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Publishe
Sus ainabili y o Regions
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RENEWABLE ENERGY CLUSTERS: THE CASES OF LEADING COUNTRIES, LESSONS
APPLICABLE TO MOROCCO
*
Boumediene Am aoui 1, Vaida Zemlickienė 2, Najiba El Am ani El Id issi 3
1,3 Facul y o Science and Technology, Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah Uni e si y, Rou e d'Imouzze 30000
Fez, Mo occo
2 The Ins i u e o Sus ainable Cons uc ion, Facul y o Ci il Enginee ing, Vilnius Gediminas Technical Uni e si y,
Saulė ekio a . 11, LT-10223 Vilnius, Li huania
E-mails: 1boumedien[email p o ec ed]c.ma; 2 aida.zemlickiene@ ilnius ech.l ;
3 najiba.elam [email protected]
Recei ed 11 Augus 2024; accep ed 6 Feb ua y 2025; published 30 Ma ch 2025
Abs ac . En i onmen al issues ha e g own om ma ginal conce ns o one o he bigges global challenges o economies and socie ies.
The easies , quickes and mos e ec i e way o d i ing down g eenhouse gas emissions and he bes chance o s op clima e change’s
p ocess is by mo ing o an ene gy sys em based on enewables. The de elopmen o enewable ene gy clus e s is one o he ac o s ha
p omo e enewable ene gy p oduc ion. The p ima y aim o his pape is o o e aluable insigh s, ca e ing o he needs o bo h esea che s
and p ac i ione s, ega ding condi ions ha suppo ed o hinde ed he expansion o enewable ene gy clus e s in he leading enewable
ene gy-p oducing coun ies, i.e., o p esen he case s udy’s esea ch on enewable ene gy clus e s. Using s a is ics and a chi al analysis, an
o e iew o leading coun ies in enewable ene gy and he expe ience associa ed wi h he pe o mance o enewable ene gy clus e s will be
p o ided. The esea ch esul s and insigh s apply o he Mo occan case o boos he de elopmen o Mo occan enewable ene gy clus e s
and economic and poli ical decision-making.
Keywo ds: clus e s; enewable ene gy; leading coun ies
Re e ence o his pape should be made as ollows: Am aoui, B., Zemlickienė, V., El Am ani El Id issi, N. 2025. Renewable ene gy
clus e s: he cases o leading coun ies, lessons applicable o Mo occo. Insigh s In o Regional De elopmen , 7(1), 93-108.
h ps://doi.o g/10.70132/w8428438283
JEL Classi ica ions: D78, D81, F13
Addi ional disciplines: ecology and en i onmen , elec ici y elec onic enginee ing, en i onmen al enginee ing, ene ge ics and he mo
ene ge ics.
*
The esea ch leading o hese esul s has ecei ed unding om he p ojec i led "Clus e o inno a i e ene gy" in he
ame o he p og am "HORIZON-MSCA-2022-SE-01" unde he G an ag eemen numbe 1011298205.
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1. In oduc ion
I is ecognized globally ha enewable ene gy is c ucial as ossil uels decline and demand ises (Baus, 2017).
The global ene gy equi emen s a e e e -inc easing, and p ima ily ossil uels a e u ilized o ene gy p oduc ion.
A he same ime as ossil uels a e unning ou , pollu ion le els wo ldwide ha e been ele a ed o unsa e le els
due o he con en ional ene gy p oduc ion p ocesses. O all he di e en app oaches o cu b pollu ion, globally,
enewable ene gy is seen as he mos po en one (Sudhaka e al., 2017). In a epo published by he Uni ed
Na ions, i is s a ed ha i he wo ld’s ene gy sec o is no changed, i will be impossible o imp o e he s anda d
o li ing in some pa s o he wo ld while a he same ime being able o dec ease CO² emissions. The ene gy
sec o mus u gen ly change globally, so mos coun ies mus in es hea ily in enewable ene gy de elopmen .
Mo occo has swi ly eme ged as one o he mos apidly lou ishing hubs o enewable ene gy ac oss he en i e
globe. All c edi goes o he p oac i e s ance on clima e change adop ed by he isiona y King Mohammed VI. In
he ea ly 2000s, he Mo occan go e nmen no only o mula ed impac ul policies bu also in oduced
incen i izing measu es o os e he g ow h and de elopmen o enewable ene gies, wi h a speci ic emphasis on
sola powe . The Mo occan go e nmen has emb aced a comp ehensi e and well-coo dina ed app oach o
p omo e and acili a e he adop ion o g een ene gies, in ol ing a ious le els o go e nance and ins i u ions. The
de elopmen o enewable ene gy clus e s is one o he ac o s ha p omo e enewable ene gy p oduc ion.
The p ima y aim o his pape is o o e aluable insigh s, ca e ing o he needs o bo h esea che s and
p ac i ione s, ega ding condi ions ha suppo ed o hinde ed he expansion o enewable ene gy clus e s in he
op enewable ene gy-p oducing na ions. The esea ch esul s and insigh s can be applied o he Mo occan case o
boos he de elopmen o Mo occan enewable ene gy clus e s and economic and poli ical decision-making.
To achie e he goal, he ollowing asks we e o mula ed:
1) iden i y he leading coun ies in he p oduc ion o enewable ene gy;
2) e iew he si ua ion o ene gy om enewable sou ces in each coun y;
3) ga he in o ma ion abou he expe ience o c ea ing and ope a ing clus e s and he encou aging and hinde ing
ac o s.
2. Renewable ene gy clus e s: concep and ole
In business, clus e s e e o geog aphic concen a ions o in e connec ed companies, supplie s, se ice p o ide s,
and associa ed ins i u ions in a pa icula ield. These clus e s can enhance he compe i i e ad an age o he
en i ies in ol ed h ough a ious means, such as os e ing inno a ion, d i ing p oduc i i y, and encou aging new
business o ma ions.
Key aspec s o business clus e s include geog aphic p oximi y, specializa ion in a pa icula indus y o sec o ; he
p oximi y o i ms allows o a blend o compe i ion and collabo a ion, o en leading o highe le els o
inno a ion and e iciency; en i ies wi hin a clus e can sha e esou ces such as specialized labou pools, supplie s,
and in as uc u e, which can educe cos s and imp o e e iciency; clus e s p omo e he exchange o ideas and
expe ise, leading o inc eased inno a ion and he de elopmen o new echnologies and p ocesses; uni e si ies,
esea ch ins i u ions, ade associa ions, and go e nmen agencies o en play key oles in suppo ing and
sus aining clus e s h ough esea ch, aining, and policy suppo ; clus e s can d i e egional economic g ow h by
c ea ing jobs, a ac ing in es men , and os e ing he de elopmen o new businesses.
Examples o well-known business clus e s include Silicon Valley in Cali o nia o he echnology sec o ,
Hollywood o he ilm indus y, and he inancial dis ic in New Yo k Ci y o inance and banking (Po e ,
1998).
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In Polish law, acco ding o he de ini ion speci ied in a . 2 (15A) o he RES Ac , an ene gy clus e is a ci il law
con ac o a g oup o s akeholde s concluded o accomplish a speci ic economic objec i e in he ene gy con ex ,
p ima ily in he ield o elec ic powe gene a ion; a o m o con ac - en e ed in o in o de o s eng hen
coope a ion in he ield o elec ici y managemen o e a la ge adminis a i e a ea, co e ing up o i e
municipali ies o one coun y. The coope a ion includes 1) gene a ion, 2) s o age, 3) demand balancing, 4) ading,
and 5) dis ibu ion - o elec ici y o uels (G een Encyclopedia, 2024).
The ac ha he con ac is a ci il law ag eemen means ha such a clus e may comp ise companies, esea ch
ins i u es, ounda ions, local go e nmen uni s and indi iduals. This p o ides an unp eceden ed capabili y o build
complex logis ic chains ha could suppo he RES powe deli e y p ocess.
Ba e de ini ions will no help you unde s and he s uc u e o a clus e . The whole concep is o combine, a he
local le el, he means o he gene a ion and consump ion o powe in o de o ensu e he maximum ansmission
o ene gy among he clus e componen s and, a he same ime, o minimize ou bound and inbound ansmission.
Conside ing he economics o he en i e unde aking, he clus e should be as sel -su icien as possible. He e, an
example may be he coope a ion o once isola ed powe -gene a ing en i ies ope a ing independen ly, such as
owne s o wind u bines and sola panels and local consume s, o adjus he gene a ion p o ile o he consump ion
p o ile. The aim o a p ojec is o bes ma ch bo h hese p o iles (T endy w ene ge yce, 2018).
3. The case s udy o op coun ies o enewable ene gy p oduc ion: ene gy clus e s expe iences, public
policies and egula o y amewo k
3.1. Me hodology o case s udy
I was decided o use he bes p ac ices o leading coun ies in he ield o sus ainable ene gy p oduc ion and
ene gy clus e s o gain p ac ical insigh s applicable o Mo occo. The i s s ep o achie ing he goal is o iden i y
he coun ies wi h he la ges enewable elec ici y p oduc ion based on s a is ical analysis. In he subsequen
analysis o a chi al da a, he expe ience o enewable ene gy clus e s ope a ing in leading coun ies will be
e lec ed. Answe he ques ion: How ha e pas and cu en go e nmen policies and local condi ions suppo ed o
hinde ed he expansion o a pa icula ene gy clus e ?
3.2. Leading coun ies o enewable ene gy p oduc ion
Di e en o ganiza ions measu e he p og ess o enewable ene gy p oduc ion di e en ly; howe e , he lis s o
leading coun ies based on speci ic ankings can o en be su p ising in hei di e ences. In o de o ind ou he
leade s o enewable ene gy p oduc ion, i is wo h examining he esul s o he e alua ion and anking o
di e en o ganiza ions.
Two yea s ago, he Clima e Council (2022) announced ha 11 coun ies we e leading he cha ge on enewable
ene gy. Sweden: In 2012, Sweden eached hei a ge o 50% enewable ene gy 8 yea s ahead o schedule. This
pu s hem igh on ack o achie e hei 2040 goal o 100% ossil- ee enewable elec ici y p oduc ion. They use
hei na u al esou ces o combine wind, bioene gy, sola , and e en body hea . In S ockholm, o example, body
hea om commu e s passing h ough he cen al s a ion is used o hea a nea by building. Cos a Rica: In 2022,
Cos a Rica p oduced a whopping 98% o i s elec ici y om enewable sou ces o o e eigh yea s in a ow.
Cos a Rica also holds he wo ld eco d o mos consecu i e days using solely enewable ene gy – 300 in 2018
and b eaking hei eco d o 299 days in 2015. Cos a Rica combines hyd o, geo he mal, wind, biomass and sola
powe o ge he job done. In some yea s, hey ha e e en been able o expo he excess powe hey ha e
gene a ed o coun ies in Cen al Ame ica's egional elec ici y ma ke , such as Gua emala, Nica agua, Panama,
Hondu as, and El Sal ado . Uni ed Kingdom: The UK is he global leade in o sho e wind ene gy. I has mo e
capaci y ins alled han any o he coun y, wi h o sho e wind powe ing o e 7.5 million homes. A plan o inc ease
his ou old by 2030 will go a long way o he go e nmen 's plan o deca bonize i s powe sys em by 2035.
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Iceland: The land o i e and ice has unique access o a ange o enewable esou ces. In 2015, hyd opowe and
geo he mal powe combined p o ided almos 100% o Iceland's elec ici y p oduc ion. Geo he mal powe hea s 9
ou o 10 homes, and Iceland is among he wo ld's op en global p oduce s o geo he mal ene gy. The UN has
e en sugges ed hei ansi ion could p o ide a model o o he coun ies o make he swi ch. Ge many: In 2022,
Ge many's new go e nmen se hei sel -desc ibed "mos signi ican ene gy policy e o m in decades" du ing
hei i s 100 days in go e nmen . Wha 's so special abou i ? Renewables si a he cen e, wi h a ge s o 80%
enewable powe by 2030 and close o 100% by 2035. Renewables accoun ed o 46.9% o Ge man powe
consump ion in 2022 (a 4.9% inc ease om 2021) and i looks like i ’s only going up om he e. U uguay: Since
2007, U uguay has unde gone a enewable ene gy e olu ion. Back hen, impo ed ossil uels p o ided mo e han
a hi d o ene gy gene a ion, bu decades o ans o ma ion ha e esul ed in U uguay gene a ing 91% o all i s
elec ici y om enewable sou ces in 2022. Be ween 2013 and 2018, U uguay inc eased i s wind powe om 1%
o 34% o i s elec ici y mix in i e yea s – he as es any coun y has achie ed. The majo i y o his comes om
hyd opowe , complemen ed by wind, sola and bio uels. In some yea s, U uguay will gene a e much enewable
ene gy o expo o i s Sou h Ame ican neighbou s, A gen ina and B azil. And hey' e s ill on he lookou o ex a
ways o pu i o use. Kenya: Kenya is home o Lake Tu kana Wind Powe P ojec , A ica's la ges wind a m.
Wi h o e 310 MW o capaci y – enough o supply ene gy o one million homes. The p ojec also a ac ed he
la ges p i a e in es men in Kenya’s his o y $650 million. A ica has huge enewable ene gy po en ial – home o
60% o he bes sola esou ces globally, howe e , he con inen ecei es less han 3% o ene gy in es men s
wo ldwide. China: i appea s he wo ld’s la ges ca bon emi e can also be a leade in enewable ene gy. I may
seem coun e -in ui i e, bu China is he global enewable ene gy leade , hos ing nea ly hal i s o al ope a ing
wind and sola capaci y. China is on ack o double i s u ili y-scale sola and wind powe capaci y, sha e ing he
cen al go e nmen 's ambi ious 2030 a ge o 1,200 GW i e yea s ahead o schedule. They’ e also he bigges
in es o in enewable ene gy wo ldwide, whe e nea ly hal o he wo ld's low-ca bon spending ook place in
China in 2022 (US$546 billion). Now, hey need o ge hose emissions down. Mo occo: Mo occo has ha nessed
he powe o i s ample sun supply o become a wo ld leade in sola ene gy. I ’s home o he wo ld’s bigges
concen a ed sola a m, he Noo -Oua zaza e complex in he Saha a Dese , which has a capaci y o 580 MW.
The a m is he size o 3,500 oo ball ields and gene a es enough elec ici y o powe a ci y wice he size o
Ma akesh. New Zealand is doing g ea hings abou enewables. 84% o New Zealand's elec ici y usage is
enewable. New Zealand has se a a ge o 50% o o al ene gy consump ion om enewable sou ces by 2035,
and 100% enewable elec ici y by 2030. No way: As o 2016, 98% o elec ici y gene a ion in No way came
om enewables, wi h hyd opowe leading he cha ge. They’ e been ha nessing powe om i e s and wa e alls
since he la e 1800s, so i 's easy o see how his na u al esou ce has been a c i ical pa o No way's powe p o ile.
O e he yea s, hey' e also added he mal and wind ene gy o he mix.
Acco ding o The Wo ld Economic Fo um (2024), ad anced economies a e gene ally he op pe o me s in he
Ene gy T ansi ion Index (ETI), wi h Sweden, Denma k, Finland and Swi ze land leading he ankings. F ance,
meanwhile, has en e ed he op i e pe o me s due o i s e ec i e ene gy e iciency policies, esul ing in a 12%
educ ion in ene gy in ensi y. F ance is ollowed by No way, Iceland, Aus ia, Es onia and he Ne he lands in he
Ene gy T ansi ion Index (ETI). The op 10 coun ies collec i ely only ep esen 2% o he global popula ion and
con ibu e jus 1% o ene gy- ela ed CO2 emissions. S ill, he epo shows ha majo eme ging economies like
China and B azil ha e also made signi ican p og ess. I highligh s ha China commissioned as much sola
pho o ol aic (PV) capaci y in 2023 as he en i e wo ld did in 2022. Meanwhile, B azil’s long- e m plan o
hyd opowe and bio uels has been key in a ac ing in es men .
Common cha ac e is ics o he op pe o me s include enhanced ene gy secu i y h ough a di e se mix o sou ces,
imp o ed ene gy in ensi y, an inc easing sha e o clean ene gy, a ca bon p icing mechanism and a suppo i e
egula o y en i onmen .
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S a is ical Re iew o Wo ld Ene gy p o ided by Embe (2024), Ene gy Ins i u e – (Ou Wo ld in Da a, 2024a)
may seem e y in o ma i e a he beginning (Fig. 1); howe e , when con as ed wi h o he s a is ical da a, he
si ua ion becomes mo e explici and mo e e lec i e o eali y. I shows how much ene gy di e en coun ies
p oduce om a ious ene gy sou ces. Howe e , all coun ies a e p esen ed he e as equals, al hough, o example,
China p oduces 22 imes mo e enewable ene gy.
Figu e 1. Elec ici y gene a ion om ossil uels, nuclea and enewables, 2023
Sou ce: (Ou Wo ld in Da a, 2024a)
In 2022, China ins alled oughly as much sola capaci y as he es o he wo ld combined, hen doubled
addi ional sola in 2023 (Hil on, 2024). Cu en ly, China p oduces 31% o global enewable elec ici y, ollowed
by he Uni ed S a es (11%), B azil (6.4%), Canada (5.4%) and India (3.9%) (IRENA, 2024).
Figu e 2. Leading coun ies in ins alled enewable ene gy capaci y wo ldwide in 2023 (in gigawa s).
Sou ce:(IRENA, 2024)
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China was he leade in enewable ene gy ins alla ions, wi h a capaci y o a ound 1,453 gigawa s. The U.S., in
second place, had a capaci y o a ound 388 gigawa s. Renewable ene gy is essen ial in add essing clima e change
and mi iga ing he consequences o his phenomenon.
3.3. The enewable ene gy gene a ion and clus e s pe o mance in China
3.3.1. O e iew o enewable ene gy gene a ion in China
Hyd oelec ici y is China's la ges enewable ene gy sou ce and he second a e coal. Acco ding o he
In e na ional Hyd opowe Associa ion, China is he wo ld's la ges p oduce o hyd oelec ici y. In 2024, China's
ins alled hyd oelec ic capaci y was 426 GW (IHA, 2024).
Figu e 3. Renewable ene gy gene a ion China
Sou ce: (Ou Wo ld in Da a, 2024b)
A e 2009, China began o ca y ou ex ensi e wind and sola ene gy demons a ion p ojec s coo dina ed by he
Na ional De elopmen and Re o m Commission. These p ojec s used he " la -pla e mechanism," which in ol ed
subsidies om he cen al go e nmen , concessions in he ansmission g id, eed-in a i s, ax incen i es, and
o he suppo i e measu es.
3.3.2. Renewable ene gy clus e s in China
In 2015, China announced he "Enhanced Ac ions and Measu es on Clima e Change", which has se he goal o
lowe ing ca bon dioxide emissions pe uni o GDP by 60 o 65% om he 2005 le el. Achie ing his goal
necessi a es undamen al changes in cu en coal-based ene gy sys ems. In Janua y 2017, he Chinese go e nmen
published he "13 h Fi e-Yea De elopmen Plan o Renewable Ene gy (2016–2020)”, and i is es ima ed ha ill
2020, a o al in es men o 2.5 illion CNY (abou US$0.4 illion) will be alloca ed o de eloping enewable
ene gy. Agains his backg ound, China's much mo e apid ansi ion owa d enewable ene gy-based ene gy
sys ems is seemingly aking shape (Fulle & Guo, 2017; Huang & Liu, 2017; Su & Fan, 2022).
Rega ding Dong e al. (2016) om he geog aphical dis ibu ion, i was concluded ha a e se e al yea s o
de elopmen , in gene al, he e we e ou enewable ene gy clus e s o med: (1) Bohai im a eas, including
Beijing, Tianjin, Heibei, Shandong, e c; (2) Yang ze Ri e Del a egion, includes Shanghai, Jiangsu, Zhejiang,
Fujian, e c; (3) Middle China egion, includes Henan, Jiangxi, e c; (4) Wes e n China egion, includes Sichuan,
Inne Mongolia, Xinjiang, Gansu, e c. Two clus e s a e loca ed in eas e n China, one in cen al China and one in
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wes e n China. Among he abo e egions, Jiangsu p esen ed he highes ou pu alue, mainly due o he highly
de eloped sola PV indus y. Zhejiang, Sichuan, Shandong, Hebei, and Beijing also ha e high ou pu alues.
Those egions we e also indus ially de eloped a eas (coas al eas e n egions wi h highe GDP pe capi a and
indus ies).
Jiangsu Sola PV Clus e s: The Chinese p o ince o Jiangsu is a leading global manu ac u e o sola PV cells and
modules d i en by suppo i e go e nmen policies. Jiangsu has sola PV p oduc ion plan s ha ha e among he
la ges capaci y in he wo ld and an ex ensi e supply chain o supplie companies and aw ma e ials inpu s.
Jiangsu is an eme ging echnology cen e, wi h R&D conduc ed by uni e si ies, i ms, and go e nmen
labo a o ies. The p o ince has se e al science pa ks wi h sola PV companies and R&D i ms. The massi e
inc ease in global demand o sola PV a e he mid-2000s, esul ing om he apid expansion o PV deploymen
in Ge many and o he coun ies, including China, led o he apid g ow h o he Jiangsu manu ac u ing clus e ,
which had much lowe labou cos s han de eloped coun ies. The p o incial go e nmen p o ided subsidies o
land, ins alla ion o ac o ies, elec ici y, and inance. Jiangsu also apidly scaled i s manu ac u ing capaci y and
buil an ex ensi e domes ic supply chain. Howe e , he glu in sola PV manu ac u ing in 2011 led o inancial
di icul ies, bank up cy, and consolida ion o he PV manu ac u ing indus y in Jiangsu. In addi ion, he Uni ed
S a es and he Eu opean Union imposed an i-dumping a i s on impo s o sola PV p oduc s om China
beginning in 2012, ad e sely a ec ing Jiangsu-based manu ac u e s. Following a wo-yea slump, he Jiangsu
sola PV manu ac u ing clus e began o eco e , helped by he g owing demand o sola PV ins alla ions in
China (Hill & Engel-Cox, 2017; Jäge sbe g & U e, 2017).
Ano he case is he de elopmen o he wind powe indus y in Jiangsu p o ince. He e al. (2016) ga e a de ailed
discussion on wind indus y clus e s in Jiangsu p o ince. Speci ically, h ee clus e s wi hin Jiangsu p o ince ha e
eme ged: Yancheng, Nan ong, and Lianyungang. Du ing he e olu ion p ocess o he h ee clus e s, a ela i ely
comple e wind powe equipmen indus y has aken shape, including blades, gea boxes, gene a o s, bea ings,
owe s, and con ol sys ems (Huang & Liu, 2017). The ich labou , ag icul u al, and mine al esou ces in his a ea
p o ide a labou o ce and aw ma e ials o indus ial de elopmen . Fu he mo e, he h ee-dimensional a ic
ne wo k, which is a combina ion o ailway, highway, po and ai , has ini ially o med, which can p o ide
con enien anspo a ion condi ions o he indus y. In addi ion, Jiangsu coas al a ea also possesses he la ges
o sho e adial sandbanks in he wo ld. Abou 70 adial sandbank an-shapely dis ibu e o he mid-coas line o
Jiangsu. Among hese sandbanks, he e a e abou 1300 km2 o o sho e shallows, whe e he a e age wind speed is
8.4 m/s a 70 m high, and he densi y o e ec i e wind ene gy a 70 m is abo e 400 W/m2; hus, he wind ene gy
can be used o gene a e powe all yea a ound. Jiangsu p o ince se e ely lacks con en ional ene gy; coal ese es
a e limi ed and une enly dis ibu ed. Jiangsu powe g id is a pu e he mal powe g id, wi h he ins alled capaci y
in 2013 being abou 76,200 MW, and he powe plan s wi hin he g id a e mainly coal- i ed ones, wi h a single
powe supply s uc u e; meanwhile, he coal p oduc ion capaci y o Jiangsu is limi ed, abou 80% o he coal
demand depends on i alloca ion and anspo a ion om ou side he p o ince. In ecen yea s, elec ic powe
companies o Jiangsu ha e in es ed 700 million yuan in he cons uc ion o wind powe in eg a ion p ojec s and
ca ied ou a numbe o echnical esea ch. The local powe g id can abso b 100% o wind powe gene a ed, bu
ce ain bu eauc a ic obs acles and lack o in es men hinde he de elopmen o his p ojec . The excessi e
in e en ion by he local go e nmen , de elopmen issues wi h wind-powe componen en e p ises, insu icien
independen echnology inno a ion, and an impe ec clus e de elopmen en i onmen ha e hinde ed heal hy
clus e de elopmen (He e al., 2016).
The ollowing case o sola ene gy de elopmen is Shandong p o ince, whe e a well-known indus y clus e has
been o med. I is home o Himin, he wo ld’s la ges sola wa e hea e s manu ac u e . In 2013, he e we e mo e
han 300 sola wa e hea e s manu ac u e s in Shandong, wi h an annual ou pu o mo e han 10 million hea e s,
comp ising o e 40% o he o al p oduc ion ou pu o he coun y. The sola he mal powe indus y has
es ablished a comple e indus y chain co e ing he p oduc ion o silica sand, ough pipe, acuum ubes, hea
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collec o s, and hea collec ing sys ems. Hal o he en ep esen a i e sola wa e hea e s en e p ises in China a e
loca ed in Shandong p o ince. A s ong indus ial ounda ion plays an impe a i e ole in p omo ing he use o
sola ene gy. The applica ion o sola ene gy is e y ad anced in many ci ies in Shandong p o ince, such as
Rizhao and Dezhou. Sola ene gy pene a es local people's e e yday li es and is widely applied in o he indus ies
such as pape making, machine y, and ex iles.
3.4. Renewable ene gy gene a ion and clus e pe o mance in he USA
3.4.1. O e iew o enewable ene gy gene a ion in he USA
In 2023, abou 4,178 billion kWh (o abou 4.18 illion kWh) o elec ici y was gene a ed a u ili y-scale
elec ici y gene a ion acili ies in he Uni ed S a es. Abou 60% o his elec ici y gene a ion was om ossil
uels—coal, na u al gas, pe oleum, and o he gases. Abou 19% was om nuclea ene gy, and abou 21% was
om enewable ene gy sou ces. Renewables: Wind – 10.2%; Hyd opowe – 5.7 5.7%; Sola - 3.9%; Biomass –
1,1%; Geo he mal - 0.4%. The U.S. Ene gy In o ma ion Adminis a ion es ima es ha an addi ional 73.62 billion
kWh o elec ici y gene a ion was om small-scale sola pho o ol aic sys ems in 2023 (EIA, 2024).
Figu e 3. Renewable ene gy gene a ion. Uni ed S a es
Sou ce: (Ou Wo ld in Da a, 2024e)
Cu en ly, six U.S. ci ies a e al eady unning on 100% enewable elec ici y: Aspen, Bu ling on, Geo ge own,
G eensbu g, Rock Po , and Kodiak Island. These ci ies a e all a he o e on o he clean ene gy ini ia i e (Hill
& Engel-Cox, 2017; Jäge sbe g & U e, 2017).
3.4.2. Renewable Ene gy Clus e s in USA
Cali o nia’s sola PV inno a ion clus e is a leading-edge echnology clus e ha cu en ly has no associa ed
la ge-scale manu ac u ing. The clus e o igina ed mo e han ou decades ago, d i en by s a e go e nmen policies
suppo ing sola . Cali o nia is a leade in sola PV elec ici y gene a ion, wi h a 5% sha e o global sola PV
cumula i e capaci y ins alled as o 2015. Inpu o he Cali o nia Resea ch Cen e s and Silicon Valley's en u e
capi al in es men in sola PV echnologies encou aged he es ablishmen o enewable ene gy clus e s. Howe e ,
Cali o nia’s cu en PV manu ac u ing ac i i y is limi ed o small-scale ab ica ion o p o o ypes o nex -
gene a ion sola PV echnologies. Al hough se e al mul ina ional sola PV companies ha e o ices in Cali o nia,
hei sola PV manu ac u ing p ima ily occu s o sho e in Asian coun ies.
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Cali o nia’s mo e han 40-yea -old sola PV clus e had a global i s -mo e ad an age d i en mainly by
conce ed and suppo i e policies by he s a e go e nmen . The s a e go e nmen has p o ided a numbe o
ma ke -based and inancial incen i es o e he las ou decades o encou age esiden ial and comme cial sola PV
ins alla ion. The ede al go e nmen ’s in es men ax c edi also s imula ed he ins alla ion o sola PV. Cali o nia
became a majo sola PV manu ac u ing cen e in he 1980s and 1990s when he Uni ed S a es was a majo global
sola PV manu ac u e . S a ing in he ea ly 2000s, Cali o nia los ma ke sha e o o he coun ies and U.S. s a es
as PV manu ac u ing ou side o Cali o nia d ama ically inc eased. Cali o nia also did no p o ide su icien
incen i es o manu ac u e s o main ain i s sola PV manu ac u ing base. Se e al o he U.S. s a es p o ided mo e
appealing ax and o he inancial incen i es. They success ully a ac ed sola PV manu ac u ing wi h
manu ac u ing cen es in Washing on, O egon, Michigan, and Mississippi, wi h he bulk o global manu ac u ing
in Asian coun ies (Hill & Engel-Cox, 2017; Jäge sbe g & U e, 2017).
The G ea Lakes egion comp ises eigh U.S. s a es - Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minneso a, New Yo k, Ohio,
Pennsyl ania, and Wisconsin—and he Canadian p o ince o On a io. The G ea Lakes egion has subs an ial
wind ene gy capaci y, wi h a 4% global sha e o cumula i e ins alled capaci y. The inno a ion clus e comp ises
esea ch ins i u es, uni e si ies, and indus ies ha pe o m o und wind ene gy R&D and echnological
de elopmen . The U.S. Depa men o Ene gy has unded wind R&D ac i i ies in se e al G ea Lakes s a es.
Wes e n Uni e si y in O awa has he wo ld's mos ad anced wind unnel. The G ea Lakes manu ac u ing clus e
p ima ily manu ac u es wind subcomponen s ha supply assembly plan s o he main componen s—blades,
nacelles, and owe s—loca ed in se e al s a es, including Texas, Iowa, and Colo ado, and in o he coun ies (Hill
& Engel-Cox, 2017; Jäge sbe g & U e, 2017).
Key echnology demand-side policies ha ha e suppo ed his wind clus e include he enewable po olio
s anda ds adop ed by he eigh G ea Lakes s a es and o he U.S. s a es, as well as O awa’s 2009–2013 eed-in
a i p og am. Go e nmen policies ha encou age manu ac u ing ha e included he U.S. go e nmen 's
in es men ax c edi and, a ious ax incen i es and o he p og ams implemen ed by he G ea Lakes s a es
du ing and ollowing he 2008–2009 ecession. O awa’s eed-in- a i p og am had a domes ic con en
equi emen ha spu ed he cons uc ion o wind manu ac u ing plan s. Some wind componen s (blades, owe s)
a e la ge and challenging o anspo hus p o iding an incen i e o be made wi hin he coun y o ins alla ion;
howe e , he subcomponen s wi hin he nacelle a e mo e easily anspo ed and he e en ion o he manu ac u ing
o hese echnologies appea s o be suppo ed by a s ong clus e o skilled labou and ele an supply chains. The
G ea Lakes egion’s p e-eminence in o he manu ac u ing indus ies—au omo i e, ab ica ed me al pa s, and
machine y manu ac u ing—played a key ole in he de elopmen o he wind indus y h ough he ans e o
echnology, use o skilled labou om hese indus ies, and use o con e sion o plan s in hese indus ies (Fulle
& Guo, 2017; Hill & Engel-Cox, 2017; Jäge sbe g & U e, 2017).
3.5. The enewable ene gy gene a ion and clus e s pe o mance in Ge many
3.5.1. O e iew o enewable ene gy sou ces in Ge many
Renewable ene gy in Ge many is mainly based on wind and biomass, plus sola and hyd o. Ge many had he
wo ld's la ges pho o ol aic ins alled capaci y un il 2014; as o 2023, i has o e 82 GW. I is also he wo ld's hi d
coun y by ins alled o al wind powe capaci y, 64 GW in 2021 (59 GW in 2018) and second o o sho e wind,
wi h o e 7 GW. Ge many has been called " he wo ld's i s majo enewable ene gy economy".
Ge many has been he global pionee in applying enewable ene gy and en i onmen al echnologies o decades.
In 2019, 46% o he coun y's elec ici y mix came om wind, sola , biomass and hyd oelec ic sou ces. Tha ’s up
5.6 pe cen age poin s o e 2018.
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Funding: The esea ch leading o hese esul s has ecei ed unding om he p ojec i led "Clus e o inno a i e ene gy" in
he ame o he p og am "HORIZON-MSCA-2022-SE-01" unde he G an ag eemen numbe 1011298205.
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion: Vaida Zemlickienė, Boumediene Am aoui, Najiba El Am ani El Id issi;
me hodology: Vaida Zemlickienė, Boumediene Am aoui, Najiba El Am ani El Id issi; da a analysis: Vaida Zemlickienė,
Boumediene Am aoui, Najiba El Am ani El Id issi; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion: Vaida Zemlickienė, Boumediene
Am aoui, Najiba El Am ani El Id issi; w i ing e iew and edi ing: Vaida Zemlickienė, Boumediene Am aoui, Najiba El
Am ani El Id issi; isualiza ion: Vaida Zemlickienė, Boumediene Am aoui, Najiba El Am ani El Id issi. All au ho s ha e
ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Boumediene AMRAOUI, since 1992, has been wo king a Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdelah Uni e si y. He is a senio
adminis a o a he Facul y o Science and Technology o Fes. He ecei ed his mas e 's deg ee in law om he Facul y o
Legal, Economic, and Social Sciences o Fez and s udied a he same acul y o a doc o al deg ee. A eas o scien i ic in e es
a e en i onmen al law, ansi ion p ocesses o a g een economy, and he pe o mance o clus e s in Mo occo. He is a membe
o he Na ional O ice o he Mo occan Associa ion o Vic ims o A bi a y Expulsion om Alge ia (AMVEAA).
ORCID ID: h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0001-5461-2721
Vaida ZEMLICKIENĖ wo ks a Vilnius Gediminas Uni e si y o Technology, Facul y o C ea i e Indus ies, as an
associa e p o esso and a he Ins i u e o Sus ainable Cons uc ion as a senio esea ch ellow. In 2015, he de ended his PhD
wo k on he opic "E alua ion o he comme cial po en ial o echnologies". A eas o scien i ic in e es include he e alua ion
o he comme cial po en ial o echnologies, he echnology comme cializa ion p ocess, he e alua ion o he expediency o
ad e ising o ma s, and managing enewable ene gy.
ORCID ID: h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-0882-2864
Najiba EL AMRANI EL IDRISSI is a ull- ime p o esso a he Labo a o y o Signals, Sys ems and Componen s,
Uni e si y o Sidi Mohamed bin Abdellah, Mo occo. She ecei ed he PhD in Elec o echnics and Powe Elec onics om
he Mohammedia School o Enginee ing in Mo occo in 2004. She g adua ed as an Enginee in he Elec ical Enginee ing
special y o Compu e Sys ems in 1984. He esea ch in e es s include elec ical enginee ing, ICT, and elec ical powe
elec onics.
ORCID ID: h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0001-5603-1306
This is pee - e iewed scien i ic jou nal h ps://jssidoi.o g/i d/page/pee - e iew-policy
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