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E alua ing e ec i e sowing da e o be e yield p oduc ion
o lady inge unde p e ailing clima ic condi ions
Punhoon Khan Ko ai (Co esponding Au ho )
Depa men o Soil Science Facul y o Ag icul u e, Lasbela Uni e si y o Ag icul u e,
Wa e and Ma ine Sciences U hal.
Muhammad Umai
School o Science and he En i onmen , G en ell Campus, Memo ial Uni e si y o
New oundland, Co ne B ook, A2H 5G4, NL, Canada.
Email: umai [email protected]
Amma Rasheed
C op and Soil Science Depa men College o Ag icul u e and En i onmen al Sciences
Uni e si y o Geo gia A hens Ga USA.
Dos Jan
Depa men o Soil Science Facul y o Ag icul u e, Lasbela Uni e si y o Ag icul u e,
Wa e and Ma ine Sciences U hal.
Di ec o a e o Ag icul u e Resea ch Ce eal C ops Ag icul u e Resea ch Ins i u e Sa iab
Que a.
Muhammad Amma Yasi
Depa men o Plan Pa hology, he Islamia Uni e si y o Bahawalpu .
Email: amma y[email p o ec ed]
Amb een Qasim
Depa men o Bo any, Uni e si y o Ag icul u e Faisalabad.
Email: [email p o ec ed]
Aidah Baloch
College o Fishe ies, Ocean Uni e si y o China, Qingdao 266003, China.
Hammad Ali
Depa men o Ag onomy, he Uni e si y o Ag icul u e Peshawa .
Email: [email protected]
The g ow h o c ops is di ec ly in luenced by g owing deg ee days. Fluc ua ions in
mean empe a u e educe he yield o c ops, pa icula ly lady inge . E alua ing sowing
da es is essen ial o achie ing highe yield p oduc ion. This s udy aimed o e alua e
he yield aspec s o lady inge unde a ying sowing da es. The expe imen was
designed using a Comple ely Randomized Design (CRD) app oach, inco po a ing h ee
A
B
S
T
R
A
C
T
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biological eplica ions. The sowing da es a e as ollows: (1) SD1: Janua y 15, (2) SD2:
Feb ua y 15, (3) SD3: Ma ch 15, and (4) SD4: Ap il 15. The esul s indica ed ha plan
heigh , s em diame e , pods pe plan , and indi idual pod weigh inc eased by 12%,
21%, 33%, and 39%, espec i ely, in SD3 compa ed o SD2, a ibu ed o highe
g owing deg ee days. This was asc ibed o inc eased ni ogen con en and chlo ophyll
p oduc ion by 21% and 28% in SD3 compa ed o SD2. The ele a ed SD4 exhibi ed
de imen al e ec s on g ow h and yield pa ame e s. The SD3 indica es an op imal
sowing choice o achie ing highe yields o lady inge in he ending clima ic
condi ions.
Keywo ds: G ow h pa e n, Assimila ion, Yield p oduc ion, Clima e change,
Sus ainabili y
In oduc ion
Clima e e e s o esilien changes in wea he pa e ns, whe eas en i onmen change is
a g adually global p ecipi a ion, empe a u e, as well as wind shi ha a ec s land and
wa e egimes and ag icul u al ou pu (Abbass e al., 2022). Ne e heless, Global
ege able yields and p oduc i i y a e diminishing as a esul o clima e change, which
in e e es wi h physiological and enzyma ic p ocesses, esul ing in c op ailu es, quali y
deg ada ion, pes and disease complica ions, and o e win e ing challenges (Solankey
and Kuma i, 2023). Alle ia ing hese epe cussions can be accomplished by enhancing
wa e u iliza ion e iciency, op imizing c op managemen , and employing cul i a s ha
a e obus o ele a ed empe a u es, mois u e s ess, salini y, and clima ic a iabili y
(Ahmed e al., 2023).
Vege ables a e he essen ial elemen s o he human die , se ing as he p incipal sou ce
o nu ien s, i amins, and mine als (Ebabhi and Adebayo, 2022). Vege ables con ain
ui s, oo and ube a ie ies, lea y g eens, and bulbs. They supply i amins,
ca bohyd a es, sal s, and p o eins, assis ing smallholde a me s in inc easing hei
income and secu ing employmen (Sch einemache s e al., 2018). Ok a is essen ial o
ood and nu i ional secu i y as well as li elihoods in se e al loca ions; none heless, i
emains li le explo ed and unenhanced (Mass ie, 2025). Enhancing ege able
p oduc ion and consump ion can augmen nu i ional di e si y and quali y, pa icula ly
in die s cha ac e ized by high-calo ie and low-mic onu ien con en . Ok a, some imes
e e ed o as Lady Finge o Bhindi, is a signi ican ag icul u al ege able c op in India
and Ha yana, classi ied unde he Mal aceae hibiscus amily (PRADESH, 2023). I is
ex ensi ely ound in opical a eas, including Nige ia. Ok a may be cul i a ed as ei he
a ga den o comme cial c op in na ions such as India, Tu key, Nige ia, Sudan, I aq,
Pakis an, and Egyp (Idowu e al., 2022). The e o e, i is i al o human nu i ion,
supplying c i ical ca bohyd a es, p o eins, a s, mine als, and i amins equen ly
de icien in he die s o unde de eloped na ions.
Ok a de elops in an ex ended, wa m, and humid en i onmen , al hough is suscep ible
o os and se e ely low empe a u es (KAMARA, 2024). The ideal empe a u e ange
is 21-30°C, wi h a minimum o 18°C and a maximum o 35°C. The plan is in ole an
o low empe a u es and os o e ex ended pe iods, wi h an ideal empe a u e ange
o 18°C o 35°C (Hayamanesh, 2018).
Modula ion o clima ic condi ions acili a es he cul i a ion o many c ops in he
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no he n Indian plains du ing nea ly he whole yea . No ably, Ag icul u e in a
empe a e en i onmen in sou he n India. An op imal en i onmen o seed p oduc ion
includes li le p ecipi a ion, low ela i e humidi y, and high ligh in ensi y,
cha ac e ized by ho and d y ci cums ances du ing he seed ipening phase.
Mo eo e , en i onmen al ex emes, such as ele a ed empe a u es and diminished soil
mois u e, can ad e sely a ec c op yields due o physiological and biochemical
mechanisms. Clima e change may exace ba e hese challenges. In addi ion, sola
adia ion supplies ene gy o li ing c ea u es, a ec ing physiological p ocesses. Op imal
inpu pa ame e s, such as empe a u e, humidi y, and adia ion, a e essen ial o
e ec i e abso p ion and impac c op p oduc ion, impac ing all phases o c op
de elopmen . Di e en s udies shown ha he op imal soil empe a u e condi ions o
ok a seed ge mina ion a e wi hin he ange o he empe a u e anges om a ound 21
o 35 °C, wi h a minimum o 15.5 °C and a maximum o 40.5 °C. The p esen s udy
was planned o access he mo pho-physiological and yield aspec s o lady inge
a ying sowing da es.
Ma e ials and me hods
A po expe imen was conduc ed o e alua e he esponse o lady inge (Abelmoschus
esculen s L.) o di e en sowing da es unde con olled en i onmen al condi ions. The
expe imen was ca ied ou du ing he sp ing season a he expe imen al a ea o
depa men o soil science, Lasbela Uni e si y o Ag icul u e, Wa e and Ma ine
Sciences U hal using a comple ely Randomized Design (CRD) wi h ou sowing da es
and h ee eplica ions. The a ie y used in he s udy was Sabz pa i a commonly
cul i a ed and yielding lady inge cul i a known o i s adap abili y and igo . The
ou sowing da e we e selec ed a one mon h in e als as ollows: SD1: Janua y 15;
SD2: Feb ua y 15; SD3: Ma ch 15 and SD4 Ap il 15. Plas ic po s (30cm diame e *
35cm heigh ) we e illed wi h 10kg o a well-mixed soil-sand – FYM mix u e in a 2:1:1
a io. The soil used was loamy wi h good d ainage and pH main ained a 6.5-7.0. P io
o sowing, soil was s e ilized o p e en diseases in es a ion. Th ee seeds pe po we e
sown a a dep h o 2-3cm and la e hinned o e ain one heal hy seedling pe po a e
ge mina ion. Recommended ag onomic p ac ices such as imely i iga ion, manual
weeding, and pes con ol we e uni o mly applied o all ea men s h oughou he
g owing pe iod.
Da a collec ion
SPAD Chlo ophyll con en was measu ed using a po able SPAD me e on ully
expanded uppe lea es. The plan Ni ogen con en was de e mined by Kjeldahl
diges ion me hod. The plan heigh was measu ed om he base o he apex o he plan .
The s em diame e was measu ed by using Ve nie calipe a he base o s em. The
indi idual pod weigh was measu ed a e ha es ing by using digi al balance.
S a is ical analysis
The da a collec ed was subjec ed o analysis o a iance (ANOVA) using s a is ics 8.1
so wa e. T ea men means we e compa ed using Tukey’s Hones Signi ican
Di e ence (HSD) es a a 5% le el o signi icance o de e mine he signi icance and
anking o he sowing da es o each pa ame e .
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Resul s
SPAD chlo ophyll
The o e all e ec o sowing da es on SPAD chlo ophyll con en o lady inge was
signi ican . The highes SPAD alue was eco ded in SD3 (28.81) which was
s a is ically highe han SD1 (25.86) bu s a is ically a pa wi h SD2 (28.06) and SD4
(27.35). Compa ed o SD1, SD3 showed an 11.0% inc eases in SPAD alues. The
lowes alue eco ded in SD1, indica es ha la e sowing conside ably educed
chlo ophyll con en unde po condi ions, as shown in Fig. 1.
Plan Ni ogen con en
The o e all e ec o sowing da es on plan ni ogen con en o lady inge was
signi ican . SD3 exhibi ed he highes ni ogen con en (64.12%), which was
signi ican ly highe han SD2 (56.56%) and SD1 (48.74%), bu s a is ically simila o
SD4 (59.57%). Compa ed o SD1 ni ogen con en in SD3 inc eased by 31.5%. The
lowes ni ogen alue in SD1 con i ms ha delayed sowing educed ni ogen
assimila ion in plan s as shown in Fig. 2.
Plan Heigh
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The o e all e ec o sowing da es on plan heigh o lady inge was signi ican . The
alles plan s we e obse ed in SD3 (105.80cm), which was signi ican ly alle han
SD1 (94.46cm) and SD2 (99.14cm), while being s a is ically a pa wi h SD4 (104.06
cm). Plan heigh in SD3 was 12.0% g ea e han in SD1. The sho es plan heigh
eco ded unde SD1 indica es ha la e sowing ad e sely a ec ed e ical g ow h as
shown in Fig. 3.
S em Diame e
The o e all e ec o sowing da e on s em gi h o lady inge was signi ican , Maximum
s em diame e was obse ed in SD3 (2.18mm) which was s a is ically simila o SD4
(2.15mm) bu signi ican ly highe han SD1 (2.00mm). Compa ed o SD1, SD3 showed
a 9.0% inc eases in s em gi h. The educed diame e in SD1 sugges ha delayed
sowing comp omised s em hickness and s uc u al obus ness as shown in Fig. 4.
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Numbe o Pods pe plan
The o e all e ec o sowing da es on he numbe o pods pe plan o lady inge was
non-signi ican . Al hough he highes numbe o pods was eco ded in SD3 (13.28),
ollowed by SD4 (12.88), SD2 (12.29) and SD1 (11.25), all sowing da es we e
s a is ically a pa wi h each o he . Compa ed o SD1, SD3 showed a 17.9% inc ease in
he numbe o pods. Howe e , la e sowing in SD1 s ill esul ed in he lowes pod
numbe pe plan as shown in Fig. 5.
Indi idual Pod weigh
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The o e all e ec o sowing da es on indi idual Pod weigh o lady inge was
signi ican maximum pod weigh was eco ded in SD3 (2.25g), which was signi ican ly
highe han SD1 (2.07g), While being s a is ically a pa wi h SD4 (2.21g) and SD2
(2.17g). Compa ed o SD1 SD3 exhibi ed an 8.7% inc eases in pod weigh . The
minimum alue in SD1 highligh s he educ ion in pod de elopmen due o delayed
sowing as shown in Fig. 6.
Discussion
The sowing da e plays a pi o al ole in de e mining he g ow h and p oduc i i y o
c ops, pa icula ly empe a u e- sensi i e ege ables like a lady inge (Abelmoschus
esculen us) (Begum, 2025). Among all he es ed sowing da es, The Ma ch 15 sowing
(SD3) eme ged as he mos sui able window, showing clea ad an age in physiological
g ow h and yield pa ame e s (THAPA, 2023). The imp o emen in plan leng h in SD3
can be a ibu ed o op imal g owing deg ee days (GDD), which p o ided a a o able
empe a u e ange oe cell di ision and elonga ion, leading o inc eased in e modal
leng h and o e all e ical g ow h (Mohd Khai lani e al., 2020). This phenomenon is
physiological linked wi h enhanced me is ema ic ac i i y and highe auxin le els unde
mode a e empe a u es (de Wi e al., 2014). P e ious s udies by (Tsimba e al.,
2013)also epo ed ha sowing unde mode a e he mal egimes posi i ely in luences
plan heigh by suppo ing unin e up ed ege a i e de elopmen . In addi ion,
empe a u e luc ua ions du ing ea ly o la e sowing (SD1 o SD4) likely igge ed
ho monal imbalances o s ess-induced g ow h e a da ion, he eby limi ing heigh
(Bha acha ya, 2022).
The s em gi h was also ound o be supe io in SD3, and his could be physiologically
explained by enhanced seconda y g ow h due o be e cambial ac i i y unde op imal
empe a u e condi ion (Lopes e al., 2015). Adequa e he mal accumula ion acili a es
be e lignin syn hesis, ascula issue di e en ia ion, and cell wall hickening which
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collec i ely imp o e s em hickness and s uc u al s eng h (Wu e al., 2017). The wo k
o (Sahoo e al., 2025; Wu e al., 2017) suppo hese indings, whe e imely sowing
signi ican ly inc eased s em obus ness in ege ables due o be e assimila e
pa i ioning owa d s uc u al de elopmen . Mo eo e , a heal hy s em is essen ial o
e icien ansloca ion o wa e , mine als and pho oassimila es, all o which con ibu es
o highe yield ou pu (Shakya and A. Lal, 2018).
Rep oduc i e ai s such as seed pod and pod pe plan a e highly sensi i e o
en i onmen al condi ions, especially du ing lowe ing and pollina ion s ages (Ohnishi
e al., 2010). The enhanced seed se and pod o ma ion in SD3 can be a ibu ed o he
synch oniza ion o c i ical ep oduc ion phases wi h a o able en i onmen al
condi ions pa icula ly mode a e day ime empe a u es and coole nigh s which
p omo es pollen iabili y s igma ecep i i y, and e iliza ion success (Mehmood e al.,
2025). These esul s a e in line wi h he inding o (Zhu e al., 2021) who obse ed ha
c ops sown unde op imal empe a u e condi ions had signi ican ly highe ui and seed
de elopmen . Physiologically , mode a e empe a u e du ing an hesis ensu e highe
ca bohyd a es a ailabili y o lo al o gans and p e en hea -induced lowe o ui
abo ion, which o en a majo cause o yield loss in la e sowing (SD4).
The Pods pe plan , an impo an yield componen , we e also obse ed in g ea e
numbe s in SD3. This could be associa ed wi h be e ho monal balance, pa icula ly
he balance be ween cy okinin and gibbe ellins, which a e known o egula e lo al
induc ion and ui se (Ba bosa and Do nelas, 2021). An inc eased numbe o pods
e lec be e sou ce sink ela ionship and is also indica i e o imp o ed nu ien
assimila ion and sus ained pho osyn hesis h oughou he pod de elopmen phase
(Smi h e al., 2018). (Ag awal e al., 2023; Thaku e al., 2012) documen ed simila
ends in ok a whe e sowing du ing he mid-season led o a highe numbe o pods due
o synch onized lowe ing and op imal pho osyn he ic ac i i y. Imp o ed ni ogen
con en unde SD3 u he suppo s he idea ha ideal sowing da es enhance
physiological e iciency (Guo e al., 2022). Ni ogen is a c i ical elemen in ol ed in
chlo ophyll syn hesis, amino acid o ma ion, and nucleic acid me abolism. In his s udy,
he highe ni ogen up ake could be a ibu ed o mo e ac i e oo g ow h and enhance
mic obial ac i i y in he hizosphe e unde a o able empe a u e (Zayed e al., 2023).
Mo eo e , ni ogen assimila ion is known o peak when oo up ake coincides wi h
ege a i e expansion, which was clea ly mo e coo dina ed in SD3. A s udy by (Wang
e al., 2021) simila ly epo ed ha sowing ime e ec ni ogen dynamics in he soil,
wi h mid-season sowings enhancing bo h up ake and assimila ion e iciency. Closely
linked o ni ogen me abolism is chlo ophyll con en , which was no ably highe in SD3
plan s (Muhammad e al., 2022). Chlo ophyll is he p incipal pigmen o ligh
ha es ing, and i s biosyn hesis is di ec ly dependen ni ogen a ailabili y and
empe a u e s abili y (Simkin e al., 2022). Mode a e empe a u e condi ions p e en
pho o oxida i e damage and p o ec chlo ophyll molecules om deg ada ion, ensu ing
sus ained pho osyn hesis. Enhanced chlo ophyll con en e lec highe ca bon
assimila ion, imp o ed s oma al conduc ance, and ul ima ely g a e biomass
accumula ion (ZHANG e al., 2023). (L e al., 2023)also epo ed ha mid-season
sowing p ese ed chlo ophyll con en in ok a and ela ed c ops by a oiding bo h cold
and hea s ess, which a e known o dena u e chlo ophyll-binding p o eins.
Physiologically, he cumula i e imp o emen in plan heigh , s em gi h, seed
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de elopmen , and chlo ophyll con en indica es ha he SD3 sowing da e p o ided a
balanced en i onmen o bo h ege a i e and ep oduc i e g ow h phases, minimizing
abio ic s ess du ing sensi i e’s s ages (Guo e al., 2022). Addi ionally, he posi i e
co ela ion obse ed be ween physiological ai s and yield a ibu es con i ms he
in eg a i e ole o hese physiological p ocesses in go e ning inal yield ou comes (Guo
e al., 2022). E icien ni ogen up ake, p ese ed chlo ophyll con en , and op imal
empe a u es oge he c ea ed and ideal condi ion o achie ing highe yield po en ial
(Go indasamy e al., 2023).
Conclusion
In summa y, he indings o his s udy unde sco e he c i ical ole o sowing da e
op imiza ion in aligning c op g ow h cycles wi h a o able en i onmen al condi ions.
SD3 (Ma ch 15) p o ed o be he mos sui able sowing window o maximizing yield,
owing o i s suppo i e impac on plan s uc u e, physiological unc ioning, and
ep oduc i e e iciency. These esul a e no only consis en wi h p e ious ag onomic
esea ch bu also ca y i al implica ions o de eloping clima e- esilien c opping
calenda unde changing clima ic scena ios. The e o e, i is ecommended ha a me s
and ag onomis s conside Ma ch sowing o lady inge cul i a ion o exploi he
syne gis ic e ec o empe a u e g ow h, and nu ien dynamics o highe yield
ealiza ion.
Re e ences
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Ag awal, S., P a ap, R., Bhai a i, K.S., 2023. GARDEN PEA BN-Pisum sa i um L.
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Ba bosa, N.C.S., Do nelas, M.C., 2021. The oles o gibbe ellins and cy okinins in
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