Resea ch Pape
Recommended ci a ion: Sh es ha, A., Sundman, J., Lamsal, S., Láng-Ri e , J.,
Taka, M., & Va is, O. (2025). A e Disas e -P one Coun ies’ Unde g adua e
S uden s P epa ed? Insigh s F om a Ci il Enginee ing P og am in Nepal. In
Kangaslampi, R., Langie, G., Jä inen, H.-M., & Nagy, B. (Eds.), SEFI 53 d Annual
Con e ence. Eu opean Socie y o Enginee ing Educa ion (SEFI), Tampe e,
Finland. DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17631338.
This Con e ence Pape is b ough o you o open access by he 53 d Annual Con e ence
o he Eu opean Socie y o Enginee ing Educa ion (SEFI) a Tampe e Uni e si y in
Tampe e, Finland. This wo k is licensed unde a C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion-NonComme cial-Sha e Alike 4.0 In e na ional License.
ARE DISASTER-PRONE COUNTRIES’ UNDERGRADUATE
STUDENTS PREPARED? INSIGHTS FROM A CIVIL ENGINEERING
PROGRAM IN NEPAL
A. Sh es ha a,1, J. Sundman b, S. Lamsal c,
J. Láng-Ri e d, M. Taka e, O. Va is
a Wa e and De elopmen Resea ch G oup, School o Enginee ing, Aal o
Uni e si y, Espoo, Finland, 0000-0001-7841-0729
b Enginee ing Educa ion Resea ch G oup, School o Enginee ing, Aal o
Uni e si y, Espoo, Finland, 0000-0003-2590-632X
c Depa men o Ci il Enginee ing, Saga ma ha Enginee ing College, Sanepa,
Nepal, 0009-0002-0854-1154
d Wa e and De elopmen Resea ch G oup, School o Enginee ing, Aal o
Uni e si y, Espoo, Finland, 0000-0002-3833-5450
e Enginee ing Educa ion Resea ch G oup, School o Enginee ing, Aal o
Uni e si y, Espoo, Finland, 0000-0002-6147-9137
Wa e and De elopmen Resea ch G oup, School o Enginee ing, Aal o
Uni e si y, Espoo, Finland, 0000-0001-9231-4549
Con e ence Key A eas: Enginee ing skills, p o essional skills, and ans e sal skills,
Cu iculum De elopmen , and eme ging cu iculum models in enginee ing
Keywo ds: Disas e Risk Reduc ion, esilience compe encies, enginee ing educa ion,
disas e -p one coun ies
ABSTRACT
The inc easing magni ude and equency o disas e s equi e ci il enginee s o
possess he abili y o unde s and disas e isk and design esilien in as uc u es.
Howe e , i emains unclea whe he unde g adua e ci il enginee ing s uden s in
disas e -p one coun ies like Nepal a e adequa ely p epa ed o mee his demand. In
his s udy, we conduc ed a case s udy using a ques ionnai e among unde g adua e
ci il enginee ing s uden s (n = 127) om a Nepalese uni e si y o e alua e hei
knowledge o Disas e Risk Reduc ion (DRR), esilience concep s, and ela ed
compe encies. Ou indings indica e ha social media and social ne wo ks a e he
p ima y sou ces o DRR knowledge and in o ma ion o hese s uden s. Nea ly hal o
1 A. Sh es ha
anup.1.sh es ha@aal o. i
he s uden s exp essed neu al pe cep ions o he local disas e isk. While s uden s
exhibi ed DRR knowledge, hey had limi ed oppo uni ies o pa icipa e in DRR
cou ses, wo kshops, o aining. S uden s possess he basic concep s o esilience,
bu he e was a no able gap in hei abili y o apply hese concep s in designing esilien
s uc u es. This sugges s ha addi ional e o s a e necessa y o in eg a e hese
compe encies in o enginee ing cu icula. Ou indings p o ide insigh s o educa o s,
cu iculum designe s, and policymake s in ecognizing he need o ans o m he
eaching-lea ning pedagogy wi hin enginee ing educa ion. Fu u e s udies a e
ecommended o iden i y he unde lying causes hinde ing he de elopmen o
esilience compe encies h ough quali a i e in e iews and pe o mance-based
assessmen s.
1 INTRODUCTION
Gi en he g owing occu ence and se e i y o na u al disas e s d i en by clima e
change, con lic s, and socio-economic changes, enginee s play a c i ical ole in
de eloping sys ems and in as uc u es capable o wi hs anding and adap ing o
dis up ion (Diweka e al., 2021; Ma in e al., 2022). Mains eaming Disas e Risk
Reduc ion (DRR) in educa ion has been ecognized as a key app oach o mi iga ing
disas e impac s, pa icula ly in coun ies highly ulne able o na u al haza ds
(Bay iyeh, 2018) and is emphasized in global amewo ks such as he Uni ed Na ions
Sendai F amewo k o Disas e Risk Reduc ion (UNDRR, 2015).
Ci il enginee ing, in pa icula , is cen al o his e o due o i s di ec in ol emen in
designing, cons uc ing, and main aining esilien in as uc u e (Kola haya e al.,
2022). Howe e , esea ch indica es ha uni e si ies ocus on adi ional and echnical
skills and lack su icien in eg a ion o DRR compe encies in ci il enginee ing cu icula
in disas e -p one coun ies (Gu ie ez-Bucheli e al., 2023). This limi s he s uden s'
abili y o ackle he cu en global challenges posed by disas e s. Since unde g adua e
s uden s may no pu sue u he s udies o may op o educa ion ab oad (T i al e al.,
2023), i is c i ical o in es iga e whe he unde g adua e p og ams p o ide adequa e
p epa a ion o he compe encies needed o mi iga e disas e isk.
2 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
2.1 Need o disas e isk educ ion educa ion in disas e -p one coun ies
The main aim o DRR is p e en ing new disas e s and educe exis ing disas e isks
o s eng hen esilience and mi iga e he cu en isk (UNDRR, 2017b). SFDRR
highligh s he signi icance o educa ional acili ies and he inclusion o DRR in cu icula
a di e en le els (Saku ai & Sa o, 2016). To achie e he a ge s o SFDRR and educe
disas e isk, communi ies need o be awa e o disas e isk and esilien cons uc ion,
which should s a by in eg a ing hese concep s in o all le els o educa ion. DRR in
educa ion in ol es a sys ema ic app oach ha inco po a es disas e isk analysis and
isk educ ion measu es in he educa ional sec o .
Nepal is a ho spo o en i onmen al disas e s such as ea hquakes, loods, landslides,
and hea and cold wa es due o opog aphy, ac i e ec onics, and weak go e nance.
Mo eo e , Nepal anks 69 h in e ms o ex eme wea he impac s in he clima e isk
index o 2022 (Adil e al., 2025). Gi en he inc easing disas e isk, DRR in educa ion
is conside ed a p io i y a ea by Nepal’s Disas e Risk Reduc ion Na ional S a egic
Plan o Ac ion (2018-2030), ollowing he SFDRR a ge s (MOHA, 2018). This
sugges s he need o cu icula e o ma ion in enginee ing educa ion. Howe e ,
esea ch shows ha disas e awa eness and p epa edness educa ion a e s ill lacking
in many de eloping coun ies o Asia (Nipa e al., 2020; Pan e al., 2020).
In he Nepalese con ex , se e al ac o s hinde an adequa e cu icula in eg a ion o
DRR and ela ed compe encies. Especially, he igid academic s uc u es hampe he
adop ion o new con en and app oaches (Pan e al., 2020). Addi ionally, a p ima y
ocus on he esponse and eco e y phases o he disas e isk managemen cycle
(Lamichhane, 2018), as well as limi ed oppo uni ies o indus y-academia
pa ne ships, which enable eal-wo ld lea ning (Pan e al., 2020) a e among he key
limi ing ac o s. Many o hese challenges e lec b oade s uc u al issues in Nepal’s
highe educa ion sys em, whe e enginee ing p og ams o en ace inadequa e
esou ces, une en acul y capaci y, limi ed pedagogical inno a ion, and bu eauc a ic
and poli icized academic go e nance ha hinde s cu iculum e o m and quali y
assu ance p ocesses (Dhamala e al., 2021; Joshi & Joshi, 2015). Since insu icien
DRR in educa ion limi s he communi ies’ capaci y o p epa e and espond o disas e s
(Pe al, 2008), i inc eases hei ulne abili y and hus he se e i y o disas e impac s.
Thus, i is pi o al o e alua e how well cu en educa ional p og ams e ec i ely
p epa e enginee s o espond o disas e s.
2.2 Compe encies needed o disas e isk educ ion
Ci il enginee s equi e an unde s anding o disas e isk- ela ed knowledge, as
explained in UNDRR (2021) o pa icipa e in DRR e o s and educe po en ial disas e
impac s e ec i ely. Since di e en egions ace di e en ypes o disas e s, he
s uden s mus possess su icien knowledge o unde s and he complexi ies o he
a ious disas e ypes, analyze hei po en ial isk, and p epa e hemsel es o
e ec i ely espond o such e en s (Gilbe , 2008). Fu he mo e, ci il enginee s should
be adep a enhancing he sys em’s abili y o adap and eco e imely and e icien
manne om he e ec s o haza ds, commonly e e ed o as he esilience concep
(UNDRR, 2017a). These capabili ies enable s uden s o de elop isk-based hinking,
s a egies o designing, e alua ing, and main aining s uc u al esilience,
p epa edness o esponse and eco e y, and aise awa eness among indi iduals o
applying he concep s o DRR du ing disas e s (Olo es e al., 2023; P oko ie a e al.,
2018; Tuladha e al., 2014). P e ious s udies sugges ha s uden s migh ha e a
limi ed unde s anding o DRR- ela ed knowledge, which can hinde hei abili y o
manage disas e s (Cabuga J e al., 2023; Tuladha e al., 2014).
Beyond DRR knowledge, esilience compe encies a e inc easingly i al o
enginee ing s uden s o mi iga e disas e impac s (Ma in e al., 2022) - pe haps e en
mo e o hose who will build hei ca ee s in disas e -p one a eas. Gi en he inc eased
equency and se e i y o disas e s, enginee s a e no only asked wi h designing
s uc u es ha wi hs and shocks bu also wi h de eloping adap i e solu ions ha
enable communi ies o eco e and h i e in he ace o ongoing unce ain y (Folke e
al., 2010; Walke , 2020). These abili ies - e e ed o as esilience- ela ed
compe encies - can be unde s ood as he capaci y o an icipa e, abso b, adap o, and
eco e om dis up ions while lea ning om pas c ises o build long- e m esilience
(F ancis & Beke a, 2014; Winkens & Leich -Schol en, 2023). These compe encies
emphasize he ecogni ion o he limi s o p edic ion and he likelihood o un o eseen
h ea s, and he e o e a e p oac i e in na u e (Le in e al., 2022; Seage e al., 2012).
Wi hin enginee ing educa ion, esilience compe encies include abili ies such as
sys ems hinking, he abili y o na iga e complexi y and unce ain y, and
in e disciplina y collabo a ion (Pea son e al., 2018; Winkens & Leich -Schol en,
2021). Despi e he ecogni ion o hei impo ance, esea ch sugges s ha hese
compe encies emain unde de eloped in many enginee ing cu icula, including he
Eu opean con ex (Pe dikou e al., 2016; Winkens & Leich -Schol en, 2023). Despi e
Nepal’s high exposu e o mul iple haza ds, hese compe encies ha e no been di ec ly
s udied. As a esul , he de elopmen o esilien enginee ing solu ions ha can
wi hs and inc easing unce ain y is hinde ed (Na ional Planning Commission, 2015).
To add ess he gap, he e is a need o exempla y cases ha demons a e how DRR
knowledge and esilience compe encies can be in eg a ed in o enginee ing educa ion
in a con ex -sensi i e way o in o m scalable and locally ele an cu icula inno a ions.
Ensu ing ha educa ion suppo s enginee ing s uden s o de elop bo h DRR
knowledge and esilience compe encies is c ucial o p epa ing g adua es o he
challenges hey will ace, pa icula ly in disas e -p one a eas. Ye , li le esea ch has
examined how unde g adua e enginee ing s uden s, in hese egions, pe cei e and
acqui e bo h DRR knowledge and esilience compe encies. Ou s udy add esses his
gap h ough he ollowing esea ch ques ions (RQ):
RQ1: How do unde g adua e ci il enginee ing s uden s in disas e -p one
coun ies de elop disas e isk educ ion knowledge?
RQ2: How do unde g adua e ci il enginee ing s uden s in disas e -p one
coun ies pe cei e hei own disas e isk educ ion knowledge and esilience
compe encies?
3 METHODOLOGY
By using unde g adua e ci il enginee ing educa ion in Nepal as a case s udy, ou
s udy employed a quan i a i e esea ch design o add ess he wo esea ch ques ions
de ined abo e.
3.1 Da a collec ion s a egy and pa icipan s
We collec ed ou da a using an online su ey ha was s uc u ed in o ou sec ions i)
demog aphic in o ma ion, ii) s uden s’ expe iences wi h disas e s and how hey ha e
de eloped knowledge in his a ea, iii) hei pe cep ions o hei disas e isk knowledge
(deno ed as ele en K a iables), and i ) pe cep ions o hei pe sonal esilience
compe encies (deno ed as hi een R a iables). The hi d and ou h sec ions u ilized
a i e-poin Like scale (1 = S ongly disag ee, 2 = Disag ee, 3 = Neu al, 4 = Ag ee,
and 5 = S ongly ag ee) o cap u e s uden s’ sel -assessmen s. The s a emen s in he
hi d sec ion we e adap ed om Tuladha e al.’s (2014) amewo k on knowledge, isk
pe cep ion, and awa eness in disas e isk educ ion educa ion. The ou h sec ion was
adap ed om Winkens & Leich -Schol en’s (2023) amewo k o esilience- ela ed
compe encies in enginee ing educa ion. To ensu e ele ance o he speci ic con ex
o ci il enginee ing educa ion, we elabo a ed bo h disas e isk knowledge and
compe encies in o con ex -speci ic s a emen s o he hi d and ou h sec ions o he
su ey. The ques ionnai e was e alua ed and app o ed by Aal o Uni e si y’s e hics
commi ee be o e he da a collec ion.
Ou s udy a ge ed unde g adua e ci il enginee ing s uden s in a Nepalese
enginee ing college. We used s a i ied sampling o su ey s uden s ac oss ou
academic coho s o ensu e ep esen a ion o di e en s ages o educa ion. The
su ey was adminis e ed du ing scheduled class sessions, whe e esea che s isi ed
class ooms and in i ed s uden s o espond online using hei own de ices.
Addi ionally, a web link was p o ided o s uden s when isi ing he class ooms was no
possible. O e all, 127 s uden s pa icipa ed, ep esen ing 59% o he o al en olled
s uden s ac oss he ou coho s. The sample included 33 i s -yea s uden s, 40
second-yea s uden s, 30 hi d-yea s uden s, and 24 ou h-yea s uden s, each o
which included a leas 50% o s uden s in he espec i e coho . Two- hi ds o he
esponden s we e male, and he ange o ages o he esponden s was om 16 o 24
yea s.
The home add esses o esponden s we e spa ially dis ibu ed ac oss all se en
p o inces o Nepal. Ea hquake was he mos commonly expe ienced disas e (85%),
ollowed by loods and landslides (40%). While mo e han 50% o he s uden s had
expe ienced mo e han one disas e in he pas , he ac ual numbe anged om one
o mo e han 10. 33% o he hi d and ou h-yea s uden s we e planning o wo k in
he ield and indus y, while 56% o hem eplied ha hey hope o simul aneously wo k
in he ield and con inue hei educa ion by a ending a mas e ’s p og am.
3.2 Da a Analysis
We conduc ed desc ip i e analysis (e.g., a i hme ic mean) o he s uden s' disas e
expe ience, knowledge, and isk pe cep ion, DRR in o ma ion sou ces, and esilience
concep . Addi ionally, we isualized he da a as a spide plo using he mean alue o
esilience compe encies o each coho o s uden s based on he academic yea . All
analyses we e pe o med using Py hon.
3.3 Limi a ions
Ou empi ical da a elies on s uden s’ sel -assessmen s, which may in oduce biases
and no e lec he ac ual le el o hei knowledge and compe encies. Fu he mo e,
social desi abili y bias may in luence s uden s’ esponses since he s uden s migh
espond in a way ha is pe cei ed a ou ably by o he s a he han u h ully, esul ing
in o e - o unde epo ing (Kwak e al., 2021). Fu u e s udies could inco po a e
objec i e assessmen s o iangula e sel - epo ed da a wi h pe o mance-based
measu es o analyse social desi abili y bias and enhance alidi y.
4 RESULTS
4.1 Sou ces o DRR knowledge among s uden s
Unde g adua e ci il enginee ing s uden s acqui ed DRR- ela ed knowledge om
a ious sou ces and wi h a ying equency (Fig. 1). Impo an ly, 90% o s uden s
esponded, “ e y o en” and “o en” o social media, indica ing social media as he
main/p ima y channel o knowledge compa ed o adi ional channels like
newspape s and ele ision. Simila esponses (65%) we e seen o ecei ing DRR-
ela ed in o ma ion om iends and amilies, making i he second mos - epo ed
sou ce o in o ma ion. This esul sugges s ha in o mal social ne wo ks a e
signi ican o unde s anding disas e isk knowledge. In con as , a highe p opo ion
o “Ne e ” and “Ra ely” esponses o go e nmen al channels and newspape s
sugges s ha he in o ma ion om hese channels migh no be eaching he s uden s
e ec i ely, o hey don’ conside hese sou ces eliable o accessible. In addi ion o
hese gene al in o ma ion sou ces o DRR- ela ed knowledge, only 5% o he second,
hi d, and ou h-yea s uden s esponded ha hey had pa icipa ed in such cou ses
o aining in he pas . This esul highligh s he limi ed in eg a ion o DRR wi hin
academic cu icula ac oss di e en educa ional le els.
Fig. 1. Responden s’ (n=127) epo ed usage o a ious in o ma ion sou ces o
accessing DRR- ela ed in o ma ion.
4.2 S uden s’ disas e isk pe cep ion, disas e knowledge, and basic esilience
concep
Ou da a demons a es ha s uden s a e awa e o disas e s, he isk hey pose, and
he basic concep o esilience (Fig. 2A). Almos 60% o esponden s ag eed o
s ongly ag eed ha hey had disas e - ela ed knowledge (a e age o e K3–K8 in Fig.
2A). Hal o he s uden s we e neu al abou he disas e isk in hei a ea (K1),
howe e , hey had a good unde s anding o he isk posed by disas e s in he
enginee ing sec o (K2). Addi ionally, he unde s anding o he basic esilience concep
was ound o inc ease wi h he p og ession o he academic yea , sugges ing ha he
esilience concep is p og essi ely in eg a ed in o he uni e si y cu iculum (Fig. 2B).
4.3 Resilience compe encies among s uden s
When s udying he 13 key esilience compe encies and hei a ia ion among
unde g adua e s uden s ac oss ou academic yea s, he a e age sco e o esilience
compe encies clus e s be ween neu al and ag ee, independen o hei s age o
s udies (Fig. 2C). Risk go e nance and adap i e compe encies such as abso p ion,
esponding, ans o ma ion, lea ning om ailu e, and ecogni ion o h ea s (R3, R6,
R7, R8, and R9) indica e clea ad ancemen om i s o ou h-yea s uden s. A
simila end was obse ed o he ounda ional esilience compe encies, such as he
abili y o deal wi h complexi y and he abili y o e ain sys em iden i y (R11 and R13).
The ou h-yea s uden s s ood ou in e ms o hei abili y o an icipa e (R1).
In e es ingly, compe encies o p epa edness and esponse (R4 and R5), and cogni i e
compe encies such as he abili y o deal wi h unce ain y and de elop wi h change
(R10 and R12) we e highes o hi d-yea s uden s. In gene al, hough ou h-yea
s uden s had sligh ly highe sco es in mos compe encies han he o he yea s, he
a e age sco e seems o be sligh ly abo e neu al. This indica es ha addi ional e o s
a e equi ed o inco po a e hese compe encies, pa icula ly owa ds he inal yea o
hei s udies, o ensu e s uden s a e equipped o design, e alua e, and moni o he
esilien in as uc u e upon comple ing hei cou se.
Fig. 2. A) Repo ed isk pe cep ion, knowledge, and esilience concep among
esponden s (n=127); B) Dis ibu ion o isk pe cep ion, knowledge, and esilience
concep by academic yea ; C) Dis ibu ion o esilience compe encies by academic
yea . The same Like scale is used in all illus a ions.
5 DISCUSSION
Ou s udy assesses DRR knowledge and esilience compe encies among
unde g adua e ci il enginee ing s uden s in Nepal. Employing he amewo k by
Winkens & Leich -Schol en (2023), his s udy ad ances p e ious s udies ocused on
disas e knowledge, a i ude, p epa edness, and isk pe cep ion (Calamba, 2024;
Olo es e al., 2023; Tuladha e al., 2014) by explici ly examining he esilience
compe encies. As ci il enginee s a e a he o e on o in as uc u e design and
cons uc ion, assessing he knowledge and compe encies among unde g adua e ci il
enginee ing s uden s is c ucial. Ou s udy has h ee key con ibu ions and implica ions
o u u e esea ch and p ac ice.
Fi s ly, s uden s p ima ily ely on social media and social ne wo ks o DRR- ela ed
in o ma ion o e adi ional sou ces such as newspape s and ele ision, which migh
impac he eliabili y o DRR communica ion (Bui, 2019). While pla o ms such as
Facebook and TikTok o e aluable in o ma ion, he e is a isk o communica ing
inaccu a e in o ma ion. By s a egically u ilizing he digi al pla o ms and os e ing he
collabo a ion be ween uni e si ies and disas e managemen agencies, eliable DRR
communica ion can be ensu ed (Chang, 2024; Sjo aida & Anwa , 2018; Skinne &
Rampe sad, 2014). Fu u e esea ch could ocus on in eg a ing media li e acy in o
cu icula and assessing s uden s’ c i ical hinking capabili ies o e alua e he accu acy
o DRR in o ma ion on online pla o ms.
Secondly, while s uden s demons a e s ong disas e - ela ed knowledge and basic
esilience concep s, hey a e unce ain abou he local disas e isks, possibly due o
ading memo ies o pe sonal expe iences (Su on e al., 2020; Wiwik As u i e al.,
2021). Thus, con inuous in eg a ion o hands-on expe iences h ough expe ien ial
lea ning, such as p oblem-based lea ning (PBL) and simula ion-based lea ning, can
ein o ce DRR knowledge (López e al., 2023; Mu ay e al., 2019; Yasa oh e al.,
2023). Addi ionally, explo ing mul is akeholde ini ia i es, such as global PBL
(Ju elionis e al., 2023), can help s uden s deepen hei unde s anding o disas e
p epa edness by exposing hem o di e se local con ex s, in e disciplina y isk
pe cep ions, and esponse s a egies.
Finally, ou indings indica e ha , despi e s uden s’ pe cep ion o possessing esilience
compe encies, hese compe encies a e no ully de eloped. Gi en ha he Nepal
go e nmen is a emp ing o in eg a e DRR in educa ion, addi ional e o s a e
necessa y o imp o e s uden s’ con idence o ackle challenges posed by disas e s.
He e, o example, imp o ing in e disciplina y p ac ices h ough case s udies, hands-
on lea ning, eal-wo ld disas e scena ios, and in eg a ing local pe spec i es o
building esilien communi ies holds as po en ial (López e al., 2023; Pan e al.,
2020; Pushnik & Ha ield, 2016; Sh es ha e al., 2025). Fu u e s udies a e
ecommended o iden i y he unde lying causes hinde ing he de elopmen o
esilience compe encies h ough quali a i e in e iews and pe o mance-based
assessmen s.
In conclusion, his s udy highligh s he exis ing le el o DRR knowledge and esilience
compe encies among unde g adua e ci il enginee ing s uden s. The indings p o ide
insigh s o uni e si ies, eache s, and educa o s o e alua e he need o cu icula
e o ma ion and ans o ma ion in eaching lea ning pedagogy o ad ance s uden s’
compe encies o mi iga ing disas e isk. We ecommend conduc ing c oss-coun y
s udies in disas e -p one a eas o compa e s uden s’ p o iciency and sha e bes
p ac ices. Insigh s om his esea ch can also guide capaci y-building p ojec s by he
Eu opean Union o suppo low and middle-income na ions, such as Nepal, in disas e
con ex s.
