Indian Jou nal o En i onmen Enginee ing (IJEE)
ISSN: 2582-9289 (Online), Volume-5 Issue-2, No embe 2025
19
Published By:
La ice Science Publica ion (LSP)
© Copy igh : All igh s ese ed.
Re ie al Numbe :100.1/ijee.B187105021125
DOI: 10.54105/ijee.B1871.05021125
Jou nal Websi e: www.ijee.la icescipub.com
Re o i ing Blas Fu naces o P oducing G een
S eel and G een U ea
Nallapaneni Sasidha
Abs ac : This pape p oposes a p ocess o p oduce g een s eel,
g een slag cemen , and g een u ea by e o i ing he exis ing blas
u naces o using o e ied biomass, biocha , and bio-coke
de i ed om ca bon-neu al biomass. Top gas eco e y is
p oposed o ex ac hyd ogen and ca bon dioxide, wi h 100%
oxygen eplacing ai by con e ing he blas u nace in o an
oxygen blas u nace. No in e nal modi ica ions a e equi ed o he
exis ing blas u nace, including he blas u nace s o es. Only
associa ed auxilia y sys ems a e modi ied o added. The modi ied
blas u nace is highly lexible in i s aw ma e ial quali y and
p oduc mix, wi hou sac i icing o e all p oduc i i y and he mal
e iciency. Fo e e y onne o a ed p oduc ion capaci y o an
exis ing blas u nace, nea ly 0.50 onne o g een u ea can be
p oduced a a ac i e economics. India can become sel -su icien
in u ea p oduc ion wi hou elying on impo s by e o i ing mos
o i s ope a ing blas u naces. I is a bioene gy ca bon cap u e
and s o age me hod in which he gene a ed g een ca bon dioxide
gas is seques e ed, he eby educing ha m ul ca bon emissions.
The ai pollu ion om he oxygen blas u naces is comple ely
a oided om en e ing he a mosphe e, excep o excess g een
ca bon dioxide, which is ei he sold o seques e ed.
Keywo ds: BECCS, Bio-Coke, Oxygen Blas Fu nace, Top Gas
Reco e y
Nomencla u e:
ASU: Ai Sepa a ion Uni
BECCS: Bioene gy Ca bon Cap u e and S o age
BF: Blas Fu nace
BOF: Basic Oxygen Fu nace
CRI: Coke Reac i i y Index
CSR: Coke S eng h a e Reduc ion
DRI: Di ec Reduced I on
EAF: Elec ic A c Fu nace
FCEV: Fuel Cell Elec ic Vehicles
HHV: Highe Hea ing Value
OBF: Oxygen Blas Fu nace
PSC: Po land Slag Cemen
PCI: Pul e ised Coal Injec ion
RAFT: Raceway Adiaba ic Flame Tempe a u e,
SEF: S anda d En halpy o Fo ma ion
TB: To e ied Biomass
TGR: Top Gas Reco e y
TGT: Top Gas Tempe a u e
VGF: Viabili y Gap Funding
I. INTRODUCTION
I onmaking h ough blas u naces (BFs) is a cen u ies-old
echnology ha has been con inuously imp o ed o
Manusc ip ecei ed on 27 Oc obe 2025 | Re ised Manusc ip
ecei ed on 05 No embe 2025 | Manusc ip Accep ed on 15
No embe 2025 | Manusc ip published on 30 No embe 2025.
*Co espondence Au ho (s)
Nallapaneni Sasidha *, Re i ed Enginee , Depa men o Mechanical
Enginee ing, Eddanapudi, Hyde abad (Telangana), India. Email ID:
n.shasidha[email p o ec ed]m, ORCID ID: 0000-0003-3915-2477
© The Au ho s. Published by La ice Science Publica ion (LSP). This is
an open-access a icle unde he CC-BY-NC-ND license
(h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Accommoda e a ying aw ma e ial a ailabili y and educe
p oduc ion cos s. P esen ly, BFs wi h ho me al p oduc ion
capaci ies o up o 15,000 onnes pe day a e in ope a ion.
Nea ly 70% o global c ude s eel and 54% o he Indian oil
s eel a e p oduced by BFs [1]. Global annual s eel p oduc ion
was almos 1.9 billion onnes in 2024. The s eel indus y
accoun s o nea ly 7% o global ca bon dioxide (CO2)
emissions om ossil uels, mainly coal/coke. Global u ea
p oduc ion is a ound 180 million onnes in 2024. Nea ly 1%
o global g eenhouse gas emissions a e emi ed du ing he
p oduc ion o u ea and o he ni ogen-con aining e ilise s.
In addi ion o BF-BOF (basic oxygen u nace) i onmaking,
he e a e di ec - educed i on (DRI) p oduc ion me hods using
na u al gas, hyd ogen, and coal. These DRI p ocesses
gene a e syngas (a mix u e o ca bon monoxide and
hyd ogen) om coal o na u al gas o con e i on o e o DRI,
which is hen u he e ined o s eel in elec ic a c u naces
(EAF). I on o e is also di ec ly educed o DRI using
hyd ogen. S eel sc ap is also ecycled in EAFs. To limi
global wa ming o 1.5-2 °C, g een s eel p oduc ion is
encou aged by eplacing ossil uels wi h non- ossil biomass,
g een hyd ogen, and enewable elec ici y. DRI-EAF s eel
p oduc ion based on he use o ossil uels can be
economically con e ed o g een s eel p oduc ion by using
g een syngas p oduced om biomass o g een hyd ogen (H2)
and g een elec ici y [2]. G een syngas (g een H2) can be
p oduced economically om biomass gasi ica ion, and
cheape g een elec ici y can be gene a ed om enewable
ene gy sou ces such as sola and wind powe [3]. Howe e ,
subs an ial ossil uel-based BF capaci y wi h a good
emaining p oduc i e li e is in ope a ion and canno be e i ed
wi hou a hea y inancial bu den [4]. This pape examines he
easibili y o g een s eel p oduc ion by e o i ing exis ing
BFs o use o e ied biomass (TB), biocha , and biomass-
de i ed g een coke. In addi ion o a ed BF p oduc i i y, he e
is also he possibili y o p oducing g een u ea (NH2CONH2)
by using hyd ogen and CO2 gases om he BF, along wi h he
byp oduc ni ogen gas om he ai sepa a ion uni (ASU).
II. DATA
BF is a coun e -cu en hea exchange / u nace o an
upd a eac o wi h gases/blas lowing upwa d agains he
descending bu den (mix u e o i on o e, coke, and lux). A
he bo om, he mol en ho s eel is collec ed, and liquid slag
( o med by eac ion o lux/lime wi h gangue/was e ma e ial
p esen in he i on o e and coke) loa s on he liquid i on since
he slag densi y is lowe han ha o he liquid i on (nea ly 8
onne/m3). Coke, lux, and i on o e lumps/pelle s a e loaded
sepa a ely in o he BF om he op, o ming laye s. Ho blas
(ai and/o oxygen) is supplied om he bo om h ough he
uye es loca ed a ound he
ci cum e ence o he BF. The
descending coke in he BF
comes in o con ac wi h he
ho blas , unde goes pa ial
Re o i ing Blas Fu naces o P oducing G een S eel and G een U ea
20
Published By:
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Re ie al Numbe :100.1/ijee.B187105021125
DOI: 10.54105/ijee.B1871.05021125
Jou nal Websi e: www.ijee.la icescipub.com
combus ion, and libe a es hea and CO gas. The
combus ion/ lame zone loca ed in on o he uye es is
called he aceway. A he bo om cen e o BF, a conical-
shaped space illed wi h ho bu den is o med, which is called
deadman and is su ounded by he ac i e coke zone, which is
u he su ounded by he cohesi e zone, as shown in Fig.1.
The deadman mass is loa ing on he mol en i on, su ounded
by he liquid slag a he bo om. Typically, a la ge BF is
app oxima ely 30 m all. The esidence ime o he bu den in
he BF anges om 5 o 8 hou s [5].
[Fig.1: C oss-Sec ion o a Blas Fu nace]
The ollowing chemical eac ions a e applicable in
i onmaking using BF-TGR.
(R1) 3Fe2O3(s) + CO(g) → 2Fe3O4(s) + CO2(g) - 40.8
kJ/mole a 850 oC
(R2) Fe3O4 (s) + CO (g) → 3FeO (s) + CO2 (g) + 34.9
kJ/mole a 850 oC
(R3) FeO(s) + CO(g) → Fe(s) + CO2(g) - 16.6 kJ/mole
a 850 oC
(R4) Fe2O3(s) + 3 CO(g) → 2Fe(s) + 3 CO2(g) - 50.73
kJ/mole a 850 oC
(R5) Fe3O4(s) + 4 CO(g) → Fe(s) + 4 CO2(g) - 14.9
kJ/mole a 850 oC
(R6) 3Fe2O3 (s) + H2 (g) → 2Fe3O4 (s) + H2O (g) - 5.9
kJ/mole a 850 oC
(R7) Fe3O4 (s) + H2 (g) → 3FeO (s) + H2O (g) + 56.6
kJ/mole a 850 oC
(R8) FeO(s) + H2(g) → Fe(s) + H2O(g) - 16.9 kJ a 850
oC
(R9) Fe2O3(s) + 3H2(g) → 2Fe(s) + 3H2O(g) - 2 kJ a 850
oC
(R10) Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g) → Fe(s) + 4 H2O(g) + 5.9
kJ/kmol a 850 oC
(R11) 3Fe+4H2O →Fe3O4+4H2 -26.3 kJ/mole a 850 oC
(R12) 4Fe3O4 (s) + O2 → 6Fe2O3 (s) + H2O (g) - 237.2
kJ/mole a 850 oC
(R13) FeO(l) + C(l) → Fe(s) + CO(g) + 156.5 kJ/mol a
25 oC
(R14) 2C + O2 → 2CO - 110.5 kJ/mol a 25 oC
(R15) CO2 + C ⇌ 2CO +172.6 kJ/mol a 25 oC
(R16) CO + H2O → CO2 + H2 - 41.2 kJ/mol a 25 oC
(R17) C + H2O ⇌ CO + H2 + 131 kJ/mol a 25 oC
(R18) C + 2H2 → CH4 - 74.9 kJ/mol a 25 oC
(R19) SiO2(l) + 2C → Si(l) + 2CO abo e 1300 oC
(R20) Si (l) + FeO (l) → Fe(l) + SiO2 (l) abo e 1300 oC
(R21) N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3
(R22) 2NH3 + CO2 → NH2CONH2 + H2O
As hey descend in he BF, he laye s o i on o e, coke, and
lux mo e adially inwa d in o he cohesi e zone, whe e hey
unde go mos o he educ ion p ocess. The educing gases
(CO, H2) om he aceway eac wi h hema i e/magne i e o
o m wus i e and DRI. The educ ion o i on o e/hema i e
(Fe2O3) akes place in s ages: i s (R1 and R6) o magne i e
(Fe3O4) and hen (R2 and R7) o wus i e (FeO) by eac ing
wi h CO o H2 gases below 1000 °C in he s ack zone o he
BF. Wus i e does no exis below 570 °C [6]. Some o e is
di ec ly con e ed o DRI in solid o m (R4, R5, R9, and R10)
wi hou being mel ed in o mol en i on. Wus i e (R3 and R8)
is educed o Fe o a signi ican ex en in he cohesi e zone.
All hese educ ion eac ions a e indi ec ypes, in which he
gas comes in o con ac wi h he solid i on o e. Di ec
educ ion (R13), he di ec consump ion o solid ca bon
wi hou con e ing i o CO gas, can occu o a limi ed ex en
when liquid coke comes in o con ac wi h liquid wus i e in he
ac i e coke zone. Liquid slag o ms in he cohesi e zone om
gangue and lux. Liquid silicon (Si) in he liquid slag also
eac s wi h liquid wus i e (R19 and R20) in he di ec
educ ion p ocess. The con en o wus i e in he inal slag is
less han 0.5 weigh %, and he o al eco e y o Fe is mo e
han 99.7%. Liquid slag and mol en i on do no mix, and
liquid slag loa s on he mol en me al [5].
A he op o he BF, he descending bu den is ho oughly
d ied, ee o mois u e. CO gas eac s wi h mois u e (R16) o
o m H2 and CO2, unde going he wa e -gas shi eac ion
wi h i on o e ac ing as a ca alys [7]. The BF gas/BF op gas
con ains subs an ial CO and H2, as he o e educ ion p ocess
occu s only abo e he minimum CO concen a ion o
p oduc CO2 (H2 o p oduc H2O), which can be used o
hea ing he blas o sepa a ed o o he uses [8]. Also, he
esidence ime o gases in he BF bu den is a ound 10
seconds, which is inadequa e o eac wi h i on oxides a ull
po en ial [8]. To enhance he BF's uel e iciency, he blas ai
is hea ed o abo e 1000 °C in he p ehea s o es by bu ning
he BF's op gas be o e eleasing i o he a mosphe e [9]. The
empe a u e o he gas exi ing he BF a i s op is called he
op gas empe a u e (TGT) and anges om 150 o 300 °C.
III. DISCUSSION
As i is no possible o measu e he lame empe a u e in he
aceway, heo e ically calcula ed lame empe a u e o
aceway adiaba ic lame empe a u e (RAFT) is main ained
a ound 2150 °C o op imum p oduc i i y and s able
pe o mance o he BF. RAFT can be enhanced o inc ease
BF p oduc i i y, bu his would educe BF e ac o y li e due
o excessi e e osion. The cohesi e zone heigh also ex ends
in o he BF s ack zone, leading o uns able BF ope a ion.
RAFT is calcula ed based on he inpu ma e ials and hei
cha ac e is ics, such as pe meabili y, e c. I de e mines he
hea h gas empe a u e, he eby a ec ing hea ans e ,
educ ion, slagging,
desul u iza ion, ho me al
empe a u e and composi ion,
e c. Too high RAFT will also
Indian Jou nal o En i onmen Enginee ing (IJEE)
ISSN: 2582-9289 (Online), Volume-5 Issue-2, No embe 2025
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DOI: 10.54105/ijee.B1871.05021125
Jou nal Websi e: www.ijee.la icescipub.com
cause ini ial gas olume expansion in he hea h, leading o a
la ge amoun o SiO2 ola ilisa ion, which inc eases
esis ance o he bu den column, impeding he downwa d
mo emen o he bu den, and e en causing he BF o un
poo ly o s all. Too-low TGT, caused by high RAFT, is also
un a ou able o blas u nace p oduc i i y, as i leads o
clogging in dus sepa a ion il e s and cold-end co osion in
he p esence o mois u e and SOx gases. When hyd ogen- ich
uel is injec ed, he RAFT becomes low while he TGT
emains high. A TGT ha is oo high will inc ease hea loss
om he u nace, imp o e he coke a io (coke consump ion
pe onne o ho me al), and sho en he se ice li e o he
u nace op cha ging equipmen and bag il e s. Well-
de eloped ma hema ical models a e a ailable o p edic BF
pe o mance wi h espec o a ia ions in he quali y and
quan i y o inpu uels, i on o e, blas composi ion, e c. [10].
Pul e ised coal injec ion (PCI) is also injec ed in o he BF
h ough he uye es o educe he consump ion o cos ly,
sca ce coke. Coke is p oduced om coking coals, whose
a ailabili y is limi ed and is impo ed om a ew coun ies a
a highe cos , he eby inc easing he p oduc ion cos o s eel
om he BF-BOF ou e.
[Fig.2: Line Diag am o G een S eel and G een U ea P oduc ion Plan ]
Coke use in BF canno be a oided en i ely wi h PCI, as i is
essen ial o c ea ing passage/pe meabili y o he upwa d-
mo ing BF gases in he cohesi e zone h ough he bu den.
The e is also a limi o using he PCI wi hou en iching he
blas ai wi h O2 o main ain he RAFT a an op imum le el.
The cha gene a ed om pul e ised coal pa icles ends o
clog he coke's po es, educing BF capaci y [10]. In some
coun ies, na u al gas is also ed o he BF h ough he uye es
o educe he coke consump ion. I is possible o inc ease he
RAFT by inc easing he ho blas empe a u e and using
en iched ai wi h O2 o 100% O2 [11]. Wi h PCI, i is no
easible o use 100% O2 as a blas since coal con ibu es
excess hea , leading o excessi e RAFT. So, ai is pa ially
en iched wi h O2 o main ain op imum RAFT. Simila ly,
s eam/CO2 injec ion o mois u e in blas ai /oxygen can be
used o educe RAFT o he op imum le el. H2O / CO2 b eaks
in o H2 / CO and O2, consuming he mal ene gy bu educing
ex e nal O2 demand. The he mal ene gy con ibu ion
capaci y o he uels is i al o main ain op imum RAFT [12].
In he aceway zone, whe e he lame empe a u e exceeds
2100 °C, CO2 and H2O a e no s able (R15 and R17) o
achie ing comple e combus ion. Hyd oca bon uels, when
bu ned wi h oxygen, unde go pa ial combus ion, p oducing
CO and H2 gases. Hea is libe a ed only when ca bon eac s
(R14) wi h oxygen o p oduce CO in an exo he mic eac ion.
The ca bon- o-hyd ogen a io o coke, coal, biocha , na u al
gas, o e ied biomass (TB), e c., is essen ial o main aining
op imal RAFT condi ions [10]. The s anda d en halpy o
o ma ion (SEF) o he uel is also necessa y, as he uel
should no equi e mo e ene gy o spli in o i s cons i uen
elemen s. The SEF o a uel is he change in en halpy du ing
he o ma ion o one mole o subs ance om i s cons i uen
elemen s. Na u al gas (CH4) has a nega i e SEF (R18)
because i is o med by he exo he mic eac ion o ca bon
wi h H2. Coke, biocha , and coal a e mos ly in elemen al o m
wi h negligible SEF, and hyd ogen con en gene ally does no
exceed 4% by weigh , esul ing in a e y high ca bon- o-H2
a io. TB has nea ly 45% ca bon and 6% H2, wi h a lowe
C/H2 a io, and i s SEF is app oxima ely –1100 kcal/kg. The
ne hea libe a ed om he gasi ica ion o ca bon in TB in o
CO is ma ginal a e he SEF is me . The ca bon con en in
TB can be inc eased by adding biocha , which p o ides
addi ional he mal ene gy du ing gasi ica ion and educes
coke consump ion [13]. The ash con en in TB is compa able
wi h he ash con en (nea ly 8% by w ) in coke o good quali y
coal. I has been ound ha he ineness equi emen o
pul e ised TB/biocha is no as s ingen as ha o pul e ised
coal o achie e comple e gasi ica ion in he BF [14]. Biocha ,
which is 85% ca bon by weigh , is as e ec i e as good-
quali y coal o injec ion in o BF in all espec s [15].
The main equi emen o g een s eel p oduc ion is o
eplace ai wi h O2 o elimina e subs an ial ni ogen om he
BF gases, he eby inc easing CO2 concen a ion o
economic sepa a ion by he acid
gas emo al p ocess [16]. The
A line diag am o g een s eel
and g een u ea p oduc ion is
shown in Fig.2. The esidual
Re o i ing Blas Fu naces o P oducing G een S eel and G een U ea
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gas ich in H2 can be used in he p oduc ion o ammonia
(NH3) wi h he a ailable ni ogen om he ASU. ASU is used
o gene a e he equi ed O2 o eeding o he BF in place o
ai . NH3 is u he con e ed o g een u ea using he bio-CO2
gas sepa a ed om BF gases. Mos o he ca bon p esen in
he uels (coke, TB, biocha , e c) is consumed o p oducing
i on om he i on o e. Hyd ogen p esen in he uels is
eco e ed om he op gas o p oduce ammonia. Ni ogen in
blas ai has p os and cons in he BF. I helps ans e he mal
ene gy om he lowe po ion (bosh) o he uppe po ion
(s ack) o main ain he TGT. I educes he BF's he mal
e iciency due o chimney losses, eleasing ho ni ogen in o
he a mosphe e. Being an ine gas, i does no ake pa in
chemical eac ions excep in he o ma ion o NOx, which
causes ai pollu ion. Oxygen blas u nace (OBF) is a BF
whe e 100% O2 is used as he blas in place o ai o elimina e
ni ogen in he op gas eco e y (TGR) sys em. When
exis ing BF is con e ed o he OBF wi h pul e ised TB
injec ion, he gas mass low in he BF is unchanged by
enhancing he gases p oduced om he gasi ica ion o TB and
biocha o he ex en o elimina ing ni ogen gas. Thus, he
d a loss in he BF is kep he same o less [17]. The p oduc
gases (CO and H2) om gasi ica ion ha e highe speci ic
hea s han ni ogen gas, enabling hem o ans e su icien
he mal ene gy o he uppe pa o he OBF o main ain an
op imum TGT. The equi ed he mal ene gy in he aceway is
p o ided by he coke and pul e ised biocha o main ain he
op imum RAFT o he ouble- ee ope a ion o he OBF.
Pul e ised TB con ibu es o su plus CO and H2 gases, which
a e pa o OBF exhaus gases. Be o e sepa a ing he CO2
om he OBF exhaus / op gases, CO is con e ed o
hyd ogen gas by eac ing wi h s eam (R16). Thus, H2 gas is
ex ac ed om he OBF exhaus gas o u he en ichmen
and onwa d use in he p oduc ion o NH3 and u ea [18]. Only
10% by weigh o H2 is equi ed (R21 and R22) in he u ea
p oduc ion. The capaci y o p oduce u ea om biomass uels
is nea ly 50% o he ho me al p oduc ion capaci y o a BF
using coke as i s uel.
Table I: P oxima e and Ul ima e Analysis o a Few Biomasses
Type o d y Biomass
Fixed Ca bon
Vola iles
Ash
Ca bon
Hyd ogen
Oxygen
Ni ogen
Sulphu
HHV
Uni s
% by w
% by w
% by w
% by w
% by w
% by w
% by w
% by w
kJ/gm
Rice husk
15.80
63.60
20.60
38.30
4.36
35.45
0.83
0.06
14.89
Sudan g ass
18.60
72.75
8.65
44.58
5.35
39.18
1.21
0.01
17.39
Whea s aw
19.80
71.31
8.90
43.20
5.00
39.40
0.61
0.11
17.51
Mango Wood
11.36
85.64
2.98
46.24
6.08
44.42
0.28
-
19.17
Co n s o e
19.25
75.17
5.58
43.65
5.56
43.31
0.61
0.01
17.65
Wa e Hyacin h
0.00
80.40
19.60
40.30
4.60
33.99
1.51
0.00
14.86
Popla
16.35
82.32
1.33
48.45
5.85
43.69
0.47
0.01
19.38
Eucalyp us
17.82
81.42
0.76
49.00
5.87
43.97
0.30
0.01
19.42
Biomass (a e age)
-
-
-
47.91
5.74
40.98
0.52
0.05
19.11
Eucalyp us cha
70.32
19.22
10.45
76.10
1.33
11.10
1.02
0.00
27.60
Coal – Pi sbu g Seam
55.80
33.90
10.30
75.50
5.00
4.90
1.20
3.10
31.75
BF Coke
86.19
1.54
12.27
85.68
0.18
0.27
0.96
0.84
29.52
Biomass is con e ed o (TB) by subjec ing i o mild
py olysis, whe e biomass is hea ed o 250 o 300 °C in he
absence o ai /oxygen. TB is a nonhyg oscopic, b i le, so
and d y ma e ial ee om mois u e. TB is also sui able o
long-du a ion s o age wi hou any mass loss o biological
decomposi ion. Biomass, a ib ous subs ance, is no ideal o
use as pul e ised uel because i ends o cake a he han
o m a powde . To o e come he g inding p oblem, biomass
is con e ed o TB o injec ion in o he BF as pul e ised uel.
Pul e isa ion o TB equi es lowe powe consump ion han
coal. As gi en in Table 1, d y biomass mainly con ains ca bon
(40 o 50% by weigh ), oxygen (40 o 45% by weigh ),
hyd ogen (5 o 7% by weigh ), ash (a e age below 10% by
weigh ), sulphu (a e age below 0.5% by weigh ), ni ogen
(a e age below 1% by weigh ), e c [19]. As gi en in Table 2,
he ash gene a ed om biomass combus ion mainly con ains
Al2O3, SiO2, CaO, MgO, Fe2O3, sodium, po assium,
phospho us, chlo ides, e c [20]. The hyd ogen con en in
biomass is a leas 5 % poin s highe han in coke [19].
Hyd ogen, by weigh , has six imes he educ ion capaci y o
i on o e compa ed o ca bon [21]. I s sensi i i y/kine ics is
h ee o ou imes ha o CO in educing he i on o e o i on,
hough i s eac ion is less exo he mic compa ed o CO (R4,
R5, R9, and R10) [22]. H2 eac s wi h i on o e a highe
empe a u es wi h g ea e sensi i i y han CO [23], [6]. O2
con en in biomass is much highe han in coke/coal, which
helps educe he O2 eed equi ed o he BF om he ASU.
CaO, MgO, and Fe2O3 a e also aluable ma e ials ac ing as
lux o i on o e. Sodium, po assium, and phospho us in
biomass a e usually wi hin he ole able limi s o BF.
Chlo ides and sulphu in TB, biocha , and bio-coke a e also
gene ally wi hin he ole able limi s compa ed o coke/coal.
Chlo ides cause ho end co osion in BF, and SOx gases
gene a ed om sulphu cause cold end co osion in op gas
eco e y/handling equipmen .
Basici y o slag is he a io o basic oxides (CaO + MgO)
and acid oxides (SiO2+Al2O3) in he slag. As SiO2 con e s
o Si a highe ho me al empe a u es, he slag's basici y
inc eases, leading o a dec ease in i s olume [24]. Basici y
o he slag in he OBF is main ained a op imum by educing
he lux ma e ial (limes one, dolomi e, e c) addi ion o he
OBF due o lowe Al2O3 and SiO2 con en in he biocoke,
biocha , and TB uels. Thus, he e is a possibili y o educing
he lux ma e ial consump ion [25]. Howe e , Al2O3 and SiO2
a e he p edominan gangue mine als in i on o e and mee he
minimum equi emen s o slag o ma ion. The abili y o slag
o e ain alkalis (sodium and po assium) is called he alkali
capaci y o he slag. Excess alkalis o m scabs, which can
peel o , upse ing he he mal condi ion o he BF. Po assium
sal s collec ed in he slag e apo a e a slag empe a u e and
hen a el back up in he BF as gases, whe e hey eac and
a e abso bed by he bu den in he lowe empe a u e egion
o he BF. Recycling esul s in much highe in e nal
po assium sal concen a ions
han hose en e ing o lea ing
he BF [24]. When biocoke,
biocha , and TB wi h high
po assium con en a e used in
Indian Jou nal o En i onmen Enginee ing (IJEE)
ISSN: 2582-9289 (Online), Volume-5 Issue-2, No embe 2025
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DOI: 10.54105/ijee.B1871.05021125
Jou nal Websi e: www.ijee.la icescipub.com
he OBF o p oduce g een s eel, he e is a isk o po assium
con amina ion, which is a disad an age. Po assium and
sodium sal s a e highly soluble in wa e [26]. Biocha can be
wa e -washed and d ied o emo e po assium and sodium
sal s o a subs an ial ex en , o sui able addi i es can be added
o enhance he slag's alkali capaci y, i equi ed. Mos o he
phospho us accumula es in ho me al.
Table II: Composi ion o Ash Gene a ed om a Few Biomasses
Type o Biomass
SiO2
CaO
K2O
P2O5
Al2O3
MgO
Fe2O3
SO3
Na2O
TiO2
Cl
High in
Uni s (% o ash)
% by w
% by w
% by w
% by w
% by w
% by w
% by w
% by w
% by w
% by w
% by w
Rice husk
92.19
0.09
0.05
No da a
0.09
0.41
0.10
0.41
1.64
No da a
No da a
SiO2
Rice s aw
74.67
3.01
12.30
1.41
1.04
1.75
0.85
1.24
0.96
No da a
4.06
SiO2, K2O
Whea s aw
55.3
6.1
25.6
1.3
1.9
1.1
0.7
4.4
1.7
0.1
4.26
SiO2, K2O, SO3
Miscan hus
58.78
11.90
3.65
5.44
1.83
2.25
3.42
0.45
No da a
No da a
No da a
SiO2, P2O5
Co n s alk
38.70
11.11
24.47
7.05
0.92
1.10
0.93
2.12
0.17
0.10
No da a
K2O, P2O5
Chicken li e
13.26
26.61
16.54
23.74
2.81
5.72
1.84
0.82
5.74
0.43
No da a
P2O5, K2O
Willow
6.1
46.09
23.4
13.01
1.96
4.03
0.74
3.00
1.61
0.06
No da a
P2O5, CaO, SO3
Eucalyp us
No da a
57.74
9.29
2.35
No da a
10.91
No da a
No da a
1.86
No da a
No da a
CaO, MgO
Poul y li e
2.69
65.17
6.36
17.46
0.31
No da a
0.57
No da a
2.48
0.02
5.67
CaO, P2O5
Coke (Aus alia)
57.3
3.50
0.60
0.57
26.5
0.57
5.40
2.78
0.25
1.12
0.03
Al2O3, SO3
To a oid he use o ossil coke in he BF, g een coke can be
p oduced om biocha and bio-oil gene a ed by biomass
py olysis [27]. The high- empe a u e, oxygen- ich ola ile
gases p oduced by biomass py olysis a e condensed o o m
biooil. The biocha is b ique ed o he equi ed size a e
mixing wi h he biooil. The b ique s a e again cu ed a nea ly
1000 °C o o m oxygen bonds in solid ca bon, and he
gene a ed ligh gases a e used o mee he ene gy
equi emen s o he cu ing p ocess [28]. The biocoke
b ique es ha e p ope ies simila o hose o coke in e ms o
ab asion esis ance, coke s eng h a e educ ion (CSR), and
coke eac i i y index (CRI), wi h accep able ash con en .
Coke/biocoke a e mo e s able in an OBF-TGR, as he
gasi ica ion o pul e ised TB and biocha yields mo e CO and
H2, wi h less CO2 and H2O, which p e en Bou don and
wa e -gas eac ions (R15 and R17) wi h coke in he cohesi e
zone. Thus, biocoke wi h biocha and TB can be used o
p oduce g een ho me al om exis ing BFs wi hou
sac i icing p oduc i i y o he mal e iciency. All he needed
he mal ene gy is me by biocoke, and he biocha is added o
he OBF. Op imum RAFT and TGT a e achie ed by injec ing
ho O2 (1200 o 1500 °C) ee om mois u e in place o ai .
Since excess CO and H2 a e main ained in he op gas o
ex ac H2 in he TGR sys em, he dew poin empe a u e
would be lowe han TGT o elimina e he possibili y o cold-
end co osion. The capaci y o he TGR sys em o ex ac H2
is decided by he quan i y o pul e ised TB ha can be
injec ed in o he OBF wi hou ad e sely a ec ing i s hea h
condi ions. The o al mass injec ion in o he OBF is educed
due o he elimina ion o N2 gas in he blas . Bio-coke dus in
place o ossil coke dus can also be used in he sin e ing plan
o p oduce i on o e pelle s. The ho liquid slag ex ac ed om
he OBF is cooled by he O2 gas, which is used o bu ning
he op gas in he BF s o es, as shown in Fig.2. Al e na i ely,
i is possible o con e biomass in o TB by using he hea
ene gy o he slag [29]. Comp essed CO2 gas is used o
anspo and eed pul e ised TB and biocha in o he OBF
[30]. Excess N2 gas can be exchanged o O2 gas om nea by
wa e elec olysis-based NH3 p oduc ion plan s, and excess
bio-CO2 gas is sold o seques a ion and o he uses. The
en i e OBF-TGR p ocess becomes a bioene gy ca bon
cap u e and s o age (BECCS) p ocess when he gene a ed
bio-CO2 is seques e ed, he eby p e en ing ha m ul
emissions. When bioene gy is ex ac ed om biomass and he
gene a ed bio-CO2 is seques a ed, i is called BECCS.
A p esen , sc ap s eel is used in he DRI-EAF ou e o
p oduce usable s eel. Sc ap s eel can be used in an exo he mic
eac ion (R11) wi h s eam o p oduce hyd ogen and magne i e
[31]. The equi ed s eam can be gene a ed om he eac ion
hea (R11). High-pu i y hyd ogen and magne i e a e
gene a ed in he p ocess [32]. The gene a ed H2, wi h a bi o
u he pu i ica ion, can be used as uel in uel-cell elec ic
ehicles (FCEVs). Such magne i e can also be used in
i onmaking as pelle s wi hou en ichmen . Dis ibu ed H2
p oduc ion om s eel sc ap on a medium- o mino -scale is
economically easible nea consump ion cen es, such as
ci ies and owns, o FCEV needs, e c. In he u u e, he
a ailabili y o adequa e sc ap s eel o i onmaking is
unce ain due o compe i ion om sc ap-based g een H2 uni s.
The a ailabili y o good-quali y i on o e a a o dable p ices
is becoming inc easingly complex, and he ich magne i e
de i ed om sc ap s eel can supplemen he i onmaking
indus y in he u u e [33]. Cheaply a ailable magne i e o e,
wi hou he need o con e o hema i e (R12), can also be
used in OBF-TGR plan s, as H2 gas can e ec i ely educe
magne i e o wus i e [34]. Using magne i e pelle s made om
na u ally a ailable magne i e in he BF would no a ec he
BF's gas pe meabili y [34]. Wi h he in eg a ion o
u ea/hyd ogen p oduc ion in an OBF-TGR plan , in e io
quali y i on o e can also be used in he OBF by educing he
i on ou pu wi h a co esponding inc ease in u ea/hyd ogen
ou pu o he same quan i y o uel/hea inpu o he OBF.
When ewe i on oxides a e o be con e ed in o he me al,
less CO gas is consumed, o mo e CO gas is a ailable o he
TGR sys em o con e sion o hyd ogen. Also, mo e slag is
o med in he BF due o he g ea e gangue con en in in e io
i on o e. Slag is no a was e ma e ial; i is a byp oduc used o
make supe io -quali y slag/PSC cemen . Thus, g een cemen
is also a byp oduc o OBF. Theo e ically, i is easible o
p oduce slag cemen by eeding lux ma e ial (limes one and
dolomi e) along wi h gangue ma e (wi h mino i on con en )
in an OBF-TGR plan o p oduce H2 o u ea and slag cemen
in huge quan i ies. OBF-TGR plan s a e highly lexible in
hei use o aw ma e ials and
p oduc mix, wi hou
sac i icing o e all
p oduc i i y, unlike
Re o i ing Blas Fu naces o P oducing G een S eel and G een U ea
24
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DOI: 10.54105/ijee.B1871.05021125
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con en ional BF plan s. O he me als, including a e ea h
me als, can be p oduced by educing hei espec i e
mine als/o es wi h CO o H2. An OBF-TGR plan can be
ans o med in o a gene al-pu pose high- empe a u e upd a
me allu gical u nace o mul iple applica ions,
p edominan ly i onmaking BF.
IV. CONCLUSION
The main ad an ages o using biocoke, biocha , and TB in
OBF-TGR plan s a e:
▪ G een s eel is p oduced a a educed cos o sell a a
p emium p ice
▪ G een u ea is gene a ed om he H2, bio-CO2, and N2
gases o sell a a p emium p ice. G een u ea p oduc ion
capaci y can be es ablished by e o i ing exis ing BFs
a a cos below ha o na u al gas-based u ea plan s. The
p oduc ion cos o g een u ea would be less han i s
impo ed cos . One onne o d y biomass can yield nea ly
one onne o u ea.
▪ G een slag cemen is p oduced as a byp oduc .
▪ Coking coal impo s a e eplaced by abundan ly
a ailable local biomass. A yea - ound biomass supply
chain can be de eloped o p ocu e a an a o dable cos ,
as he e is no dea h o li e/ esh biomass.
▪ OBF-TGR plan is highly lexible, wi hou o egoing he
o e all p oduc i i y, o use he low-quali y i on o e ha
is a ailable om a medium dis ance.
▪ No majo modi ica ions a e needed o he BF excep
adding auxilia y uni s such as ASU, CO2 o H2 sepa a ion
uni s, biocha and TB uni , and biocoke p oduc ion uni .
▪ Con en ional coke p oduc ion ba e ies a e no used. Any
coke-o en gas used in he sin e ing and o he uni s is
eplaced wi h OBF op gas. Powe gene a ion wi h coke
o en gas is eplaced by g een, enewable powe
pu chased om he g id a an a o dable cos .
▪ I is a BECCS p ocess wi h ha m ul g eenhouse gas
emissions i he gene a ed bio-CO2 gas is seques a ed.
When slag cemen is con e ed o conc e e, addi ional
ca bon cap u e and seques a ion o CO2 om he ai is
also achie ed.
▪ No pollu ing gases like SOx, NOx, pa icula e ma e ,
PM10, PM2.5, and ozone a e eleased o he a mosphe e,
causing ai pollu ion. The i onmaking indus y can
ansi ion o a ze o-pollu ion indus y by using biomass-
de i ed p oduc s.
Ins ead o p oducing g een u ea, i is also possible o
enhance he exis ing BF p oduc i i y (capaci y o p oduce ho
me al) by a leas 40% wi h 100% O2 use and injec ion o
syngas (CO and H2) ex ac ed om he op gas o he OBF
p o ided he e is adequa e local demand o dispose he
gene a ed bio-CO2, and he ni ogen gas a ailable om he
ASU [10].
The e is no echnical hu dle o ans o ming he s eel
indus y o achie e ca bon neu ali y. G ey s eel p oduc ion
can be g adually ans o med in o g een s eel by ini ially
eplacing ossil pul e ised coal wi h biocha and TB, and
la e eplacing ossil coke wi h bio-coke. Na ional
go e nmen s should encou age/induce he s eel indus y o
p oduce g een s eel by gi ing iabili y gap unding (VGF) o
es ablish lab-scale R&D uni s, pilo plan s, e o i ing he
exis ing BF and DRI uni s in o g een s eel p oduc ion, and
new g een s eel plan s by o e ing an assu ed ma ke a a
p emium p ice o e he p ice o ossil uel-based s eel.
Go e nmen s shall also encou age by o e ing assu ed, iable
p ices o he collec ion and anspo o biomass om
a ious sou ces o consump ion cen es, as well as o he
ins alla ion o biocha , biocoke, biooil, and TB p oduc ion
uni s.
DECLARATION STATEMENT
The e e ences ci ed, especially [8], [10], [11], [13], [15],
[19], [25] and [30], a e olde and a e explici ly no ed as such.
None heless, hese wo ks emain essen ial o he cu en
s udy as hey a e pionee ing in hei espec i e ields.
I mus e i y he accu acy o he ollowing in o ma ion as
he a icle's au ho .
▪ Con lic s o In e es / Compe ing In e es s: Based on
my unde s anding, his a icle has no con lic s o
in e es .
▪ Funding Suppo : This a icle has no been unded by
any o ganiza ions o agencies. This independence
ensu es ha he esea ch is conduc ed wi h objec i i y
and wi hou any ex e nal in luence.
▪ E hical App o al and Consen o Pa icipa e: The
con en o his a icle does no necessi a e e hical
app o al o consen o pa icipa e wi h suppo ing
documen a ion.
▪ Da a Access S a emen and Ma e ial
A ailabili y: The adequa e esou ces o his a icle a e
publicly accessible.
▪ Au ho ’s Con ibu ions: The au ho ship o his a icle
is con ibu ed solely.
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Published By:
La ice Science Publica ion (LSP)
© Copy igh : All igh s ese ed.
Re ie al Numbe :100.1/ijee.B187105021125
DOI: 10.54105/ijee.B1871.05021125
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AUTHOR’S PROFILE
Nallapaneni Sasidha g adua ed wi h a deg ee in
mechanical enginee ing in 1982. He has mo e han h ee
decades o wo king expe ience in he enginee ing o
he mal powe plan s. He wo ked in bo h he public and
p i a e sec o s in India. He also wo ked o a ew yea s in
he Middle Eas . His a eas o in e es include ene gy
esou ces, wa e esou ces, elec ici y gene a ion and ansmission, pollu ion
aba emen , and clima e change.
Disclaime /Publishe ’s No e: The s a emen s, opinions and
da a con ained in all publica ions a e solely hose o he
indi idual au ho (s) and con ibu o (s) and no o he La ice
Science Publica ion (LSP)/ jou nal and/ o he edi o (s). The
La ice Science Publica ion (LSP)/ jou nal and/o he
edi o (s) disclaim esponsibili y o any inju y o people o
p ope y esul ing om any ideas, me hods, ins uc ions o
p oduc s e e ed o in he con en .
