Academic Edi o s: Mo asem Alazaiza
and Salem S. Abu Am
Recei ed: 14 Ma ch 2025
Re ised: 4 Ap il 2025
Accep ed: 7 Ap il 2025
Published: 15 Ap il 2025
Ci a ion: Ma i, A.; Man a, E.;
K okida, M. Inno a i e
Mic oalgae-Based Edible Coa ings
wi h Encapsula ed Bioac i es:
Enhancing F esh Raspbe y Shel Li e
and Quali y. P ocesses 2025,13, 1193.
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
p 13041193
Copy igh : © 2025 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
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A icle
Inno a i e Mic oalgae-Based Edible Coa ings wi h Encapsula ed
Bioac i es: Enhancing F esh Raspbe y Shel Li e and Quali y
Alexand a Ma i *, E o ili Man a and Magdalini K okida
School o Chemical Enginee ing, Na ional Technical Uni e si y o A hens, I oon Poly echneiou 9,
15780 A hens, G eece
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac : Raspbe ies a e inc easingly popula due o hei high nu i ional alue. How-
e e , oxida i e eac ions, espi a ion, spoilage bac e ia, and imp ope s o age condi ions
h oughou he supply chain can lead o apid quali y deg ada ion and a sho shel li e.
Ex ending he shel li e o aspbe ies wi h minimal p ocessing, so as no o comp omise
hei nu i ional con en , physical cha ac e is ics, o senso y a ibu es, emains a signi ican
challenge in he ood indus y. Edible coa ings o e a p omising solu ion o ex ending
he comme cial shel li e o aspbe ies, while en iching hese coa ings wi h encapsula ed
bioac i e compounds can u he enhance hei nu i ional alue. The objec i e o his s udy
was o de elop Chlo ella ulga is p o ein-based edible coa ings, en iched wi h encapsula ed
bioac i e compounds om osema y ( ia elec ospinning), o ex end he shel li e o esh
aspbe ies. The be ies we e imme sed in he coa ing solu ions and ai -d ied un il he
coa ings we e ully se . The shel li e o he coa ed aspbe ies was hen e alua ed, wi h
samples s o ed a 4
◦
C. Key quali y a ibu es, including colo , weigh loss, an ioxidan ac-
i i y, and spoilage mic oo ganism le els, we e moni o ed a p ede e mined ime in e als.
The esul s demons a ed ha he applica ion o Chlo ella ulga is p o ein-based coa ings
en iched wi h bioac i e compounds signi ican ly ex ended he shel li e o aspbe ies and
imp o ed hei o e all quali y.
Keywo ds: edible coa ing; be ies; shel li e; mic oalgae; enhanced quali y
1. In oduc ion
Raspbe ies, wi h hei high wa e con en and delica e na u e, a e pa icula ly p one
o pos -ha es deg ada ion despi e hei ich an ioxidan and nu i ional p o ile. Thei
ulne abili y o ex e nal ac o s such as empe a u e luc ua ions and humidi y accele a es
de e io a ion, impac ing bo h hei quali y and shel li e. To add ess hese challenges,
esea che s ha e explo ed inno a i e solu ions, including he de elopmen o edible coa -
ings. These coa ings ac as p o ec i e ba ie s, helping o main ain he eshness o be ies
by shielding hem om en i onmen al s esso s. S udies sugges ha such coa ings can
signi ican ly p ese e be y quali y du ing handling and s o age, po en ially educing
pos -ha es losses [1].
The impo ance o edible coa ings in ex ending he shel li e o ui s, especially
aspbe ies, canno be o e s a ed. These coa ings help p e en mois u e loss, mic obial
con amina ion, and o he de imen al e ec s, o e ing an e ec i e means o p olong he
eshness o pe ishable p oduce [
2
]. Recen esea ch has ocused on enhancing he pe o -
mance o hese coa ings by expe imen ing wi h a ious o mula ions. U ilizing na u al
polyme s, p o eins, o lipids, edible coa ings p esen a sus ainable and en i onmen ally
P ocesses 2025,13, 1193 h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/p 13041193
P ocesses 2025,13, 1193 2 o 19
iendly al e na i e o adi ional packaging ma e ials, aligning wi h he g owing demand
o eco-conscious ood p ese a ion me hods [3,4].
In he ques o biobased and sus ainable al e na i es, esea che s a e explo ing
mic oalgae-de i ed ma e ials o edible coa ings. Unlike adi ional coa ings based on
polysaccha ides o animal-de i ed p o eins, his s udy ocuses on Chlo ella ulga is, a
mic oalgae-based p o ein sou ce, as a sus ainable and bioac i e ma e ial o edible coa ings.
Mic oalgae, enowned o hei biodeg adabili y and he p esence o aluable bioac i e
compounds, p esen p omising al e na i es o sus ainable coa ing solu ions. The p o eins
de i ed om mic oalgae o m hyd ophilic, an ioxidan - ich ilms, o e ing an eco- iendly
al e na i e o con en ional syn he ic ood p ese a ion me hods. These na u al coa ings
p o ide no only enhanced en i onmen al sus ainabili y, bu also po en ial heal h bene i s
due o hei bioac i e p ope ies [
3
]. Applying coa ings made om mic oalgae o aspbe -
ies could e ec i ely ex end hei shel li e while suppo ing b oade sus ainabili y goals in
he ood indus y [
4
]. This inno a i e app oach has he po en ial o ans o m aspbe y
p ese a ion and con ibu e o a mo e sus ainable ood supply chain.
Chlo ella ulga is can be cul i a ed h ough a ious me hods, including small-scale
pho obio eac o s and ou doo open pond sys ems, each o e ing dis inc ad an ages de-
pending on he a ge p oduc [
5
]. Pho obio eac o s p o ide con olled condi ions ha
op imize g ow h pa ame e s such as ligh , CO
2
, and nu ien supply, making hem sui able
o high- alue biop oduc s like pigmen s, an ioxidan s, and p o eins. In con as , open
pond sys ems a e mo e cos -e ec i e o la ge-scale biomass p oduc ion, especially when
he ocus is on bio uel p ecu so s, such as lipids and me hyl es e s [
6
]. Resea ch has shown
ha ha es ing mic oalgae a di e en g ow h phases signi ican ly impac s he biochemical
composi ion o he biomass. Fo ins ance, ha es ing du ing he log (exponen ial) phase
ypically yields highe p o ein con en due o ac i e cell di ision and me abolic ac i i y,
while he s a iona y phase o en co ela es wi h inc eased lipid accumula ion, making i
mo e a o able o biodiesel p oduc ion [
7
–
9
]. S udies ha e demons a ed ha nu ien -
dep i ed condi ions du ing he s a iona y phase o Chlo ella ulga is cul i a ion esul in
highe lipid and me hyl es e yields.
Despi e hese p omising ad an ages, se e al limi a ions mus be conside ed when
using mic oalgae-based p o eins o edible coa ings. Fi s , he economic easibili y o la ge-
scale p oduc ion is in luenced by he cos s associa ed wi h cul i a ion, ha es ing, and
p ocessing, wi h ha es ing alone con ibu ing 20–30% o he o al p oduc ion expenses [
9
].
Fu he mo e, mic oalgae p o eins can in oduce s ong la o s, odo s, and colo s o ood
p oduc s, po en ially a ec ing consume accep ance [
10
]. Managing hese senso y a ibu es
is c ucial o he success ul adop ion o mic oalgae-based coa ings in ood applica ions.
Addi ionally, he s abili y and quali y o mic oalgae-based coa ings can be comp omised
du ing p ocessing, pa icula ly wi h d ying me hods like sp ay d ying. Add essing hese
challenges is i al o ensu ing he success ul and widesp ead use o mic oalgae-based
coa ings in ood p ese a ion.
The use o na u al ex ac s in de eloping edible coa ings o ex end he shel li e o
ui s has gained signi ican a en ion as a sus ainable al e na i e. Na u ally occu ing
subs ances, such as essen ial oils om medicinal plan s and he bs, ha e long been u ilized
o a ious pu poses, including ood p ese a ion, due o hei an imic obial p ope ies. A
no el an i ungal coa ing, using a gela in-based o mula ion wi h encapsula ed p opolis
ex ac , has been employed o ex end he shel li e o aspbe ies [
3
,
11
]. In his s udy,
elec ospinning echnology is u ilized o encapsula e osma inic acid in zein nanos uc u es,
ensu ing con olled elease and enhanced s abili y o bioac i e compounds wi hin he
coa ing. This app oach ep esen s a no el applica ion o aspbe y p ese a ion.
P ocesses 2025,13, 1193 3 o 19
This s udy is mo i a ed by he g owing need o sus ainable solu ions o ex end he
shel li e and imp o e he quali y o esh p oduce, especially in ligh o global ood was e.
Raspbe ies, being highly pe ishable, equi e inno a i e p ese a ion me hods o main ain
hei eshness, nu i ional alue, and sa e y. The use o Chlo ella ulga is p o eins as a base
o edible coa ings o e s a enewable, eco- iendly al e na i e o con en ional ma e ials. By
inco po a ing bioac i e compounds like osma inic acid, he coa ings p o ide addi ional
an imic obial and an ioxidan bene i s. This esea ch aims o explo e he po en ial o
mic oalgae-based p o eins and bioac i e compounds o enhancing ui p ese a ion,
add essing bo h ood was e and he demand o na u al, sus ainable ood echnologies.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
2.1. Ma e ials
F esh aspbe ies we e supplied om local ma ke s. The ma e ials selec ed o he
de elopmen o he edible coa ings included glyce ol, Tween 20, and Chlo ella ulga is.
Glyce ol and Chlo ella ulga is we e pu chased om local ma ke s, and Tween 20 om
Sigma-Ald ich (Me ck KGaA), Da ms ad , Ge many.
2.2. Ex ac ion and Cha ac e iza ion o P o eins om Chlo ella ulga is
P o eins we e ex ac ed using a modi ied aqueous ex ac ion me hod wi h ammonium
sul a e, based on Co êa e al. (2021) [
12
]. Ini ially, 1 g o Chlo ella ulga is was dissol ed
in 18 mL o wa e and s i ed un il ully homogeneous. Sodium hyd oxide (1 M) was
hen added d opwise un il he pH eached 11. The solu ion was gen ly s i ed wi h a
magne ic s i e o 30 min, wi h pH moni o ed and adjus ed as needed. The solu ion
was cen i uged a 2550 pm o 10 min, and he supe na an was collec ed o u he
p ocessing. Ammonium sul a e was g adually added o he supe na an un il sa u a ion,
while s i ing o 3 h. A e s i ing, he mix u e was e ige a ed o a leas 8 h, hen
cen i uged again unde he same condi ions. The supe na an was collec ed using a pipe e,
il e ed unde acuum, and lyophilized o a powde o m, using a F eeze D ye Table op
F eeze D ye BK-FD10S (BIOBASE G oup, Jinan, China).
P o ein de e mina ion was pe o med using he B ad o d me hod [
13
] o assess ex ac-
ion yield and me hod e ec i eness, wi h a calib a ion cu e cons uc ed o concen a ion
de e mina ion. To e i y he p o ein measu emen s, he Kjeldahl me hod [
14
] was applied
o he lyophilized p o ein powde . The ex ac ion yield ob ained om he B ad o d me hod
was 3.85%, while he Kjeldahl me hod indica ed a yield o 99.65%. The p o ein con en o
Chlo ella ulga is ypically does no exceed 58%, wi h highe alues o en equi ing chemi-
cal ea men s such as T ichlo oace ic Acid (TCA), which a e no pe missible in he ood
indus y. The lowe yield om he B ad o d me hod is due o i s speci ici y, ensu ing he
p esence o only p o eins in bo h liquid and d y ex ac s, hus excluding o he subs ances
ha may inc ease yield, bu comp omise p o ein pu i y. This speci ici y main ains he
in eg i y o he p o ein powde o subsequen applica ions and analyses.
Chlo ella ulga is was inco po a ed in o an edible coa ing o mula ion, and he p ocess
was designed o minimize was e gene a ion. Howe e , du ing he p epa a ion o he
coa ing ma e ial—pa icula ly du ing he ex ac ion o Chlo ella biomass—small amoun s
o esidual biomass and p ocessing wa e we e gene a ed as byp oduc s. While hese
esidues we e minimal, i is impo an o conside hei po en ial o alo iza ion, especially
wi hin a ci cula bioeconomy amewo k. Recen li e a u e [
15
] highligh s he g owing
in e es in con e ing biowas es in o enewable ene gy sou ces such as hyd ogen gas
h ough me hods like da k e men a ion and anae obic diges ion. The nu ien - ich esidues
om mic oalgal p ocessing, including p o eins, ca bohyd a es, and o he o ganics, a e
p omising subs a es o biological hyd ogen p oduc ion [
10
]. Thei biodeg adabili y
P ocesses 2025,13, 1193 4 o 19
and high ene gy con en make hem sui able candida es o was e- o-ene gy con e sion
p ocesses. Fu u e wo k could explo e he in eg a ion o mic oalgal coa ing p oduc ion wi h
was e alo iza ion s a egies, he eby enhancing he sus ainabili y and economic easibili y
o such bio echnological applica ions.
2.3. P epa a ion o Edible Coa ings and Applica ion on Be ies
The p epa a ion o he coa ing ollowed he me hod ou lined by Ma i e al. (2024) [
16
].
To ensu e uni o m p o ein dispe sion, a 6% w/ p o ein solu ion was p epa ed in deionized
wa e unde con inuous s i ing. The addi ion o glyce ol (50% w/w) ac ed as a plas icize ,
enhancing he lexibili y o he esul ing ilm, while Tween 20 (0.4% / ) acili a ed emulsi-
ica ion and imp o ed he s abili y o he mix u e. The pH was adjus ed o 11
±
0.1 wi h
1 N NaOH o inc ease p o ein solubili y, as he high pH suppo s be e p o ein dissolu ion
in he aqueous solu ion. The mix u e was hen hea ed o 70
◦
C o 20 min o encou age
c osslinking and imp o e he mechanical p ope ies o he inal coa ing.
To inco po a e bioac i e componen s, encapsula ed s uc u es p oduced ia elec o-
sp aying we e added o achie e a inal concen a ion o 5 g o osma inic acid pe li e o
coa ing solu ion. These s uc u es we e encapsula ed in zein unde op imized elec osp ay-
ing condi ions, wi h a low a e o 0.5 mL/h, a ol age o 20–20.4 kV, and a dis ance o
10 cm. The encapsula ion p ocess in ol ed an e hanol–wa e osema y ex ac solu ion a
an 80:20 a io, wi h a zein concen a ion o 10% w/ .
Zein is no wa e -insoluble, bu dissol es in he coa ing solu ion due o he pH adjus -
men o 11. While osma inic acid s abili y is known o be pH-dependen , wi h op imal
e en ion obse ed a mo e neu al pH alues, a pH 11, i s solubili y in he p o ein ma ix
was enhanced, acili a ing i s uni o m inco po a ion in o he coa ing solu ion. The solubili y
enhancemen a his pH le el ensu ed e ec i e encapsula ion and s abili y o he bioac i e
compound in he inal p oduc .
A e p epa a ion, he be ies we e imme sed in he coa ing solu ion o 2 min, hen
ai -d ied un il he coa ing had ully d ied on o he be ies.
2.4. E alua ion o Coa ed Be ies
The e alua ion o he coa ed be ies was based on a comp ehensi e se o pa ame e s.
This includes an assessmen o weigh loss, colo change, o al soluble solids, o al acidi y,
an ioxidan ac i i y, and o ganolep ic p ope ies, and an in-dep h analysis o mic obial
inhibi ion, p o iding a holis ic o e iew o he coa ing’s e ec i eness.
2.4.1. Weigh Loss
To e alua e he impac o coa ing on be y shel li e, esh and coa ed be ies a e
weighed e e y 2 days o e a 14-day pe iod. The measu emen s a e aken using a high-
p ecision scale wi h 4-decimal accu acy. The pe cen age o weigh loss is hen calcula ed
ela i e o he ini ial weigh eco ded on day 1, based on Equa ion (1). This app oach allows
o a de ailed assessmen o how coa ing a ec s be y weigh e en ion h oughou he
s o age pe iod.
Weigh Loss =W −Wi
Wi
%, (1)
whe e W
is he weigh o he be ies a day (g), and W
i
is he weigh o he be ies a day
0 (g).
2.4.2. Colo Change
To de e mine he colo o he be y samples, he CIE L*a*b* colo scale was used wi h
a po able spec opho ome e (MiniScan XE, Hun e Associa es Labo a o y Inc., Res on,
VA, USA), ea u ing a 4 mm measu ing head. The colo me ics include L* (ligh ness),
P ocesses 2025,13, 1193 5 o 19
which anges om 0 (black) o 100 (pe ec whi e), a* (indica ing he balance be ween ed
and g een), and b* (indica ing he balance be ween yellow and blue). Measu emen s o L*,
a*, and b* we e aken in iplica e o ensu e accu acy [17].
2.4.3. To al Soluble Solids
To al soluble solids (TSS) se e as an indica o o ui ipeness by e lec ing i s swee -
ness. TSS is measu ed using a e ac ome e , wi h esul s exp essed in deg ees B ix. Mea-
su emen s a e aken ini ially and epea ed 2 imes o 15 days o s o age, o moni o changes
in ui ipeness o e ime [18].
2.4.4. To al Acidi y
To al acidi y is a c ucial indica o o ui ipeness. To al acidi y was measu ed h ough
a i a ion me hod on day 0 and epea ed 2 imes o 15 days o s o age [
18
]. Mo e speci i-
cally, be y juice was dilu ed in deionized wa e wi h a a io o 1:10 / and i a ed wi h
0.1 M NaOH, a e a small amoun o phenolph halein indica o was added. Finally, o al
acidi y was de e mined h ough Equa ion (2), exp essed as % ci ic acid.
Acidi y(%)=VNaOH·CNaOH·Acidi y Fac o
Vsample
, (2)
whe e V
NaOH
is he olume o sodium hyd oxide consumed (mL), C
NaOH
is he concen a-
ion o sodium hyd oxide (N), Acidi y ac o : 0.064 o ci ic acid, and V
sample
is he olume
o sample (mL).
2.4.5. An ioxidan Ac i i y
The an ioxidan ac i i y was de e mined by he DPPH me hod o B and-Williams
e al. (1995) [
19
]. A DPPH solu ion was p epa ed (2.9 mg o he ac i e subs ance dissol ed
in 100 mL o me hanol) and was s i ed a oom empe a u e o 45 min in he absence
o ligh . Then, 3.9 mL o he DPPH solu ion and 0.1 mL o he es sample we e added
o a cu e e in o de o measu e he abso bance in a UV-Vis spec opho ome e (UV-Vis
Spec opho ome e UV-M51, BEL PHOTONICS, Monza, I aly) a a equency o 515 nm o
20 min. Du ing he educ ion eac ion, he deep pu ple me hanolic solu ion decolo ized
and he ligh abso p ion was moni o ed. The ee adical sca enging capaci y %RSA was
de e mined h ough Equa ion (3).
%RSA =1−AE
AD ·100, (3)
whe e AE is he abso p ion o he an ioxidan solu ion, and AD is he abso bance o
DPPH sample.
Va ious dilu ions o he sample solu ion we e pho ome e ed o gene a e a calib a ion
cu e ha ela es he concen a ion o he amoun o DPPH emaining. The emaining
amoun o DPPH (DPPH em) was calcula ed using Equa ion (4):
DPPH em(%)=DPPH
DPPH =0
·100, (4)
The IC
50
alue (Inhibi ionConcen a ion 50%), he solu ion concen a ion a which
50% o DPPH is des oyed, is ound using he calib a ion cu e.
2.4.6. Mic obial G ow h
The quan i a i e assessmen o mic obial coun s on coa ed and uncoa ed be y samples
was conduc ed using a se ial dilu ion echnique, adap ed om he me hod desc ibed
P ocesses 2025,13, 1193 6 o 19
by [
20
]. This p ocedu e in ol ed employing nu ien aga , Yeas and Mold aga , and eosin
me hylene blue (EMB) aga o quan i y mic oo ganisms on he be y samples.
The mic obiological es s we e pe o med on he samples ha had he bes o e all
esul s, and he limi s o hei isk con ol we e chosen om he Eu opean Commission o
2012. The be ies we e weighed, chopped, and placed in s e ile il e bags wi h Ringe ’s
solu ion (1:9 a io). Ringe ’s solu ion was made by dissol ing a Ringe able (Me ck KGaA,
Da ms ad , Ge many) in 500 mL o deionized wa e . The samples we e hen subjec ed o
se ial dilu ion using a S omache o abou 1.5 min.
Fo he p epa a ion, 10 g o bo h he coa ed and uncoa ed be ies we e homogenized
wi h a s e ile pes le and mo a . The homogena es we e dilu ed wi h 90 mL o s e ile
dis illed wa e o c ea e a 10
−1
dilu ion, wi h u he en old dilu ions up o 10
−7
. Each
dilu ion was pla ed on o s e ile Pe i dishes wi h s e ile blank medium, ollowing he
me hod o [21].
Nu ien aga was s e ilized by au ocla ing a 121
◦
C o 15 min. A 1 mL aliquo om
each dilu ion was pla ed, co e ed wi h 15–20 mL o s e ile nu ien aga , and mixed by
swi ling. Simila p ocedu es we e used o de ec ing Yeas s and Molds.
Mic obiological es s we e pe o med on he 5 h and he 8 h days, wi h To al Coun
(TC) incuba ed a 35
±
2
◦
C o 48 h (limi : 5 log CFU/mL) and Yeas s and Molds (YM)
incuba ed a 28 ±2◦C o 24 h (limi : 2 log CFU/mL).
To calcula e hem, he colonies ha de eloped on he able s we e measu ed and hen
calcula ed wi h Equa ion (5).
Mic obial colonies (CFU
mL ) = CFU ∗dilu ion deg ee
V, (5)
whe e CFU is he numbe o colonies on subs a es, he deg ee o dilu ion is 10
n
, n = 1 o
he i s dilu ion, n = 2 o he second, e c., and Vis he olume placed on subs a e (mL).
2.4.7. Senso y E alua ion
A senso y e alua ion was conduc ed o assess he o e all accep abili y o he aspbe y
samples. A panel o 10 ained indi iduals, including bo h male and emale membe s,
pa icipa ed in he senso y es ing. The panelis s we e chosen o hei expe ience and
expe ise in e alua ing ood p oduc s. Panel de ails included a balanced gende dis ibu ion
and an age ange o 22–45 yea s, and all indi iduals we e ained in senso y analysis.
Each panelis was p o ided wi h coded aspbe y samples: one coa ed wi h con en ional
edible coa ing, one coa ed wi h edible coa ing con aining bioac i e compounds, and one
esh con ol sample. The se ing o de o he samples was andomized o minimize
o de bias, and a pala e cleanse (wa e ) was p o ided be ween samples o p e en la o
ca yo e . The e alua ion ook place in a senso y labo a o y wi h con olled ligh ing and
empe a u e condi ions o ensu e consis ency ac oss e alua ions. Panelis s a ed each
sample using a 9-poin hedonic scale, whe e 1 ep esen ed “dislike ex emely” and 9
ep esen ed “like ex emely”. The a ibu es e alua ed included la o , ex u e, colo , and
o e all accep abili y. The esul s we e collec ed and subjec ed o s a is ical analysis o assess
he impac o he di e en ea men s on he senso y quali y o he aspbe y samples.
2.5. S a is ical Analysis
A one-way and ac o ial analysis o a iance (ANOVA) was applied in o de o analyze
he di e ences. Tukey’s ange es (a = 0.05) was applied, and all he s a is ical es s we e
pe o med wi h SPSS 21 so wa e.
P ocesses 2025,13, 1193 7 o 19
3. Resul s and Discussion
3.1. Weigh Loss
One quali y indica o used o s udy ui ’s shel li e is weigh loss. F ui unde goes
weigh loss du ing p ese a ion e en when i is done unde ideal condi ions and educes
he o e all quali y o he ui . The wo physiological p ocesses con ibu ing o weigh loss
a e espi a ion and anspi a ion [
22
]. In addi ion, he p esence o coa ing con ibu es o
less weigh loss du ing p ese a ion [23].
Figu e 1demons a es he ela ionship be ween aspbe y weigh loss and s o age
ime. In pa icula , i is e iden ha uncoa ed esh be ies exhibi a subs an ial inc ease
in weigh loss as s o age ime p og esses. In con as , aspbe ies coa ed wi h ei he a
s anda d coa ing o one en iched wi h bioac i e compounds show a signi ican ly lowe
weigh loss o e ime. No ably, he e is no subs an ial di e ence be ween he be ies coa ed
wi h o wi hou bioac i e subs ances. This indica es ha he applica ion o he coa ing i sel
con ibu es o be e p ese a ion and an ex ended shel li e o he aspbe ies.
P ocesses 2025, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 o 19
3. Resul s and Discussion
3.1. Weigh Loss
One quali y indica o used o s udy ui ’s shel li e is weigh loss. F ui unde goes
weigh loss du ing p ese a ion e en when i is done unde ideal condi ions and educes
he o e all quali y o he ui . The wo physiological p ocesses con ibu ing o weigh loss
a e espi a ion and anspi a ion [22]. In addi ion, he p esence o coa ing con ibu es o
less weigh loss du ing p ese a ion [23].
Figu e 1 demons a es he ela ionship be ween aspbe y weigh loss and s o age
ime. In pa icula , i is e iden ha uncoa ed esh be ies exhibi a subs an ial inc ease
in weigh loss as s o age ime p og esses. In con as , aspbe ies coa ed wi h ei he a
s anda d coa ing o one en iched wi h bioac i e compounds show a signi ican ly lowe
weigh loss o e ime. No ably, he e is no subs an ial diffe ence be ween he be ies
coa ed wi h o wi hou bioac i e subs ances. This indica es ha he applica ion o he coa -
ing i sel con ibu es o be e p ese a ion and an ex ended shel li e o he aspbe ies.
Figu e 1. Weigh loss o aspbe ies in 14 days.
Simila esul s we e obse ed by Han e al. (2004) [24], whe e chi osan-based coa ings
educed weigh loss in ed aspbe ies s o ed a 2 °C o 21 days. The p o ec i e ba ie
p o ided by he coa ings in his s udy, whe he enhanced wi h bioac i e compounds o
no , appea s o be he p ima y ac o in educing mois u e loss, leading o imp o ed
p ese a ion.
Seaweed-de i ed p o ein coa ings ha e demons a ed supe io pe o mance in
main aining he quali y o aspbe ies compa ed o o he coa ing ma e ials. The hyd o-
philic na u e o algal p o eins acili a es he o ma ion o s ong, mois u e- e en i e ba i-
e s, which help o slow mois u e loss, con ibu ing o an ex ended shel li e o he ui
[18]. These coa ings help o educe anspi a ion, main ain he ui ’s weigh , and egula e
espi a ion, u he suppo ing hei ole in weigh e en ion du ing s o age.
Algina e coa ings, de i ed om seaweed, a e pa icula ly effec i e in c ea ing a ba -
ie agains oxygen, which also helps o slow down oxida i e p ocesses ha could con-
ibu e o weigh loss. Compa ed o o he edible coa ings, such as hose based on polysac-
cha ides like cellulose o p o eins like whey and soy, seaweed-de i ed coa ings excel in
mois u e e en ion due o hei supe io ilm- o ming p ope ies.
Figu e 1. Weigh loss o aspbe ies in 14 days.
Simila esul s we e obse ed by Han e al. (2004) [
24
], whe e chi osan-based coa -
ings educed weigh loss in ed aspbe ies s o ed a 2
◦
C o 21 days. The p o ec i e
ba ie p o ided by he coa ings in his s udy, whe he enhanced wi h bioac i e com-
pounds o no , appea s o be he p ima y ac o in educing mois u e loss, leading o
imp o ed p ese a ion.
Seaweed-de i ed p o ein coa ings ha e demons a ed supe io pe o mance in main-
aining he quali y o aspbe ies compa ed o o he coa ing ma e ials. The hyd ophilic
na u e o algal p o eins acili a es he o ma ion o s ong, mois u e- e en i e ba ie s,
which help o slow mois u e loss, con ibu ing o an ex ended shel li e o he ui [
18
].
These coa ings help o educe anspi a ion, main ain he ui ’s weigh , and egula e
espi a ion, u he suppo ing hei ole in weigh e en ion du ing s o age.
Algina e coa ings, de i ed om seaweed, a e pa icula ly e ec i e in c ea ing a ba ie
agains oxygen, which also helps o slow down oxida i e p ocesses ha could con ibu e o
weigh loss. Compa ed o o he edible coa ings, such as hose based on polysaccha ides
like cellulose o p o eins like whey and soy, seaweed-de i ed coa ings excel in mois u e
e en ion due o hei supe io ilm- o ming p ope ies.
P ocesses 2025,13, 1193 8 o 19
While coa ings en iched wi h bioac i e compounds ha e been explo ed o enhanced
p ese a ion, he di e ence in weigh loss be ween bioac i e and non-bioac i e coa ings
is minimal o e ime. This sugges s ha he p ima y bene i in e ms o weigh e en ion
comes om he mois u e ba ie p o ided by he coa ing, a he han he inclusion o
bioac i e compounds. Rega dless, he applica ion o hese coa ings—whe he en iched
wi h bioac i e subs ances o no —signi ican ly ex ends he shel li e o aspbe ies by
educing weigh loss du ing s o age.
3.2. Colo Change
The colo is a decisi e ac o o he eshness o he p oduc and o consume
accep ance, as i indica es he ipening s age o he ui . The esul s o he colo a ia ion,
based on he L*, a*, and b* indices o esh aspbe ies, edible-coa ed aspbe ies, and,
inally, hose wi h edible coa ing and bioac i e subs ance a e p esen ed below.
Figu e 2demons a es he colo change o he aspbe ies up o he 14 h day o s o age
as measu ed by he L* pa ame e (which ep esen s ligh ness, whe e 0 is black and 100 is
whi e). The L* alues do no p esen majo changes o e ime, bu he e is a sligh endency
o a dec ease, indica ing a g adual da kening o he aspbe ies du ing he s o age pe iod.
This sligh educ ion in ligh ness sugges s ha as aspbe ies ipen and begin o age, hei
o e all b igh ness diminishes, al hough he e ec is sub le.
P ocesses 2025, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o 19
Figu e 2. Pa ame e L o he colo change o aspbe ies o e a pe iod o 14 days.
Figu e 3. Pa ame e a o he colo change o aspbe ies o e a pe iod o 14 days.
Figu e 2. Pa ame e Lo he colo change o aspbe ies o e a pe iod o 14 days.
Figu e 3p esen s he changes in he a* pa ame e , which measu es he ed–g een colo
spec um, wi h posi i e alues indica ing ed. The a* alues also p esen a sligh dec ease
du ing he p ese a ion pe iod ac oss all ea men s, especially o aspbe ies ha we e
coa ed wi h and wi hou he addi ion o bioac i e subs ances. The g adual decline in
he a* pa ame e indica es a loss o edness in he aspbe ies, meaning hey become less
ib an in e ms o hei ed colo a ion o e ime. This is in line wi h ypical ipening and
deg ada ion p ocesses in ui s, whe e an hocyanins, he pigmen s esponsible o ed colo ,
deg ade o change s uc u e as he ui ages.
Simila ly, Figu e 4displays he a ia ion in he b* pa ame e , which measu es he
blue–yellow spec um, wi h posi i e alues ep esen ing yellow. The b* pa ame e ends o
dec ease un il he 11 h day o s o age, ollowed by a sligh inc ease on he 14 h day. The
dec ease in b* sugges s a loss o yellow ones and a sligh shi owa ds he blue spec um
du ing he ea lie s ages o p ese a ion, which may co espond o he accumula ion o
seconda y pigmen s o he deg ada ion o ca o enoids, which con ibu e o yellow hues.
P ocesses 2025,13, 1193 9 o 19
The small inc ease in b* on he 14 h day migh sugges a sligh ebalancing o he colo
spec um as he aspbe ies u he age, al hough he changes a e ela i ely mino .
P ocesses 2025, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o 19
Figu e 2. Pa ame e L o he colo change o aspbe ies o e a pe iod o 14 days.
Figu e 3. Pa ame e a o he colo change o aspbe ies o e a pe iod o 14 days.
Figu e 3. Pa ame e ao he colo change o aspbe ies o e a pe iod o 14 days.
P ocesses 2025, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o 19
Figu e 2. Pa ame e L o he colo change o aspbe ies o e a pe iod o 14 days.
Figu e 3. Pa ame e a o he colo change o aspbe ies o e a pe iod o 14 days.
Figu e 4. Pa ame e bo he colo change o aspbe ies o e a pe iod o 14 days.
F om he obse a ions in Figu es 3–5, i can be concluded ha aspbe ies exhibi a
g adual shi in colo as hey ipen du ing s o age, becoming less ed and mo e blue o e
ime, and hei b igh ness (L*) dec eases sligh ly. These changes align wi h na u al ipening
p ocesses, whe e he b eakdown o pigmen s, pa icula ly an hocyanins, esul s in colo
shi s om ed owa ds blue o pu ple ones. The educ ion in b igh ness is likely due o
mois u e loss and pigmen deg ada ion, which a e common in ui s unde going aging and
p olonged p ese a ion.
This beha io is pa icula ly no able in coa ed aspbe ies, including hose coa ed
wi h a bioac i e subs ance, as hey s ill unde go colo changes, albei a a educed a e.
The coa ing helps main ain he s uc u al in eg i y and delays some o he isual signs o
ipening, bu does no comple ely s op he na u al p og ession o hese changes. Coa ed
aspbe ies, while expe iencing less d as ic changes in he a* ( ed) and b* (blue–yellow)
pa ame e s compa ed o uncoa ed aspbe ies, s ill ollow he gene al end o becoming
less ed, mo e blue, and sligh ly da ke o e ime.
P ocesses 2025,13, 1193 16 o 19
The o ganolep ic e alua ion e ealed ha he aspbe ies e ained hei cha ac e is ic
ex u e and la o h oughou he p ese a ion pe iod, ega dless o he ea men hey
unde wen . The coa ings used, pa icula ly hose con aining bioac i e subs ances, we e
designed o p o ec he ui wi hou comp omising i s na u al senso y a ibu es. This is
c ucial in ensu ing consume sa is ac ion, as al e a ions o as e, ex u e, o appea ance
could educe he o e all accep abili y o he ui . The ac ha no signi ican di e ences
we e de ec ed in o ganolep ic p ope ies indica es ha he coa ings we e success ul in
p ese ing he aspbe ies wi hou nega i ely in luencing he consume expe ience.
One o he key indings was ha he edible coa ings c ea ed an e ec i e p o ec i e ba -
ie , which no only p e en ed dehyd a ion and ex u e deg ada ion, bu also helped e ain
he aspbe ies’ na u al mois u e con en and c ispness. This ensu ed ha he aspbe ies
emained i m and esh h oughou he s o age pe iod, main aining hei appealing ex u e
and juiciness. The coa ings’ abili y o shield he ui om en i onmen al ac o s, such as
mois u e loss and oxida ion, was essen ial o ex ending shel li e, while simul aneously
p ese ing he ui ’s na u al la o p o ile and o e all senso y appeal. This p o ec ion
was c i ical in p e en ing any undesi able al e a ions, he eby main aining he aspbe ies’
inhe en quali ies and ensu ing ha hey emained highly a ac i e o consume s.
Finally, he o e all accep abili y o he be ies (Figu e 8), as e alua ed by senso y
panels, was no al e ed by he applica ion o edible coa ings o bioac i e subs ances. The
e alua ion showed ha he e was no signi ican di e ence in consume p e e ence o
accep abili y be ween he h ee aspbe y samples—whe he hey we e esh, coa ed, o
coa ed wi h bioac i e compounds. This consis ency in consume accep abili y is a posi i e
ou come, demons a ing ha he coa ings e ec i ely ex ended he shel li e and p o ec ed
he ui while main aining he quali ies ha make aspbe ies appealing o consume s.
The esul s sugges ha edible coa ings, pa icula ly hose en iched wi h bioac i e
compounds like osma inic acid, can be used o ex end he shel li e o aspbe ies and
imp o e hei p ese a ion wi hou nega i ely a ec ing hei o ganolep ic p ope ies.
This makes bioac i e coa ings a p omising echnology o he esh p oduce indus y, as
hey p o ide unc ional bene i s, such as an imic obial p o ec ion and enhanced shel li e,
wi hou comp omising he as e, ex u e, o o e all consume appeal o he ui .
In conclusion, he analysis demons a ed ha he p esence o he coa ing and bioac i e
compounds did no signi ican ly a ec he o ganolep ic cha ac e is ics o he aspbe ies.
The coa ings we e e ec i e in p ese ing he ui wi hou al e ing i s na u al senso y
quali ies, and he o e all accep abili y o he be ies emained consis en ac oss all samples.
This highligh s he po en ial o bioac i e coa ings as an e ec i e p ese a ion echnique
ha main ains he ui ’s senso y in eg i y while o e ing added p o ec ion agains spoilage.
4. Conclusions
In conclusion, his s udy success ully de eloped and applied inno a i e edible coa -
ings de i ed om Chlo ella ulga is p o eins, demons a ing hei e ec i eness in ex ending
he shel li e o aspbe ies. The coa ings p o ided a p o ec i e ba ie , signi ican ly e-
ducing oxida ion, mois u e loss, and ola ile compound ans e , he eby main aining he
ui ’s eshness h oughou he s o age pe iod. The inco po a ion o bioac i e compounds,
pa icula ly osma inic acid, u he enhanced he coa ings’ abili ies o inhibi mic obial
g ow h and p o ide an ioxidan bene i s.
O e a 14-day s o age pe iod, coa ed aspbe ies exhibi ed a signi ican ly lowe weigh
loss (app oxima ely 3%) compa ed o esh, uncoa ed be ies, which los nea ly wice as
much weigh . The o al soluble solids (TSS) inc eased in he coa ed aspbe ies, while i
dec eased in esh ui , likely due o he highe me abolic ac i i y in uncoa ed be ies.
Simila ly, al hough o al acidi y (TA) declined in all samples, coa ed aspbe ies—especially
P ocesses 2025,13, 1193 17 o 19
hose wi h bioac i e compounds— e ained mo e acidi y, indica ing a slowe ipening
p ocess. This highligh s he p o ec i e e ec o he coa ings in p olonging eshness.
The an ioxidan capaci y, measu ed ia DPPH assays, was no ably enhanced in he
coa ed aspbe ies, pa icula ly hose wi h osma inic acid, by day 14 o s o age. The inco -
po a ion o osma inic acid in o he coa ing helped no only main ain, bu also imp o e he
an ioxidan ac i i y, he eby en iching he ui ’s o e all nu i ional p o ile. Mic obiological
es ing con i med ha uncoa ed aspbe ies became unsa e o consump ion a e 14 days
due o mic obial g ow h, whe eas coa ed aspbe ies, pa icula ly hose wi h bioac i e
compounds, emained mic obiologically sa e beyond 14 days, highligh ing he impo ance
o osma inic acid’s an imic obial p ope ies.
O ganolep ic e alua ions e ealed no signi ican di e ences in as e, ex u e, o o e all
accep abili y be ween coa ed and esh aspbe ies, con i ming ha he coa ings did no
nega i ely a ec he senso y quali ies o he ui .
In summa y, he indings o his s udy demons a e ha edible coa ings, pa icula ly
hose con aining bioac i e compounds like osma inic acid, can e ec i ely ex end he
shel li e o aspbe ies by educing weigh loss, slowing ipening, enhancing an ioxidan
con en , and inhibi ing mic obial g ow h. These coa ings main ain he senso y in eg i y o
he ui while imp o ing i s nu i ional and sa e y a ibu es, o e ing a iable solu ion o
enhancing he p ese a ion o esh p oduce.
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion: E.M., A.M. and M.K.; me hodology: E.M., A.M. and M.K.;
so wa e: A.M.; alida ion: A.M. and M.K.; o mal analysis: E.M. and A.M.; in es iga ion: E.M., A.M.
and M.K.; esou ces: M.K.; da a cu a ion: E.M. and A.M.; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion: E.M.
and A.M.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing: A.M. and M.K.; isualiza ion: E.M. and A.M.; supe ision:
A.M. and M.K.; p ojec adminis a ion: M.K.; unding acquisi ion: M.K. All au ho s ha e ead and
ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This p ojec ecei ed unding om he Eu opean Union’s Ho izon 2020 esea ch and
inno a ion p og amme unde he Ma ie Skłodowska-Cu ie g an ag eemen No. 101007783.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : Da a a e con ained wi hin he a icle.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic s o in e es .
Abb e ia ions
The ollowing abb e ia ions a e used in his manusc ip :
TSS To al Soluble Solids
TA To al Acidi y
NaOH Sodium Hyd oxide
% RSA F ee Radical Sca enging Capaci y
DPPH 2,2-Diphenyl-1-pic ylhyd azyl
IC50 Hal Maximal Inhibi o y Concen a ion
EMB Eosin Me hylene Blue
TC To al Coun
YM Yeas s and Molds
E. coli Esche ichia coli
CFU Colony-Fo ming Uni
ANOVA One-Way and Fac o ial Analysis o Va iance
SPSS S a is ical Package o he Social Sciences
P ocesses 2025,13, 1193 18 o 19
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