o s udying ou side o class, hei
e ec i eness depended on he a ailabili y o well-designed ins uc ional esou ces,
helped guide he s udy p ocess: “I hink one o he keys o me in ha cou se is ha
hey had he p oblem se s ou he e ea lie o he homewo k and I would always use
ha as my judgmen o ha e I lea ned he ma e ial… ha is eally like my s udy
guide o lea ning he ma e ial…”
Many s uden s ound ha ac i e lea ning o ma s be e suppo ed hei s udy skills,
pa icula ly when class ac i i ies in ol ed pee in e ac ion and p oblem-sol ing.
Ma iana and Ella bo h desc ibed how hese en i onmen s p omo ed engagemen
and knowledge e en ion, wi h Ella s a ing: “Fo me, I'd say a i , i allowed me o, uh,
ake in skills om o he s uden s because I could in e ac wi h hem.” S uden s like
Isabel and Camila also p e e ed ac i e lea ning o ma s, inding hem mo e
compa ible wi h how hey s udied. Se e al pa icipan s men ioned ha ac i e
lea ning helped hem de elop new s a egies. Luna e lec ed on how he app oach
shi ed in a cou se whe e s uden s augh lessons, p omp ing he o seek cla i ica ion
and collabo a e mo e e ec i ely: “I el like I, ins ead o ying o jus igu e i ou by
mysel , I should ask he s uden who augh ha lec u e o me like ques ions o see i
we can ge o some so o unde s anding as e ... and so ha 's some hing ha
de ini ely changed my s udying habi s o ha class speci ically.” Howe e , no all
s uden s ound a s ong connec ion be ween ac i e lea ning and hei s udy skills.
Paul no ed ha while ac i e lea ning inc eased in-class engagemen , i did no
undamen ally change his app oach o s udying.
4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
This s udy examined how lec u e-based and ac i e lea ning ins uc ional p ac ices
in luence he academic adjus men (i.e., academic ansi ion and s udy skills) o
enginee ing s uden s wi h ADHD, illing a gap in exis ing li e a u e. The indings
illus a e ha while bo h en i onmen s p esen unique oppo uni ies, hey also pose
speci ic challenges du ing he c i ical ansi ion om high school o college, du ing
hei unde g adua e yea s, and om unde g adua e o g adua e. Lec u e-based
ins uc ion p o ided s uden s wi h s uc u e and p edic abili y, which many ound
especially help ul du ing hei ea ly unde g adua e yea s. Howe e , hese cou ses
also demanded a highe le el o sel - egula ion han s uden s we e accus omed o in
high school, equi ing hem o de elop new s udy s a egies and manage lea ning
mo e independen ly. In con as , ac i e lea ning en i onmen s p omo ed
engagemen and collabo a i e p oblem-sol ing, ye some s uden s s uggled wi h
less s uc u ed o ma s, compe i i e class oom cul u es, and luc ua ing wo kloads.
These expe iences ein o ce p io indings on he complex academic demands
s uden s wi h ADHD ace and he impo ance o de eloping adap i e s a egies o
mee hem (DuPaul e al., 2017).
Ac oss bo h ins uc ional o ma s, no e- aking, ime managemen , and es
p epa a ion eme ged as cen al componen s o s uden s' academic adjus men . In
lec u e-based se ings, handw i en no e- aking suppo ed ocus and la e e iew,
aligning wi h p io esea ch on he cogni i e bene i s o ac i e encoding. Some
s uden s p e e ed digi al ools o hei con enience, hough expe iences wi h
e en ion a ied. In ac i e lea ning en i onmen s, s uden s adap ed hei no e- aking
o mo e in e ac i e se ings, selec i ely ocusing on co e concep s and pee
collabo a ion. Time managemen p o ed challenging in bo h en i onmen s, bu o
di e en easons. Lec u e-based cou ses o en o e ed ixed deadlines and
s uc u ed assessmen s, which many s uden s—pa icula ly hose wi h ADHD—
ound help ul o main aining ocus and s aying o ganized (K eide e al., 2019).
Ac i e lea ning o ma s, while po en ially mo e engaging, some imes lacked
consis ency in wo kload and pacing, equi ing s uden s o manage hei ime mo e
lexibly. Some s uden s h i ed in his en i onmen , while o he s ound i
o e whelming. Tes p epa a ion s a egies also di e ged. S uden s in lec u e-based
cou ses o en elied on no es and summa ies, wi h success hinging on he
a ailabili y o clea supplemen a y ma e ials. When such esou ces we e lacking,
s uden s exp essed con usion and anxie y abou assessmen expec a ions. In
con as , ac i e lea ning en i onmen s ha inco po a ed egula p oblem-sol ing and
p ac ice exams helped s uden s consolida e knowledge and educe es anxie y—
consis en wi h p io esea ch on e ie al-based lea ning and o ma i e eedback
(Roedige & Ka picke, 2006; Nelson e al., 2014). Howe e , some s uden s s ill ound
i di icul o manage he olume o con en o de e mine wha o p io i ize.
Taken oge he , hese indings highligh ha ins uc ional p ac ice alone does no
de e mine success. Ra he , s uden s’ academic adjus men is shaped by how well
cou se design aligns wi h hei lea ning needs, s udy habi s, and execu i e
unc ioning capaci ies. This unde sco es he impo ance o o e ing clea s uc u es,
consis en eedback, and oppo uni ies o ac i e engagemen — ega dless o
ins uc ional p ac ice. Fo s uden s wi h ADHD, he p esence o ex e nal suppo s like
ixed deadlines, accessible ma e ials, and in-class collabo a ion can make a
signi ican di e ence in na iga ing academic demands. Fu u e ins uc ional p ac ices
in enginee ing educa ion should conside hese insigh s o os e mo e inclusi e
class ooms. Ou s udy has clea implica ions o ins uc o s, as hey can play a
c i ical ole in s uden s’ academic adjus men . Speci ically, ou indings sugges ha
ins uc o s should suppo s uden s’ s udy skills by p o iding s uc u ed ye lexible
no e- aking esou ces, enhance ime managemen h ough clea and consis en
communica ion o expec a ions and deadlines, and imp o e es p epa a ion by
aligning in-class ac i i ies wi h assessmen o ma s and o e ing a ge ed e iew
ma e ials—all while conside ing he unique needs o s uden s wi h ADHD and
os e ing inclusi e lea ning en i onmen s in bo h lec u e-based and ac i e lea ning
se ings. Doing so can be e suppo no only s uden s wi h ADHD bu a b oade
ange o lea ne s na iga ing he complex landscape o highe educa ion.
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like o acknowledge all he pa icipan s in ou s udy and he U.S. Na ional
Science Founda ion o hei suppo o his esea ch (G an # 2043430).
