AIMS Geosciences, 11(1): 117–154.
DOI: 10.3934/geosci.2025007
Recei ed: 29 No embe 2024
Re ised: 21 Feb ua y 2025
Accep ed: 04 Ma ch 2025
Published: 13 Ma ch 2025
h ps://www.aimsp ess.com/jou nal/geosciences
Resea ch a icle
BIOSPHERE measu emen campaign om Janua y 2024 o Ma ch
2024 and in May 2024: E ec s o he sola e en s on he adia ion bel s,
UV adia ion and ozone in he a mosphe e
Vi iane Pie a d1,2,*, Da id Bolsée1, Alexand e Winan 1,2, Ame Al-Qaaod3, Fa on K asniqi3,
Maximilien Pé e s de Bonhome1,4, Edi h Bo ek1, Lionel Van Laeken1, Danisla Sapundjie 1,5,
Roeland Van Malde en5, Alexande Mangold5, I a Amb ozo a6, Ma ek Somme 6, Jakub Slegl6,7,
S yliani A Ge onikolou8,9, Alexand os G Geo gakilas10, Alexande Do n11, Benjamin Rapp12,
Ja osla Solc13, Lukas Ma ek14, C is ina Oancea14, Lionel Dopple 15, Ronald Lange 16, Sa ah
Walsh17, Ma co Sabia17, Ma co Vuolo18, Alex Papayannis19,20 and Ca los G anja21,14
1 Sola -Te es ial Cen e o Excellence, Royal Belgian Ins i u e o Space Ae onomy (BIRA-IASB),
B ussels, Belgium
2 Ea h and Li e Ins i u e—Clima e Sciences (ELI-C), Uni e si é Ca holique de Lou ain, Lou ain-
la-Neu e, Belgium
3 Physikalisch-Technische Bundesans al (PTB), Bundesallee 100, B aunschweig, Ge many
4 Cen e o Ma hema ical Plasma As ophysics, Ka holiek Uni e si ei Leu en, Leu en, Belgium
5 Royal Me eo ological Ins i u e o Belgium (IRM-KMI), B ussels, Belgium
6 Nuclea Physics Ins i u e o he Czech Academy o Sciences, Rez, Czech Republic
7 Facul y o Nuclea Sciences and Physical Enginee ing, Czech Technical Uni e si y, P ague, Czech
Republic
8 Uni e si y Resea ch Ins i u e o Ma e nal & child Heal h & P ecision Medicine, Na ional &
Kapodis ian Uni e si y o A hens, Medical School, A hens, G eece
9 Biomedical Resea ch Founda ion o he Academy o A hens, A hens, G eece
10 DNA Damage Labo a o y, Depa men o Physics School o Applied Ma hema ical and Physical
Sciences, Na ional Technical Uni e si y o A hens (NTUA), A hens, G eece
11 MPG MPIK: Max Planck Ins i u e o Nuclea Physics, Heidelbe g, Ge many
12 Uni e si é Pa is-Saclay, CEA, Lis , Labo a oi e Na ional Hen i Becque el (LNE-LNHB), F-91129,
Palaiseau, F ance
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13 Czech Me ology Ins i u e (CMI), B no, Czech Republic
14 ADVACAM, P ague, Czech Republic
15 DWD, MOL-RAO Deu sche We e diens , Me eo ologisches Obse a o ium Lindenbe g—
Richa d-Aßmann-Obse a o ium, Lindenbe g (Tauche), Ge many
16 Ins i u e o Expe imen al Physics, Slo ak Academy o Sciences, Košice, Slo ak Republic
17 Eu elsa , One Web, London, Uni ed Kingdom
18 Eu opean Space Agency (ESA), Eu opean Space Resea ch and Technology Cen e (ESTEC),
Noo dwijk, The Ne he lands
19 Lase Remo e Sensing Uni , Depa men o Physics, Na ional & Technical Uni e si y o A hens,
Zog a ou, G eece
20 Labo a o y o A mosphe ic P ocesses and hei Impac s, Ecole Poly echnique Fédé ale de Lausanne,
Lausanne, Swi ze land
21 VSB Technical Uni e si y o Os a a, Os a a, Czech Republic
* Co espondence: Email: i iane.pie [email p o ec ed]; Tel: +32-2-373-0365; Fax: +32-2-374-
8423.
Abs ac : In his wo k, we analyzed simul aneous obse a ions o sola pa icles and sola
elec omagne ic ul a iole (UV) adia ion du ing sola e en s om Janua y 2024 o May 2024.
Measu emen campaigns o s udy he e ec s o space adia ion on he e es ial a mosphe e we e
conduc ed in he amewo k o he p ojec BIOSPHERE. We show he esul s o he campaign in
B ussels om 1 Janua y 2024 o 31 Ma ch 2024, du ing which se e al sola ene ge ic pa icle
(SEP) e en s we e obse ed by he spacec a GOES and OMNI, oge he wi h wo big
geomagne ic s o ms in Ma ch 2024 and May 2024 associa ed wi h sola e up ions. The las wo
e en s combine he a i al o a SEP e en wi h a geomagne ic s o m. On 11 May 2024, he bigges
geomagne ic s o m o he las 20 yea s was obse ed. These e en s enabled us o iden i y e ec s
due o UV, sola pa icles, and geomagne ic s o ms. The impac o hese e en s on he e es ial
adia ion bel s, illus a ed by sa elli e obse a ions like PROBA-V/EPT and on he a mosphe ic
ozone using AURA/MLS is demons a ed. Fo he measu emen campaign, muon and neu on
moni o s showed a Fo bush dec ease only du ing he geomagne ic s o m a he end o Ma ch 2024
and in May 2024. Complemen ed by a simula ion o adia ion e ec s on he ioniza ion a e o he
a mosphe e as a unc ion o he al i ude, he ex ensi e ange o di e en obse a ions a ailable
du ing his measu emen campaign demons a ed ha SEP and geomagne ic s o ms due o sola
e up ions had e y di e en e ec s on he e es ial a mosphe e. The geomagne ic s o ms mainly
modi ied he ene ge ic elec ons apped in he space en i onmen o he Ea h and a ec ed he
ioniza ion o he a mosphe e abo e 60 km. They also modi ied he cosmic ay injec ions, mainly
a high la i udes, c ea ing Fo bush dec ease o he mos in ense ones. SEP e en s injec ed
ene ge ic p o ons in he a mosphe e ha could pene a e deepe in he a mosphe e because hey
had mo e ene gy han he elec ons. They could impac ozone, mainly a high al i ude in he
he mosphe e. Sola ac i i y a ia ion associa ed wi h he o a ion o he sola ac i e egions in 27
days modula ed UV. The measu emen s o hese elec omagne ic and pa icle adia ions a e c ucial
because hey ha e impo an heal h implica ions.
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Keywo ds: space adia ion; cosmic ays; ul a iole ; ozone; sola e en ; adia ion bel s; Fo bush
dec ease; ioniza ion; neu on moni o s; heal h.
1. In oduc ion: The BIOSPHERE p ojec
An inc eased a mosphe ic ioniza ion by cosmic ays and sola UV adia ion has signi ican e ec s
on a mosphe ic chemis y and dynamics: I igge s elec on-induced eac ions ha lead o o ma ion
o ee adicals in he a mosphe e which u he pa icipa e in ca aly ic ozone loss cycles [1]. Since
ozone shields he Ea h om ha m ul UV ays om he Sun, i s deple ion would lead o an inc ease in
he biologically ac i e UV adia ion lux, wi h signi ican implica ion o human heal h, plan s, ma ine
ecosys ems, and biogeochemical cycles [2]. While ioniza ion o chlo ine-con aining an h opogenic
molecules by sola UV adia ion has long been ecognized as an explana ion o ozone deple ion in he
s a osphe e, he ole o cosmic ays and, in pa icula , low-ene gy cosmic elec ons emain la gely
unexplained. These elec ons in e ac wi h a mosphe ic gases o bo h na u al and an h opogenic o igin
and can a ec , he eby signi ican ly he chemis y and dynamics o he ozone laye . The e o e, he e
is an u gen need o combine g ound-b eaking obse a ions by mode n sa elli e echnologies and
g ound-based in si u/ emo e sensing wi h scien i ic expe ise in biology, chemis y, en i onmen , and
adia ion p o ec ion o s udy how such combined adia ion ields can shape ou na u al habi a , a ec
he e olu ion o he biosphe e, and impac ou heal h s a us.
The Eu opean Pa ne ship on Me ology p ojec 21GRD02 BIOSPHERE (Me ology o Ea h
Biosphe e: Cosmic ays, UV adia ion and agili y o ozone shield a : www.eu ame -biosphe e.eu)
aims o de elop he necessa y ins umen a ion, me hods, and measu emen in as uc u e o assess how
he inc easing ioniza ion o he a mosphe e, caused by ex a e es ial adia ion ields (cosmic ays and
sola adia ion) and ampli ied by an h opogenic emissions, a ec s he human and ecological heal h on
ou plane . To his end, measu emen campaigns ha e been es ablished o iden i y and quan i y he
ela ionship be ween cosmic ays, sola adia ion, and an h opogenic emission, and o s udy hei
impac on he ozone shield. Thus, simul aneous modeling and aceable measu emen s o (i) g ound-
le el muon and neu on luxes, (ii) e es ial and sola adia ion, and (iii) he o al ozone column
(TOC) a e equi ed. Simul aneous measu emen s o cosmic ays (muons and neu ons), sola adia ion,
and ozone column we e al eady pe o med a wo Eu opean si es ha p o ide he necessa y
in as uc u e o accu a e measu emen o a mosphe ic p o ile pa ame e s and ha e di e en
an h opogenic emission in en o ies o accoun o hei in luence on ozone dynamics. The i s
measu emen campaign was ca ied ou om 1 June 2023 o 31 Augus 2023 a he Na ional Cen e o
Scien i ic Resea ch “Demok i os” (NCSR-DEM) s a ion in A hens [3]. One measu emen campaign
a Milešo ka moun ain in Czech Republic (Augus o Oc obe 2024) has been comple ed, while
ano he a he Me eo ology Obse a o y o Lindenbe g in Ge many is being planned in 2025.
The second campaign ook place in u ban B ussels (Belgium) egion (whe e wo ins i u es
in ol ed in he p ojec , BIRA-IASB and IRM-KMI, a e loca ed), om Janua y 2024 o Ma ch 2024.
This campaign in ol ed nume ous op ical ins umen a ions ( adiome e s, spec ome e s,
py anome e s), amongs o he s om BIRA-IASB o accu a e spec al and wa eleng h-in eg a ed
measu emen s o sola UV i adiance, gi ing access o UV-biologically e ec i e dose a e (UV index)
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and a mosphe ic pa ame e s (TOC and Ae osol Op ical Dep h—AOD). No ewo hy, BIRA-IASB
managed he campaign. The Royal Me eo ological Ins i u e o Belgium (IRM-KMI) ac i ely
con ibu ed wi h balloon soundings o e ical p o iles o a mosphe ic pa ame e s and ozone
concen a ion and p o ided TOC, ae osol cha ac e is ics, and sola UV moni o ing using ceilome e ,
ae halome e , nephelome e , and a B ewe spec opho ome e .
The simul aneous measu emen s o muon and neu on lux a es using new mobile de ec o
sys ems om PTB, BFKH, and NPI we e supplemen ed by da a om he IRM-KMI, which also
p o ided neu on lux moni o ing. The moni o ing da a o ae osols and a ious molecules ( aces
species including an h opogenic con ibu ions) a e a ailable om sa elli es and in si u measu emen s
using BIRA-IASB ins umen s. In addi ion, di e en spacec a p o ided he cha ac e is ics o he
sola wind when i eached he Ea h a 1 As onomy Uni (AU) and he ene ge ic elec ons and p o ons
apped in he adia ion bel s using PROBA-V/EPT [4]. Some ins umen s ake measu emen s
pe manen ly on he Spacepole Si e o B ussels, and he e o e also du ing he supe s o m o May 2014
ha occu ed a e he o icial campaign ime.
In his wo k, we p esen he obse a ions made du ing he campaign o B ussels and how
sola ac i i y a ec s space adia ion. In he nex sec ion, we show ha h ee kinds o sola e en s
dis u bed he e es ial magne osphe e du ing he 3 mon hs o measu emen s om Janua y o
Ma ch 2024: SEP, geomagne ic s o ms and an e en on 24 Ma ch when bo h a e combined. In
sec ion 3, we show wi h ozone p o iles om 20 km o 100 km measu ed om space by Au a
sa elli e ha s ong e en s can impac ozone mainly abo e 70 km. In sec ion 4, we explain how,
using A RIS simula ions, we ha e de e mined a which al i udes he di e en adia ions
(elec omagne ic and pa icles) ha e hei maximum ioniza ion a e, depending on hei ene gy. In
sec ion 5, we show ha he e y ene ge ic elec ons and p o ons obse ed in he adia ion bel s by
he sa elli es PROBA-V and Joey Sa One Web a e e y a ec ed by he geomagne ic s o ms and
SEP, espec i ely. In sec ion 6, we illus a e he cosmic ays Fo bush dec ease appea ing du ing
he e en o 24 Ma ch 2024 using g ound measu emen s o neu ons, muons, and o he seconda y
cosmic ays. Mo eo e , Timepix3 obse a ions enable us o de e mine he composi ion o he
seconda y cosmic ays. The Fo bush dec ease o 24 Ma ch is compa ed wi h he one o he
Mo he ’s Day supe s o m o 10–11 May 2025, since ou g ound-based moni o s con inued o
measu e e en a e Ma ch 2024. In sec ion 7, we show he ime e olu ion o UV obse ed om
space including ha obse ed du ing he May 2024 e en . Sec ion 8 shows how UV and o al
Ozone Con en a e co ela ed using measu emen s du ing he B ussels campaign. Speci ic peaks
appea ed on 11 May 2024, bu hey seem o be due o dynamic e ec s. Finally, in sec ion 9, we
discuss he heal h e ec s caused by exposu e o space adia ions (UV and ene ge ic pa icles),
be o e summa izing he majo esul s in he conclusions.
2. Th ee la ge and di e en sola e en s
Di e en ypes o sola e en s ( la es, Co onal Mass Ejec ions, SEP, o ins ance) gene a e di e en
kinds o e es ial pe u ba ions, like injec ions o ene ge ic p o ons and elec ons, geomagne ic s o ms
and modi ica ions o elec on densi y in he a mosphe e o ins ance (e.g., [5] o a e iew). The i s s ep
is hus o iden i y he sola and geomagne ic ac i i y du ing he pe iod o in e es .
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The cha ac e is ics o he sola wind obse ed om 1 Janua y 2024 o 31 Ma ch 2024 by OMNI
( he mul i-sou ce da a se o nea -Ea h sola wind’s magne ic ield and plasma pa ame e s p o ided
by NASA) a e illus a ed on Figu e 1. Sola wind densi y ( op), bulk eloci y (2nd panel), p o on
empe a u e (3 d panel), p essu e (4 h panel), and Sou hwa d componen o he In e plane a y
Magne ic Field Bz (bo om panel) show ha Janua y was quie in e m o he sola wind. On 9 Feb ua y,
one obse ed he a i al o high eloci y and high empe a u e pa icles, bu hey we e no associa ed
o a e y high densi y, no o nega i e Bz. Tha is why his SEP e en did no gene a e a geomagne ic
s o m (see Figu e 2), while i is also obse ed by GOES (Geos a iona y Ope a ional En i onmen al
Sa elli es) (see Figu e 3).
Figu e 1. Sola wind densi y ( op), bulk eloci y (2nd panel), p o on empe a u e (3 d panel),
p essu e (4 h panel), and Sou hwa d componen o he In e plane a y Magne ic Field Bz
(bo om panel) om 1 Janua y 2024 o 31 Ma ch 2024 obse ed by OMNI a 1 AU.
On 3 Ma ch 2023, he e was a high peak o sola wind densi y, bu i was no associa ed wi h
ene ge ic pa icles (no high eloci y no high empe a u e pa icles). Because he a i al o his high
densi y e en was associa ed o a sou hwa d di ec ion o he in e plane a y magne ic ield (nega i e)
Bz, as shown in he bo on panel o Figu e 1, he geomagne ic esponse was in ense and a
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geomagne ic s o m was gene a ed wi h a plane a y Ba els index Kp = 6 and Dis u bed s o m ime
index Ds < −100 nT (shown in he op and 2nd panels o Figu e 2, espec i ely). A Ds < −50 nT is
su icien o indica e he p esence o a geomagne ic s o m. The Ap geomagne ic ac i i y index (3 d
panel o Figu e 2) also shows s ong ac i i y a his da e. The ini ial phase o he s o m s a ed a he
a i al o he sola wind pe u ba ion.
The mos in e es ing e en was he a i al o an in e plane a y co onal mass ejec ion gene a ing
a geomagne ic s o m on 24 Ma ch 2023. In Figu e 1, all panels show ha he e en was due o he
a i al o high-densi y ene ge ic pa icles coming om he Sun, leading o an in ense geomagne ic
s o m wi h Kp eaching 8 and a minimum o Ds ~ −125 nT on 24 Ma ch.
The 3-mon h pe iod o he B ussels campaign is hus pa icula ly in e es ing because i shows
di e en kinds o sola e en s, leading o di e en e ec s in he space en i onmen o he Ea h.
The sola adio lux F10.7 a 10.7 cm is a sola ac i i y index di ec ly ela ed o he numbe o
sunspo s and cha ac e izing he elec omagne ic emissions o he Sun. One can no e an inc ease o his
sola ac i i y du ing he e en o 24 Ma ch (see Figu e 2 bo om panel) associa ed o he ac i e egion
om which he sola e up ion o igina ed.
Figu e 2. F om 1 Janua y 2024 o 31 Ma ch 2024, geomagne ic ac i i y indices o
Ba els Kp ( op panel), Dis u bed S o m ime Ds in nano esla (2nd panel), Ap index in
nano esla (3 d panel), and daily sola ac i i y index F10.7 sola adio lux a 10.7 cm
(bo om panel).
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3. Ozone seen om space
Du ing he pe iod o 1 Janua y o 31 Ma ch 2024, app oaching he maximum o sola ac i i y in
he 11-yea sola cycle, one can see in Figu e 3 (2nd panel) ha he e we e se e al ene ge ic Sola
P o on (SP) e en s obse ed by GOES measu emen s. Ene ge ic p o ons a e indeed de ec ed by he
GOES spacec a e ol ing on a geos a iona y o bi a 6.6 Ea h adii. The ins umen Ene ge ic P o on,
Elec on, and Alpha De ec o (EPEAD) measu es he in eg al lux o p o ons in 7 ene gy channels
om 0.74 o 900 MeV.
Figu e 3 (2nd panel) shows GOES measu emen s o p o on in eg al luxes: he luxes > 10 MeV, >
30 MeV, and > 100 MeV espec i ely co espond o he blue, o ange and g een lines. The h eshold o
10 cm-2 s-1 s -1 o E > 10 MeV is gene ally used o quali y an e up ion as a sola ene ge ic pa icle
e en . Se en e en s each his c i e ion du ing he measu emen pe iod, including he e en on 24
Ma ch 2024. A compa ison wi h Figu e 1 shows ha only he e en s wi h a lux E > 30 MeV (o ange
line) la ge han 10 cm-2 s-1 s -1 we e de ec ed as sola wind pa icles wi h eloci y > 600 km/s wi h
OMNI obse a ions.
Ozone in Figu e 3 (bo om panels) is measu ed using he Mic owa e Limb Sounde (MLS) ha
is pa o he Ea h Obse ing Sys em (EOS) and was launched on he Na ional Ae onau ic and Space
Adminis a ion (NASA) Au a sa elli e on 15 July 2004 [6]. Au a is in a nea -pola 705 km al i ude
o bi wi h a daily global co e age o ~15 o bi s pe day. MLS obse es he mal mic owa e emission
om Ea h’s limb ( he edge o he a mosphe e) iewing o wa d along he Au a spacec a ligh
di ec ion, scanning i s iew om he g ound o ~90 km e e y ~25 seconds [7].
MLS p o ides measu emen s o a mosphe ic componen s and p ope ies. I measu es ozone
p o iles in he a mosphe e by measu ing i s emissions a 240 GHz. MLS p o ides daily ozone p o iles
wi h spa ial esolu ion o 165 km × 3 km and a e ical esolu ion o 3 km o 6 km depending on he
al i ude. He e, we use he i h e sion ( 005) o Le el 2 Ozone Mixing Ra io ha p o ides an inc ease
in he useable e ical ange o scien i ic s udies compa ed o he p e ious e sions. In his e sion,
ozone p o iles ange om 261 hPa o 0.001 hPa in 42 p essu e le els. The daily zonal mean ozone
p o iles we e compu ed a high la i udes in bo h hemisphe es ([−82°, −60°] and [60°, 82°]).
The main ozone laye is in he s a osphe e (10 km o 50 km). The second laye is well isible in
he uppe mesosphe e and lowe he mosphe e (UMLT) be ween 85 km and 100 km, ea u ing s ong
seasonal a ia ions, like he ain e e ia y laye a ound 75 km. These uppe laye s a e mos ly deple ed
du ing local summe due o inc eased pho odissocia ion ([8] and e e ences he ein).
Some ene ge ic p o on e en s, indica ed in Figu e 3 (2nd panel) and by e ical solid black lines
in all panels, coincide wi h some o he ozone concen a ions in he mesosphe e- he mosphe e laye s,
and especially a al i udes a ound 90 km in he No he n hemisphe e (see Figu e 3, 3 d panel). This
mesosphe e- he mosphe e ozone e ol es na u ally wi h local seasons, disappea ing a he end o
Ma ch while appea ing in he Sou he n hemisphe e (4 h panel). On he con a y, he geomagne ic
s o ms and subs o ms, indica ed by e ical do ed black lines, do no show clea e ec on ozone.
E ec s on he s a osphe e a e also no clea ly obse ed du ing his pe iod o ime.
The obse ed e ec o SEP on ozone can be explained by he ac ha he p ecipi a ion o
ene ge ic pa icles in o he a mosphe e g ea ly dis u bs he chemical composi ion om he lowe
he mosphe e down o he uppe s a osphe e [1]. Mos impo an a e changes o he budge o
a mosphe ic ni ic oxides (NOx = N, NO, NO2) and o a mosphe ic eac i e hyd ogen oxides (HOx =
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H, OH, HO2), which bo h con ibu e o ozone dec ease in he s a osphe e and mesosphe e. Ozone
losses a e especially isible du ing pe iods o la ge geomagne ic ac i i y and in Figu e 3 in he
No he n hemisphe e (3 d panel) un il 15 Ma ch due o he seasonal p esence o mesosphe ic ozone. In
he Sou he n hemisphe e, he e ec s can only appea a e 15 Ma ch when he mesosphe ic ozone is
o med. P e ious obse a ions e idenced ha geomagne ic ac i i y may also impac he a mosphe ic
dynamics down o he su ace du ing pola win e and sp ing [1]. Ene ge ic pa icle p ecipi a ion can
also a ec empe a u es and dynamics o he a mosphe e om he sou ce egion down o he
s a osphe e. A di ec ela ion be ween ozone loss in he mesosphe e and he a i al o sola ene ge ic
pa icles is obse ed du ing he big Mo he ’s Day e en o May 2024 [9].
Figu e 3. Obse a ions om 1 Janua y 2024 o 31 Ma ch 2024. Top panel: Dis u bed
S o m Time Ds and Ba els Kp geomagne ic ac i i y indices, 2nd panel: GOES
obse a ions o in eg al p o on luxes wi h ene gy > 10 MeV (blue), > 30 MeV (o ange)
and > 100 MeV (g een) a he geos a iona y o bi (6.6 Re). Bo om panels: In he No h
hemisphe e (3 d panel), and in he Sou h hemisphe e (bo om panel), concen a ion o
ozone in pa pe million by olume (ppm ) as obse ed by MLS/Au a as a unc ion o he
al i ude om 20 km o 100 km.
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4. The di e en sou ces o ioniza ion
Model s udies can help us o be e unde s and he in luence o pa icle p ecipi a ion on he Ea h’s
a mosphe e. Di e en sou ces can ionize he a mosphe e, as illus a ed on Figu e 4 showing he
maximum (solid lines) and minimum (dashed lines) ioniza ion a e o di e en p ocesses as a unc ion
o he al i ude. The ioniza ion a es illus a ed in Figu e 4 a e ob ained using A RIS (A mosphe ic
Radia ion In e ac ion Simula o ), a Gean 4 Mon e Ca lo code used o simula e he e ec s o ene ge ic
pa icles on he a mosphe e [10]. The ene gy ange o he injec ed pa icles used in he simula ions is
indica ed in Figu e 4 nex o each ioniza ion sou ce. The assump ions made in he A RIS simula ions
a e simila as in [11]. The ioniza ion o by UV and X ays comes om he IRI (In e na ional Re e ence
Ionosphe e) model [12].
Figu e 4. Ioniza ion a e ob ained wi h A RIS (maximum in solid lines and minimum in
dashed lines) as a unc ion o he al i ude due o di e en p ocesses [5].
The main sou ce o a mosphe ic ioniza ion is no due o pa icles, bu o he sola ul a iole and
X adia ions ha c ea e he ionosphe e a high al i udes, wi h a maximum o ioniza ion a ound 250–
300 km. The ioniza ion a e in he ionosphe e is maximum du ing he day and maximum sola ac i i y.
The ioniza ion a es due o UV and X ays a e illus a ed by he g ey lines in Figu e 4.
Ano he sou ce o ioniza ion is he p ecipi a ion o pa icles wi h a wide ene gy ange. Such
injec ions ake place mainly a lowe al i udes and a e cons i u ed o au o al elec on p ecipi a ion (in
pu ple in Figu e 4), mo e ene ge ic elec ons om he adia ion bel s (RB in da k g een), spo adic sola
ene ge ic pa icle e en s (sola p o ons in o ange), and highly ene ge ic galac ic cosmic ays (GCR, in
yellow in Figu e 4). The mos ene ge ic pa icles, i.e., he GCRs, he lowe he al i udes hey each.
The di e en sou ces a e modula ed by he sola posi ion (day/nigh asymme y mainly o sola UV),
by he la i ude (magne ic ield sc eens low la i udes om ioniza ion and adia ion dose by ene ge ic
pa icles), and by he sola ac i i y (an i-co ela ion o GCR a low al i ude and di ec co ela ion o
he sola wind mainly in he high-al i ude ionosphe e).
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Figu e 8. Obse a ions o neu on moni o s a ions loca ed a di e en la i udes
summa ized in Table 1. The pe u ba ion on 24 Ma ch 2024 is well isible. The neu ons
show a Fo bush dec ease du ing he s o m due o he highe p o ec ion o he e es ial
magne ic ield om he galac ic cosmic ays.
Table 1. Cha ac e is ics o he s a ions whe e neu on moni o s a e loca ed wi h inc easing
la i ude, including al i ude, ull ange o Ve ical Rigidi y Cu o s (Rc) and maximum
Fo bush dec ease du ing he 23 Ma ch 2024 e en .
Full Name
Sho Name
Al (m)
Rc (GV)
Coo ds (la , lon)
Max FD
A hens
ATHN
260
8.53
37.97, 23.78
−5.28%
Rome
ROME
0
6.27
41.86, 12.47
−6.47%
Lomnicky
LMKS
2634
3.84
49.20, 20.22
−13.14%
Dou bes
DRBS
225
3.18
50.0971, 4.59003
−10.52%
Kiel
KIEL
54
2.36
54.3399, 10.1199
−11.20%
Oulu
OULU
15
0.81
65.0544, 25.4681
−13.59%
Apa i y
APTY
181
0.65
67.5704, 33.3935
−12.70%
Sou h Pole
SOPO
2820
0.1
−90.000, 0.00000
−18.39%
6.2. Muon moni o s
Muons we e de ec ed du ing he B ussels campaign wi h he PTB’s mobile posi ion-sensi i e
muon de ec o DECOS2 (see Figu e 9), new e sion o he PTB e e ence de ec o DECOS1 [29].
DECOS2 consis s o wo uni s, each wi h a 2-dimensional spa ially sensi i e eadou . The uni s can be
o a ed in space and hei sepa a ion can be adjus ed. Each uni con ains wo c ossed laye s, each
composed o en EJ-200 plas ic scin illa o s ba s (50 cm long, 5 cm wide and 1 cm hick). This
a angemen o scin illa o ba s, in combina ion wi h quad uple coincidence de ec ion (one o each
scin illa o laye ), enables posi ion-sensi i e de ec ion wi h a pixel size o 5 cm × 5 cm. The a iable
dis ance be ween he wo de ec o uni s allows o an adjus able ield-o - iew (FOV) o he de ec o .
DECOS2 has been success ully used in wo measu emen campaigns in A hens and B ussels, each
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ixed o a pe iod o h ee mon hs, o coun cosmic muons a wo al i udes, la i udes, and unde a ying
a mosphe ic condi ions. The e ical p o iles o a mosphe ic pa ame e s ( empe a u e, densi y, and
ae osols) a he measu emen si es in A hens and B ussels we e ob ained using LIDARs (Ligh
De ec ion and Ranging) and Radiosondes. These da a we e hen used as inpu o Mon e Ca lo (MC)
simula ions o in es iga e he co ela ion o p ima y cosmic ays (PCR) wi h seconda y cosmic ays
(SCR) measu ed on he g ound and a di e en al i udes. MC simula ions p edic a nega i e co ela ion
o he a mosphe ic p essu e wi h he muon lux a al i udes below abou 12 km and a posi i e
co ela ion a highe al i udes. Panels a and b in Figu e 9 show he an i-co ela ion o he p essu e wi h
he SCR coun a e in he p essu e-unco ec ed da a o bo h muons (measu ed du ing he measu emen
campaign a he u ban Space Pole si e in B ussels) and neu ons measu ed a he Belgian neu on
moni o ing s a ion in Dou bes. In bo h cases, he FD can be seen as a small signal d op embedded in
la ge p essu e-dependen luc ua ions. In addi ion o hese luc ua ions, a weak an i-co ela ion
be ween seconda y cosmic coun a es and empe a u es is also obse ed. The ba ome ic coe icien
(β) ob ained om he da a is abou −0.19% hPa-1, while he g ound empe a u e coe icien (αT) is
abou −0.01% °C-1. Fu he in es iga ions in o he in luence o he e ical empe a u e p o ile a e
being conduc ed.
The p essu e-co ec ed muon and neu on da a in Figu e 9 [panels c) and d)] show he FD e en
on 24 Ma ch 2024 due o he sola ene ge ic pa icle (p o on) e en ollowed by a geomagne ic s o m.
The sola e en enhances he magne ic shielding, leading o a empo a y educ ion in he lux o
galac ic cosmic ays and hence, a dec ease in he cosmic ays eaching he Ea h. In he muon da a,
[panel c)] a signal dec ease o (7 3) % is obse ed, which is abou 30% smalle han he coun a e
dec ease in he neu on moni o (abou 10%, see Table 1). This di e ence in he magni ude o he FD
s ems om he ac ha he bulk o he muon signal is p oduced by highe ene gy PCRs ( ypically
abo e ew GeV), which a e less a ec ed by his magne ic ield modula ion. Neu ons obse ed on he
g ound, on he o he hand, which a e p oduc s o bo h lowe and highe ene gy PCRs, show a mo e
p onounced FD due o he s onge magne ic de lec ion o low ene gy PCRs.
The BIOSPHERE eam has also access o measu emen s o he SEVAN de ec o ins alled on
Milešo ka moun ain (al i ude: 840 m, la i ude: 50.55°) in Czech Republic. The SEVAN de ec o [30,31]
was designed o de ec high ene gy pa icles, mainly om seconda y cosmic ays. I consis s o h ee
ac i e plas ic de ec o s coupled wi h pho omul iplie ubes and sepa a ed by lead. Top channel has an
ac i e olume o 100 × 100 × 5 cm3, middle has 50 × 50 × 25 cm3, and he lowe has he same se up as
he op one. The e a e wo 5 cm laye s o lead ha sepa a e pa icles by hei ype and ene gy. I a pho on
o elec on has lowe ene gy, i will igge only he op channel and hus shows he coincidence o “100”.
Neu ons will no igge he op channel and by in e ac ing wi h he op lead laye , hey will igge a
signal in he middle channel ha is hick enough, hence he coincidence o “010”. Muons, on he o he
hand, igge signals in all channels hey pass and a e hus he main pa o he coincidence “111&101”.
Figu e 10 shows 10 minu es a e ages o SEVAN measu emen s om 24 o 25 Ma ch 2024. The
muons gene a ed by cosmic ays a e dis u bed by he s o m, in a way e y simila o he neu ons. The
muons a e illus a ed Figu e 10 (bo om panel) wi h SEVAN obse a ions, oge he wi h neu ons
(panel 2) and low ene gy pa icles ( op panel). All show he FD ollowed by se e al bumps ha a e
especially isible o he muons wi h a daily cycle.
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Figu e 9. a) An i-co ela ion be ween cosmic muon lux measu ed a he u ban Space Pole
si e in B ussels and g ound a mosphe ic p essu e. b) An i-co ela ion be ween neu on
coun a es measu ed a he Dou bes neu on moni o and g ound a mosphe ic p essu e.
P essu e-co ec ed and no malized c) muon coincidences (1 h a e ages) and d) neu on
coun a es showing he FD e en on 24 Ma ch 2024.
10000
11000
12000
13000
14000
15000
Muons, p essu e unco ec ed (DECOS2, PTB)
Muon coun a e / h-1
800
850
900
950
1000
1050
1100
P essu e (Dou bes)
P essu e / mba
a)
b)
04.01.2024 25.01.2024 15.02.2024 07.03.2024 28.03.2024
80
120
160
Da e
Neu ons, p essu e unco ec ed (Dou bes)
Neu on coun a e / s-1
Fo bush dec ease du ing
he 24 Ma ch 2024 e en
750
800
850
900
950
1000
1050
1100
P essu e (Dou bes)
P essu e / mba
18.03.2024 22.03.2024 26.03.2024 30.03.2024
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
Da e
Neu on coun a e (p essu e co ec ed)
Dou bes s a ion
(DI / I) / %
-10
-5
0
5
10 Muon coincidence e en s (p essu e co ec ed)
PTB's DECOS2 @ B ussels campaign
c)
d)
(DI / I) / %
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Figu e 10. SEVAN measu emen s o he Fo bush dec ease obse ed on 24 Ma ch 2024
o seconda y cosmic ays ( op panel in blue), neu ons (middle panel in ed), and muons
(bo om panel in g een).
Figu e 11. Measu emen s o he la ge gamma spec ome e s on Milešo ka, Czech Rep.
( op panel in blue) and in Lomnický š í on he Ta as moun ains, Slo akia (bo om panel
in ed) on 24 and 25 Ma ch 2024 (10 minu es a e ages o p essu e unco ec ed coun a es).
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Figu e 11 shows pa icles wi h deposi ed ene gies o e 3 MeV measu ed by he gamma- ay
spec ome e s on Milešo ka, Czech Rep, and Lomnický š í , Slo akia. Lomnický š í ’s al i ude is 2634
m and has a geomagne ic e ical cu -o igidi y o 4 GV. The sensi i e a ea in Lomnicky s i is a 10 ×
10 × 40 cm3 la ge NaI(Tl) c ys al. On Milešo ka, i is he same gamma spec ome e sys em as on
Lomnický š í , bu wi h 3 × 3 BGO c ys al ins ead o NaI (Tl). Spec ome e da a 10 minu es a e ages
o p essu e unco ec ed coun a es. The FD is also well isible.
Figu e 12. Omnidi ec ional pa icle lux o SCR measu ed in P ague (200 m al i ude) by
Timepix3 wi h a 500 mm hick silicon senso . Da a shown o (a) all pa icles, (b) ligh
cha ged pa icles (elec ons and muons), and (c) X ays. The esul s a e gi en o a 11 h
pe iod on 24 Ma ch 2024 (UTC imes shown).
6.3. Composi ion o seconda y cosmic ays
In o ma ion on he composi ion and spec al cha ac e iza ion o seconda y cosmic ays a he
g ound le el we e complemen a y pe o med wi h semiconduc o pixel de ec o s Timepix3.
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Measu emen s we e pe o med wi h minia u ized s ack Timepix3 elescopes [32], which ope a e a
oom empe a u e and a e con olled by s anda d compu e . The de ice comp ises wo MiniPIX
Timepix3 came as equipped wi h silicon senso s o di e en hickness (300 and µm) assembled in a
close s ack con igu a ion wi h a 10 mm spacing gap be ween he pixel de ec o s. The Timepix3
de ec o s ope a e in sync and a e eadou in con inuous da a d i en mode wi h minimal dead ime.
Measu emen s o SCRs on he g ound le el we e ca ied ou in P ague, a 200 m al i ude, du ing
Ma ch 2024. Figu e 12 shows he measu ed pa icle lux o all pa icles and o he selec ed hea y
cha ged pa icle componen (p o ons, neu ons) and ligh cha ged pa icle (elec ons, muons) componen .
The whole adia ion ield measu ed by he de ec o [33] (gi en also in Figu e 12) consis s
p ima ily o all cha ged pa icles, bo h ligh e.g., elec ons and hea y e.g., p o ons, as well as pho ons
(X ays and low-ene gy gamma ays) in limi ed ene gy ange (a ound 5–50 keV) egis e ed wi h
limi ed (dec easing) de ec ion e iciency. In he da a shown Figu e 12, a limi ed a ia ion wi h he FD
is appa en s a ing a e a ound 18 h. Highe sensi i i y will be p o ided by e alua ion o synch onized
da a in he pixel elescopes.
Figu e 13. The Fo bush dec ease e en on 11 May 2024 ( he so-called “Mo he ’s Day
sola s o m”), measu ed wi h PTB’s e e ence muon de ec o DECOS1 ( op panel in blue),
and by di e en neu on moni o s in Kiel, Oulu, and Te e Adélie (o he panels).
01.05.2024 04.05.2024 08.05.2024 11.05.2024 15.05.2024
-6
-4
-2
0
2
PTB - Muons
OULU - Neu ons
TERRE ADELIE - Neu ons
KIEL - Neu ons
(DI / I) / %
01.05.2024 04.05.2024 08.05.2024 11.05.2024 15.05.2024
-10
-5
0
5
(DI / I) / %
01.05.2024 04.05.2024 08.05.2024 11.05.2024 15.05.2024
-10
-5
0
5
(DI / I) / %
01.05.2024 04.05.2024 08.05.2024 11.05.2024 15.05.2024
-10
-5
0
5
(DI / I) / %
Da e
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6.4. Fo bush dec ease on Mo he ’s Day on 11 May 2024
As we men ion he Mo he ’s Day ex eme e en , i is in e es ing o compa e he Fo bush e en o
24 Ma ch 2024 wi h ha o 11 May 2024, especially o he ins umen s in ol ed in he Biosphe e
campaign measu ed in May 2024. Many a icles ha e been, and a e being, w i en o his e en because
his is he s onges s o m o he las 20 yea s and i caused e y unusual e ec s in he e es ial
en i onmen like au o as a lowe la i udes [34], ioniza ion a ia ions in he ionosphe e (e.g., [35]) and
in he plasmasphe e [36], empe a u e changes in he mesosphe e and he mosphe e [37], ozone changes
as seen using Au a/MLS obse a ions [9], and injec ions in he adia ion bel s using PROBA-V/EPT
da a [26]. Neu on moni o da a ha e no been g ea ly epo ed.
Figu e 13 illus a es muons ( op) and neu ons (o he panels) coun a es om 1 May 2024 o 15
May 2024 in di e en s a ions. The cha ac e is ics o Kiel and Oulu a e gi en in Table 1. PTB
(B aunschweig) is a a la i ude (No h) o 52.27° (al i ude ~80 m) while Te e Adélie is in he Sou h
hemisphe e a a la i ude o −66.65° (al i ude 32 m).
The muon signal s a s o dec ease in he a e noon o 10 May 2024 eaching a maximum dec ease
o (5.8 1) % a abou 11 pm (UTC). The p essu e-co ec ed muon signal also shows a sligh inc ease
in muon p ecipi a ion du ing he day and a dec ease du ing he nigh (day-nigh asymme y). On 10 May,
all de ec o s eco ded a sha p dec ease in he coun a e, wi h he neu on coun a e dec easing o e 40%
mo e han he muon coun a e, much highe han he maximum dec ease measu ed in Ma ch 2024 and
summa ized in Table 1. One can no e also a g ound le el enhancemen , i.e., he small bump jus a e he
dec ease in all panels o Figu e 13, associa ed wi h he a i al o e y ene ge ic p o on luxes [26].
7. UV Obse a ions in space
Figu e 14 shows he a iabili y o he UV Sola Spec al I adiance (SSI) wi h ime om 1 Janua y
2024 (day 0) o 31 May 2024 (day 152) and wi h he wa eleng h be ween 200 nm and 400 nm
(measu ed ou side he a mosphe e by he p ism spec ome e SIM on TSIS-1 on boa d he In e na ional
Space S a ion (ISS) [38]. The SSI is much mo e a iable o sho wa eleng h and almos negligible
abo e 290 nm. E iden ly, he pe iodici y o 27 days co esponding o he sola o a ion, due o he
asymme ic epa i ion o he ac i e egions a he su ace o he Sun, u he implies a modula ion o
he SSI UV wi h he sola o a ion.
This pe iodici y is also isible in Figu e 15 on o he p oxies o he sola ac i i y like he sunspo
numbe ( op panel), he adio lux a 10.7 cm (middle panel), and he Lyman-Alpha lux a 121 nm
(bo om panel). While he co ela ion be ween hese p oxies is ob ious, he posi ion o hei maximum
is no he same, especially in May 2024 (9 May o F10.7, 13 May o sunspo numbe , and 16 May
o Ly-alpha). The SSI peak o May 2024 appea s a ew days a e he Mo he ’s Day supe s o m o 11
May 2024 ha in luenced he space en i onmen o he Ea h in many ways [26].
The index MgII ela ed o he dep h o MgII a ound 280 nm [39] is ano he p oxy wi h his
pe iodici y associa ed o he sola ac i i y in he ch omosphe e ha can be used o model he SSI
a iabili y SSI be ween 120 nm and 400 nm and is illus a ed in Figu e 14 (bo om panel) om 1 Ap il
2024. One can see ha he maximum is a ound 15 May 2024.
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Figu e 14. Uppe panel: Sola Spec al I adiance (SSI) ela i e o 1 Janua y 2024
measu ed ou side he a mosphe e by he p ism spec ome e SIM on TSIS-1 on boa d he
In e na ional Space S a ion (ISS) om 1 Janua y 2024 o end May 2024 o wa eleng h
be ween 200 nm and 400 nm. Bo om panel: MgII index ( escaled om GOME2B), as
measu ed om 1 Ap il o 21 May 2024.
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Figu e 15. Indices o he sola ac i i y measu ed om 1 Janua y 2024 o 31 May 2024:
The sunspo numbe ( op panel), he adio lux a 10.7 cm (middle panel), and he lux a
121 nm Lyman-Alpha (bo om panel).
Figu e 16. The a io be ween he Sola Spec al I adiance (SSI) ela i e o 17 May 2024
measu ed ou side he a mosphe e by he spec ome e SIM on TSIS-1 on boa d he ISS and
a quie Sun e e ence spec um. The igu e shows he UV SSI a iabili y as a unc ion o
wa eleng h be ween 110 nm and 400 nm.
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Figu e 16 illus a es he wa eleng h dependence o he UV SSI a iabili y, which eaches 100%
a Lyman-alpha and a ound 10% a 200 nm.
Fo wa eleng h > 120 nm, i is no possible o see he sola e en s. A sho wa eleng h ~10–
20 nm, i could be possible o see he signa u e o he sola e en s.
The ozone laye in e ac s wi h he UV SSI, he eby hea ing he lowe s a osphe e. The SSI
a iabili y a 205 nm is impo an o he ozone chemical budge h oughou he s a osphe e [40]. This
can modula e he UV obse ed a he g ound. The an i-co ela ion be ween he TOC (To al Ozone
Column) and he UV index measu ed a he g ound du ing clea sky is g ea ly isible in he campaign
o A hens, as illus a ed in Figu e 17. The co ela ion coe icien eaches −0.91. The bes linea
eg ession illus a ed by he black dashed line in Figu e 17 co esponds o UVi = −0.0153*TOC +
8.0238. Less ozone leads o mo e UV measu ed a he g ound, al hough he in e ac ions o he UV wi h
clouds and ae osols also play a ole.
Figu e 17. An i-co ela ion be ween he TOC (To al Ozone Column) and he UV index
measu ed a he g ound wi h a sola zeni h angle (SZA) o 50° du ing he campaign o
A hens om 1 June 2023 o 31 Augus 2023.
8. UV and Ozone obse ed a he g ound
The UV moni o ing s a ion ope a ed by he Royal Me eo ological Ins i u e o Belgium (50.8° N,
4.3° E, 100 m abo e sea le el) is equipped wi h wo B ewe ozone spec opho ome e s (#016 since
1984 and #178 since 2002 [41]). The ins umen s a e in eg a ed in he Eu opean ne wo k EuB ewNe
([42], link o he websi e and da a in sec ion “Da a a ailabili y” below), in he Wo ld Ozone and
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Geomagne ic s o ms and high-speed sola wind (sola wind speed ≥ 600 km/s) and space wea he
changes p io o sola p o on e en s a ec he ca dio ascula unc ion [46,47]. The e is e idence ha
mo e ch onic diseases a e a ec ed by sola and geomagne ic ac i i y dis u bances (i.e., mul iple
scle osis, s okes, hype ension, sys emic lupus e y hema osus, and cance ) [44,49,52,58]. Mo e
speci ically, i has been sugges ed ha in he mid-la i udes, myoca dial in ac ions may be a ibu ed
o he Pc1 geomagne ic pulsa ions, bu in he high la i udes (in maxima o heliogeophysical s o miness),
his may be a ibu ed o he geomagne ic s o miness (indexed by Kp) caused by he sola wind and
he in e plane a y magne ic ield pa ame e s [52,59,60]. Resea che s who conduc ed an
epidemiological s udy concluded ha geomagne ic dis u bances d i en by sola ac i i y enhance o al
and ca dio ascula mo ali y isk in 263 U.S. ci ies [61].
Mo e impo an ly, all hese adia ion in luences ha e a common, unde lying molecula mechanism:
The nuclea s e oid ecep o s in e ac ions (R1). This molecula ne wo k was gene a ed and unc ionally
p ese ed o e housands o yea s ac oss species ( hus p ese ed in e olu ion o species o e ime), as
he Sun cons an ly adia ed ou plane [44,62]. In e es ingly, his mechanism dis u bance explains all
biological e ec s on humans a e exposu e o ionizing and non-ionizing adia ions.
10. Conclusions
The BIOSPHERE campaign o B ussels enabled us o measu e he e ec s o sola
elec omagne ic adia ion (UV), sola pa icle adia ion (mainly p o ons and elec ons using PROBA-
V/EPT a LEO and GOES a geos a iona y o bi ), and ozone simul aneously du ing a pe iod o 3
mon hs om 1 Janua y 2024 o 31 Ma ch 2024 co esponding o maximum sola ac i i y. Se en Sola
Ene ge ic P o on e en s wi h E > 10 MeV we e de ec ed, and h ee sola and geomagne ic e en s had
di e en consequences:
1) A Sola Ene ge ic Pa icle (SEP) e en wi h E > 30 MeV wi hou geomagne ic s o m (8
Feb ua y 2024);
2) A geomagne ic s o m wi hou any SEP (3 Ma ch 2024);
3) A SEP wi h E > 30 MeV associa ed o a geomagne ic s o m (24 Ma ch 2024).
A FD o he neu ons and o he muons was obse ed only du ing his las e en du ing he
campaign, and la e du ing he Mo he ’s Day on 11 May 2024, gene a ing he mos in ense
geomagne ic s o m o he las 20 yea s. The measu emen s show ha ozone in he mesosphe e, p esen
du ing he win e in he No he n hemisphe e, is los du ing some SEP e en s, and especially du ing
he Mo he ’s Day e en on 11 May 2024 [9]. The s a osphe e can also be a ec ed bu a longe pe iod
o obse a ions would be necessa y o ob ain clea conclusions since so many o he e ec s in luence
s a osphe ic ozone. The geomagne ic s o ms a ec mo e he elec ons o he adia ion bel s.
The pa icle injec ions (sola p o ons, ene ge ic elec ons om he adia ion bel s o au o a, and
cosmic ays) a e limi ed o high la i udes excep du ing s ong magne ic s o ms when lowe la i udes
can be a ec ed. GCRs ionize a lowe al i udes a ound 10 km co esponding o ai planes al i udes,
because hey ca y he mos ene ge ic pa icles ha can pene a e deepe .
Equa o ial egions a e mo e ionized by UV adia ion du ing he day a highe al i udes wi h a
maximum be ween 200 km and 400 km. In space, he UV sola adia ion shows no only he well-
known sola cycle a ia ion o 11 yea s, bu also a cycle o 27 days (like he sola ac i i y indices) well
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isible du ing he i s mon hs o 2024 due o he sola o a ion o he Sun on i sel , leading o ac i e
egions coming back in he di ec ion o he Ea h.
The A RIS model con i ms he ioniza ion a e depending on he ene gy o he pa icles and he
al i ude. Sola p o ons can pene a e a 50 km in he s a osphe e. In addi ion o ioniza ion, he pa icles
can modi y he composi ion o he a mosphe e by chemical eac ions (ozone, NOx, HOx, e c.) and he
empe a u e by hea ing, p oducing he mal expansion o he a mosphe e.
Such a e simul aneous obse a ions o sola UV, sola e up ions, and geomagne ic s o ms gi e
new impo an esul s conce ning he e ec s on he a mosphe e o each independen sou ce. This is
c ucial since acu e e en s, such as sola e up ions (1–2 day obse a ions) and maximum and/o
minimum sola ac i i y, a e ela ed o ozone a ia ions by ionizing he a mosphe e and o po en ial
heal h e ec s.
Acknowledgemen s
The au ho s acknowledge he p ojec 21GRD02 BIOSPHERE om he Eu opean Pa ne ship on
Me ology. The p ojec (21GRD02 BIOSPHERE) has ecei ed unding om he Eu opean Pa ne ship
on Me ology, co- inanced om he Eu opean Union’s Ho izon Eu ope Resea ch and Inno a ion
P og amme and by he Pa icipa ing S a es. VP, AW and EB hank he Ho izon 2020 esea ch and
inno a ion p og amme unding om he Eu opean Union o he PITHIA-NRF p ojec (Plasmasphe e
Ionosphe e The mosphe e In eg a ed Resea ch En i onmen and Access se ices) wi h G an
Ag eemen 101007599. Wo k a VSB TU Os a a was suppo ed by he p ojec SGS SP 2024/016 a
he VSB TU Os a a inanced by he Minis y o Educa ion, You h and Spo s o he Czech Republic.
JoeySAT has been de eloped unde he Sun ise Pa ne ship P ojec be ween ESA and
elecommunica ions ope a o OneWeb, wi h suppo om he UK Space Agency.
Da a a ailabili y
The da a p esen ed in his s udy a e a ailable in a eposi o y a DOI e e ence numbe
h ps://doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.14390477. These da a we e de i ed om he ollowing esou ces.
A ailable in he public domain:
Omni da a a e p o ided by h ps://omniweb.gs c.nasa.go /h ml/ow_da a.h ml. Sunspo numbe
da a can be downloaded om h p://www.sidc.be/silso/da a iles/. Ds da a was e ie ed om
h ps://wdc.kugi.kyo o-u.ac.jp/. GOES da a a e accessible a h ps://lasp.colo ado.edu/space-wea he -
po al/. MLS/Au a da a o ozone a e accessible a
h ps://disc.gs c100.nasa.go /da ase s/ML2O3_005/summa y, using ecommenda ions o da a
sc eening p o ided in he MLS Le el 2 Ve sion 5 Quali y Documen h ps://mls.jpl.nasa.go /da a/ 5-
0 da a quali y documen .pd ). EPT da a a e publicly a ailable on he Space Si ua ional Awa eness
websi e o ESA h p://swe.ssa.esa.in /space- adia ion.
Sola Spec al I adiance (SSI) measu ed by TSIS-1 come om
h ps://lasp.colo ado.edu/ sis/da a/. To al ozone and UV measu emen s a e a ailable on Eub ewne
(h ps://eub ewne .aeme .es/eub ewne ) and WOUDC (woudc.o g). Ozone maps a e a ailable on
WOUDC - Wo ld Ozone and Ul a iole Radia ion Da a Cen e (woudc.o g).
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AIMS Geosciences Volume 11, Issue 1, 117–154.
Da a o he BIOSPHERE p ojec as well as wo Good P ac ice Guides (1. o he Analysis o
Space Radia ion Fluxes and Simula ions o hei In e ac ions wi h he A mosphe e, including A RIS,
and 2. E ec s o combined Seconda y Cosmic Rays and UV adia ion ields on biological sys ems)
a e a ailable on eu ame -biosphe e.eu/publica ions.
Resul s p esen ed in his documen ely on da a p o ided by he Communi y Coo dina ed
Modeling Cen e a Godda d Space Fligh Cen e h ough hei in eg a ed Space Wea he Analysis
(iSWA) sys em’s HAPI se e (h ps://iswa.gs c.nasa.go /IswaSys emWebApp/hapi). The CCMC is
a mul i-agency pa ne ship be ween NASA, AFMC, AFOSR, AFRL, AFWA, NOAA, NSF and ONR.
These da a we e accessed ia he Uni e si y o Colo ado’s Space Wea he Technology, Resea ch, and
Educa ion Cen e ’s (h ps://colo ado.edu/spacewea he ) Space Wea he Da a Po al
(h ps://lasp.colo ado.edu/space-wea he -po al).
Au ho con ibu ions
Concep ualiza ion, VP, DB, and FK; me hodology, VP; so wa e, all; alida ion, VP, DB, FK;
o mal analysis, all au ho s; in es iga ion, all; esou ces, FK, DB; da a cu a ion, AW; w i ing–o iginal
d a p epa a ion, VP; w i ing– e iew and edi ing, all; isualiza ion, all; supe ision, VP; p ojec
adminis a ion, FK; unding acquisi ion, FK. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he p esen e sion
o he manusc ip .
Use o AI ools decla a ion
The au ho s decla e hey ha e no used A i icial In elligence (AI) ools in he c ea ion o his
a icle.
Con lic o In e es
The au ho s decla e no con lic s o in e es .
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