Deliverable D2.2 Mapping the existing planning and governance practices and business frameworks

P ojec numbe : F-DUT-2022-0088
D i ing Equi able and Accessible 15 Minu e
Neighbou hood T ans o ma ions
WP2. Re iew and compa a i e analysis
T2.2 Mapping he exis ing planning and go e nance p ac ices and business amewo k
Deli e able D2.2
Mapping he exis ing planning and go e nance p ac ices
and business amewo ks.
Da e: 03/17/2025
Responsible pa ne : L’Ins i u Pa is Region (IPR)
Au ho s:
Élie Gui on, L’Ins i u Pa is Region (IPR)
Flo ian Tedeschi, L’Ins i u Pa is Region (IPR)
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DOCUMENT CHANGE RECORD
Ve sion Da e S a us Au ho Desc ip ion
0.5 10/31/2024 D a
Élie Gui on, Flo ian
Tedeschi (IPR)
1 11/29/2024 D a Élie Gui on, Flo ian
Tedeschi (IPR)
1.9 12/20/2024 Almos inal
e sion
Élie Gui on, Flo ian
Tedeschi (IPR)
A e e iew om UT
2 02/19/2025 Final e sion Élie Gui on, Flo ian
Tedeschi (IPR)
A e e iew om
Mpac and VUB
2.1 03/17/2025 Final e sion Élie Gui on, Flo ian
Tedeschi (IPR) Wi h co ec ions in
e e ences and
acknowledgemen s
The DUT Pa ne ship is suppo ed by he Eu opean Commission and unded unde he Ho izon Eu ope
co- unded Pa ne ship scheme (Topic HORIZON-CL5-2021-D2-01-16).
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................................. 3
LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................................... 6
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................... 8
SUMMARY ..................................................................................................................................... 9
INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 12
1. CAR-SHARING IN A 15-MINUTE CITY NEIGHBOURHOOD ......................................... 14
1.1. Backg ound and de ini ion o ca -sha ing, and i s po en ial use in a 15mC neighbou hood ..... 14
1.2. Di e en ypes o ca -sha ing se ices ................................................................................................................... 15
1.3. Go e nance o ca -sha ing se ices .......................................................................................................................... 15
1.3.1. Round- ip ca -sha ing go e nance ............................................................................................16
1.3.2. F ee- loa ing and one-way s a ion-based ca -sha ing go e nances ............................................26
1.3.3. Pee - o-pee ca -sha ing go e nance.........................................................................................30
1.4. Business models o ca -sha ing se ices ............................................................................................................... 32
1.4.1. Round- ip ca -sha ing business models ....................................................................................32
1.4.2. F ee- loa ing and one-way s a ion-based ca -sha ing business models ......................................37
1.4.3. Pee - o-pee ca -sha ing business models .................................................................................40
1.5. Recommenda ions o ca -sha ing se ices in a 15mC neighbou hood................................................ 43
1.6. O e iew o ca -sha ing se ices o he 15mC neighbou hood ............................................................... 45
1.7. Summa y o ca -sha ing good p ac ices o 15mC neighbou hoods....................................................... 47
2. SHARED MICROMOBILITY IN A 15-MINUTE CITY NEIGHBOURHOOD ...................... 50
2.1. Backg ound and de ini ion o sha ed mobili y, and i s po en ial use in a 15mC neighbou hood
50
2.2. Di e en ypes o se ices ( ehicles, sys ems) ................................................................................................... 52
2.3. Go e nance o sha ed mic omobili y se ices .................................................................................................... 54
2.4. Business models o sha ed mic omobili y se ices ......................................................................................... 55
2.4.1. To subsidize o no o subsidize, ha is he ques ion .................................................................55
2.4.2. Some key da a on sys em sizing and uses ..................................................................................56
2.5. Recommenda ions o sha ed mic omobili y se ices in a 15mC neighbou hood ......................... 58
2.6. O e iew o sha ed mic omobili y se ices o he 15mC neighbou hood......................................... 60
2.7. Summa y o sha ed mic omobili y good p ac ices o 15mC neighbou hoods................................. 62
3. CARPOOLING IN A 15-MINUTE CITY NEIGHBOURHOOD ........................................... 64
3.1. Backg ound and de ini ion o ca pooling, and i s po en ial use in a 15mC neighbou hood....... 64
Di e en .................................................................................................................................................................................. 65
3.2. ypes o se ices o ca pooling .................................................................................................................................... 65
3.2.1. Dedica ed ca pool lanes ............................................................................................................65
3.2.2. Ca pooling pa ks .......................................................................................................................66
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3.2.3. Ma chmaking pla o ms ............................................................................................................67
3.2.4. Ca pooling ou es ......................................................................................................................67
3.2.5. O he bene i s o ca poole s ....................................................................................................68
3.3. Go e nance o ca pooling se ices ........................................................................................................................... 69
3.3.1. Dedica ed ca pool lanes ............................................................................................................69
3.3.2. Ca pooling pa ks .......................................................................................................................69
3.3.3. Ma chmaking pla o ms ............................................................................................................69
3.3.4. Ca pooling ou es ......................................................................................................................69
3.4. Business models o ca pooling se ices ................................................................................................................. 69
3.4.1. Dedica ed ca pool lanes ............................................................................................................69
3.4.2. Ca pooling pa ks .......................................................................................................................69
3.4.3. Ma chmaking pla o ms ............................................................................................................70
3.4.4. Ca pooling ou es ......................................................................................................................71
3.5. O e iew o ca pooling se ices o he 15mC neighbou hood ................................................................ 73
4. DEMAND-RESPONSIVE TRANSPORT IN A 15-MINUTE CITY NEIGHBOURHOOD .... 74
4.1. Backg ound and de ini ion o demand- esponsi e anspo , and i s po en ial use in a 15mC
neighbou hood .................................................................................................................................................................................... 74
4.2. Di e en ype o se ices o demand- esponsi e anspo ........................................................................ 77
4.3. Go e nance o demand- esponsi e anspo .................................................................................................... 80
4.4. Business models o demand- esponsi e se ices ............................................................................................. 82
4.5. Recommenda ions o demand- esponsi e anspo in a 15mC neighbou hood .......................... 86
4.6. O e iew o demand- esponsi e anspo o he 15mC neighbou hood ......................................... 87
4.7. Summa y o demand- esponsi e anspo good p ac ices o 15mC neighbou hoods .............. 89
5. FLEXIBLE (POP-UP) ACTIVITY HUBS IN A 15-MINUTE CITY NEIGHBOURHOOD ...... 90
5.1. Backg ound and de ini ion o lexible (pop-up) ac i i y hubs, and hei po en ial use in a 15mC
neighbou hood .................................................................................................................................................................................... 90
5.2. Di e en ypes o lexible ac i i y hubs .................................................................................................................. 90
5.2.1. Di e si ica ion o se ices o e ed in loca ions ha al eady ha e a ine e i o ial ne wo k ........90
5.2.2. Mobile shops and se ices .........................................................................................................91
5.3. Go e nance o lexible ac i i y hubs......................................................................................................................... 93
5.4. Business models o lexible ac i i y hubs .............................................................................................................. 94
5.5. Recommenda ions o lexible ac i i y hubs in a 15mC neighbou hood .............................................. 94
5.6. O e iew o lexible ac i i y hubs o he 15mC neighbou hood ............................................................. 95
6. MOBILITY HUBS IN A 15-MINUTE CITY NEIGHBOURHOOD ....................................... 96
6.1. Backg ound and de ini ion o mobili y hubs, and hei po en ial use in a 15mC neighbou hood
96
6.2. Di e en ypes o mobili y hubs ................................................................................................................................. 98
6.3. Go e nance o mobili y hubs .................................................................................................................................... 102
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6.4. Business models o mobili y hubs .......................................................................................................................... 105
6.5. Recommenda ions o mobili y hubs in a 15mC neighbou hood .......................................................... 107
6.6. O e iew o mobili y hubs o he 15mC neighbou hood ......................................................................... 108
6.7. Summa y o mobili y hubs good p ac ices o 15mC neighbou hoods............................................... 109
CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................ 111
REFERENCES .............................................................................................................................. 113
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................... 121
LIST OF ACRONYMS ................................................................................................................ 122

LIST OF FIGURES
Figu e 1: In e ac ions be ween se en wo k packages o he DREAMS p ojec ................................... 13
Figu e 2: Illus a ion o he STOP p inciple om he Good Mo e plan ................................................ 17
Figu e 3: Ca -sha ing s a ion implemen a ion zones based on public anspo accessibili y zones
................................................................................................................................................................................. 18
Figu e 4: A Cambio ca -sha ing s a ion in a s ee o B ussels ............................................................... 20
Figu e 5: A Claus2you ca -sha ing s a ion in Izegem, Wes Flande s in 2022 .................................... 22
Figu e 6: The “Île-de-F ance Au opa age” label s icke .......................................................................... 24
Figu e 7: A Poppy ee- loa ing ca in a s ee o B ussels ....................................................................... 26
Figu e 8: An Au olib' s a ion in Pa is in 2012 ............................................................................................... 28
Figu e 9: F ee2Mo e ehicles in Pa is in 2018 ............................................................................................. 29
Figu e 10: Wo lwide dis ibu ion o bike-sha ing sys em ......................................................................... 51
Figu e 11: A Velib' s a ion wi h docks ............................................................................................................ 52
Figu e 12: A Fi een s a ion ha can accommoda e se e al bikes in a single dock ........................... 53
Figu e 13: F edo's ligh weigh sys em wi h connec ed padlock ............................................................. 53
Figu e 14: Ra io o numbe o s a ions and bicycles acco ding o he densi y o he a ea ............. 57
Figu e 15: Use o sha ed bikes in I aly in 2019 ............................................................................................. 58
Figu e 16: Dedica ed bus and ca pooling lane on he C-31 in Ba celona ............................................. 66
Figu e 17: Ca pooling a ea a l'Isle-Adam, Île-de-F ance ......................................................................... 67
Figu e 18: Ca pooling ou es deployed in he G enoble conu ba ion .................................................. 68
Figu e 19: The DRT Flexa ehicles ope a ing in he subu bs o Leipzig ha e elec ic ehicles
adap ed o people wi h educed mobili y .................................................................................................. 75
Figu e 20: De Mobil DRT se ice in Eas Ty ol ............................................................................................ 77
Figu e 21: T ade-o s be ween lexibili y and demand agg ega ion by he a ious DRT sys ems 78
Figu e 22: Se ice comp omise be ween cos e iciency, lexibili y, and eliabili y........................... 79
Figu e 23: DRT planning and implemen a ion p ocess ............................................................................. 82
Figu e 24: Ca alan DRT se ice Clic.Ca ope a es an elec ic bus ........................................................... 84
Figu e 25: In Luxembou g, he Bummelbus DRT se ice helps people who a e a om
employmen o ain as bus d i e s ............................................................................................................... 85
Figu e 26: Wes To ens Mobile Lib a y ........................................................................................................ 91
Figu e 27: The Mammobus in Île-de-F ance ................................................................................................ 91
Figu e 28: A esh p oduce selle on he o ecou o an SNCF s a ion ................................................ 92
Figu e 29: The “ i uck”, a mobile gym in Pa is ........................................................................................ 93
Figu e 30: The pop-up ma ke in Gabian (F ance) is announced by loudspeake s h oughou he
illage ..................................................................................................................................................................... 94
Figu e 31: A mobil.punk in B emen wi h i s ypical column ................................................................... 98
Figu e 32: A Hoppin poin wi h i s column in Temse, Flande s .............................................................. 99
Figu e 33: The columns o Hoppin poin s wi h hei s anda dised ho izon al and e ical signs 101
Figu e 34: The hub o Gie en in he G oningen P o ince ....................................................................... 103
Figu e 35: A buu hub in Ams e dam .......................................................................................................... 104
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Use o ound- ip ca -sha ing in he B ussels-Capi al Region ................................................. 20
Table 2: Round- ip ca -sha ing go e nance in he B ussels-Capi al Region (IPR, 2024)................ 21
Table 3: Round- ip ca -sha ing go e nance in Flande s ......................................................................... 22
Table 4: Go e nance o ound- ip ca -sha ing in he Pa is Region ...................................................... 25
Table 5: Use o ee- loa ing ca -sha ing in he B ussels-Capi al Region ............................................ 27
Table 6: Go e nance o ee- loa ing ca -sha ing in he B ussels-Capi al Region ............................. 27
Table 7: Go e nance o ee- loa ing ca -sha ing in Flande s ................................................................. 27
Table 8: Go e nance o one-way s a ion-based ca -sha ing in he Pa is Region .............................. 28
Table 9: Go e nance o ee- loa ing ca -sha ing in he Pa is Region .................................................. 30
Table 10: Pee - o-pee ca -sha ing go e nance in he B ussels-Capi al Region ................................ 31
Table 11: Pee - o-pee ca -sha ing go e nance in Flande s ..................................................................... 31
Table 12: Pee - o-pee ca -sha ing go e nance in he Pa is Region ..................................................... 32
Table 13: Round- ip ca -sha ing business models in he B ussels-Capi al Region ........................... 33
Table 14: Round- ip ca -sha ing business models in Flande s .............................................................. 35
Table 15: Round- ip ca -sha ing business models in he Pa is Region................................................ 36
Table 16: Summa y o good p ac ices o sha ed mic omobili y............................................................ 63
Table 17: O e iew o ca pooling se ices o he 15mC in u ban ou ski s ........................................ 73
Table 19: Summa y o Eu opean p ojec s and p og ams ela ed o DRT ............................................. 76
Table 20: O e iew o demand- esponsi e anspo o he 15mC in u ban ou ski s ................... 88
Table 21: Summa y o demand- esponsi e anspo good p ac ices .................................................. 89
Table 22: O e iew o lexible ac i i y hubs o he 15mC in u ban ou ski s ..................................... 95
Table 24: Summa y o Eu opean p ojec s and p og ams ela ed o mobili y hubs .......................... 97
Table 25: Summa y o he hub ne wo ks s udied in his epo ............................................................. 99
Table 26: Summa y o he ca ego ies o mobili y hubs iden i ied du ing he ocus g oups o he
eHubs p ojec (sou ce: Seeuws, 2022) ......................................................................................................... 106
Table 27: O e iew o mobili y hubs ne wo ks o he 15mC in u ban ou ski s ............................. 108
Table 28: Summa y o mobili y hubs good p ac ices ............................................................................... 110
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SUMMARY
In he u ban ou ski s o mos Eu opean ci ies, low popula ion densi y, single-use zoning and a ca -
cen ic u ban en i onmen a e a odds wi h he 15-minu e ci y (15mC) model, which is “based on he
idea ha ci y dwelle s should be able o co e he as majo i y o hei daily needs wi hin a 15-minu e
adius, by walking and cycling, while connec ing o u he dis ic s and a elling la ge dis ances by
o he o ms o sus ainable anspo ” (DUT, 2023). While his model, which has been adop ed by majo
ci ies a ound he wo ld, (Pa is, Milan, Dublin, Valencia, Po land, O awa, Melbou ne, e c.) is o en
limi ed o u ban cen es, i can o some ex en be adap ed o a pe i-u ban con ex . The aim o he
DREAMS p ojec is o con ibu e o c ea ing accessible, sus ainable, and inclusi e 15mC
neighbou hoods, o 15mN (A ias Molina es e al., 2024), in he u ban ou ski s o Eu opean ci ies and
egions. This epo desc ibes six ypes o policies ha can help mo e owa ds he 15mC model in u ban
ou ski s: ca -sha ing, sha ed mic omobili y, ca pooling, demand- esponsi e se ices, lexible (pop-up)
ac i i y hubs and mobili y hubs. Based on a compa a i e analysis o 15mC li es yles in a ious low- o
mid-densi y a eas, i ocuses on go e nance amewo ks and business models o inno a i e sha ed
mobili y se ices and lexible ac i i y hubs.
While ca -sha ing is de eloping mo e and mo e in he cen es o majo ci ies, whe e public anspo
and al e na i es o he ca a e mo e plen i ul, i is also possible o de elop some ca -sha ing se ices on
he ou ski s o ci ies wi h a balanced economic model, in ce ain cases and unde ce ain condi ions.
These se ices can be cos -e ec i e i he local au ho i y al eady has a policy o limi ing ca use and
owne ship, i subsidies o ax exemp ions a e a ailable, e c. Among he di e en ypes o ca -sha ing,
ound- ip ca -sha ing is bes sui ed o de eloping in spa sely popula ed a eas, o e ing amilies
al e na i es o ca owne ship and encou aging hem o adop a mo e mul imodal and local li es yle.
Round- ip ca -sha ing in esiden ial buildings, in conjunc ion wi h he home-owne associa ions, is a
good way o o e ing al e na i es o ca s o esiden s who don' own one and eeing up public space
o a mo e e icien use o space. This ca -sha ing model looks p omising bu is s ill in an eme ging
phase. F ee- loa ing ope a o s ha e no in e es in o e ing hei se ices in hese a eas and mus
concen a e on dense a eas o be economically iable. I is he e o e necessa y o allow ope a o s o
ope a e in p o i able a eas so ha hey ag ee o ex end hei se ice o he u ban ou ski s. Combined
ca -sha ing (a ca -sha ing scheme ha o e s bo h ound- ip and ee- loa ing se ices) could be a
solu ion ha combines he eliabili y o ound- ip ca -sha ing wi h he lexibili y o ee- loa ing,
sa is ying a a ie y o needs o egula use s who don' own a ca bu need one occasionally.
Coope a i e, non-p o i , and pee - o-pee ca -sha ing models a e less widesp ead bu can be
implemen ed in spa sely popula ed a eas hanks o he willingness and knowledge o ci izens. Employe
subsidies and ax exemp ions can encou age employees o swi ch o ca -sha ing. Employe s’ inancial
pa icipa ion can enable ope a o s o ind an economic balance in a eas whe e demand is lowe , wi hou
equi ing excessi e public unding. A good pa ne ship be ween he anspo au ho i y, municipali ies,
employe s, ci izens, and ope a o s is he key o success o a balanced subu ban ca -sha ing sys em wi h
li le o no public subsidy.
Sha ed mic omobili y also ends o be concen a ed in u ban cen es. S a ion-based bike-sha ing
schemes a e he mos widesp ead, bu also he mos es ic i e and he mos subsidised by local
au ho i ies. Al hough hey may ha e inc eased he isibili y o hese al e na i es o he ca , sys ems o
his ype ied ou on he u ban ou ski s a e expensi e o limi ed use. P i a e ee- loa ing bicycle and
e-scoo e se ices gene ally ope a e wi hou subsidy, which leads o much highe p ices and may
exclude an impo an pa o he popula ion om he se ice i no social a i is p oposed. Good dialogue
wi h local au ho i ies makes i possible o impose ules and con ols, bu ope a o s deploy hei se ices
in he mos p o i able, densely popula ed a eas, whe e hey a e mo e likely o eplace jou neys made on
oo o by public anspo han by ca . Some local au ho i ies end o edi ec hei unds owa ds he
de elopmen o cycle in as uc u e and bike pa king, which a e necessa y o ac i e mobili ies, whe he
sha ed o no . Despi e his, ligh e o s a ion- ee and less expensi e mic omobili y sys ems such as
Fi een o F edo, can ind hei place in u ban ou ski s. Inno a i e, low-cos , o communi y-based
business models, such as Pony, migh make his possible. On he o he hand, i possible, a sys em
deployed on a global basis in he ci y cen e and i s ou ski s may enable a sa is ac o y comp omise o
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p o ides an o e iew o he a ious con igu a ions and deg ees o p og ess in he de elopmen o ca -
sha ing se ices and p ac ices. The con ex s di e g ea ly be ween he B ussels-Capi al Region, he
Flemish Region and he Pa is Region (Île-de-F ance).
1.3.1. Round- ip ca -sha ing go e nance
1.3.1.1. Round- ip ca -sha ing go e nance in he B ussels-Capi al Region
The B ussels-Capi al Region (BCR) is he egion o Belgium ha includes B ussels, he coun y's capi al.
I is one o he h ee egions ha make up Belgium, which is a ede al s a e. I has a popula ion o 1.2
million o e an a ea o 161 km² (a densi y o 7,700 inhabi an s pe km²) and is made up o 19
municipali ies.
The Region is esponsible o se e al a eas, including egional planning, en i onmen and anspo . In
2020, i published he Good Mo e plan, i s 2020-2030 Regional Mobili y Plan (SUMP). This ambi ious,
c oss- unc ional plan was de eloped h ough a pa icipa o y p ocess. I op s o a pleasan and sa e ci y,
made up o peace ul neighbou hoods linked by in e modal s ee s, and cen ed on e icien public
anspo and smoo he a ic low (B uxelles Mobili é, 2021). The main elemen s o he plan in ol e
he ollowing six dimensions: Good Neighbou hood ( o imp o e he quali y o li e on he neighbou hood
le el), Good Ne wo k ( o o ganise anspo ne wo ks and o ensu e e icien se ices) Good Se ice ( o
imp o e he in eg a ed se ices o he Region by de eloping he egion’s MaaS pla o m), Good
Choice ( o guide indi idual and collec i e choices, wi hou ha ming indi idual eedom h ough
changing and challenging mobili y beha iou ), Good Pa ne ( o ensu e pa ne ship go e nance o he
mobili y plan be ween he BCR and ede al go e nmen s, municipali ies and local s akeholde s) and
Good Knowledge ( o upda e mobili y da a and egula ly assess he Good Mo e plan) (Esz e gá -Kiss,
Aba, 2024).
I s ac ion plan p oposes se e al measu es ha can be linked o he concep o he 15mC. Fo example,
a ic-calmed neighbou hoods ha e been c ea ed wi h a modi ied a ic plan ha p e en s h ough-
a ic, he speed limi has been lowe ed o 30 km/h and public spaces a e being eno a ed o p omo e
sa e y, com o and a ac i eness. The e is a gene al objec i e o link u ban de elopmen o mobili y
o e . A low-emission zone has been in oduced o imp o e ai quali y. The Good Mo e plan also aims o
o e see and suppo he de elopmen o Mobili y as a Se ice (MaaS) and sha ed mobili y se ices in
he B ussels-Capi al Region. The MaaS Floya applica ion was launched in 2023. I is impo an o poin
ou ha echnical in eg a ion in o MaaS pla o ms comes a a signi ican cos o ope a o s. They may
be eluc an o pay o hese de elopmen s wi hou he gua an ee o selling mo e jou neys using he
MaaS pla o m. One way o implemen ing a MaaS ha would b ing oge he all mobili y ope a o s would
be o se up a inancial incen i e p o ided by he go e nmen , which would co e (pa o ) he
implemen a ion cos s (Bague , 2024).
The STOP1 p inciple, i s implemen ed in Flande s as a egion-wide policy, means ha , when i comes
o public spaces design, p io i y is gi en o pedes ians, hen cyclis s, hen public anspo and inally
ca s. S ee a e specialised o c ea e i e s uc u ing ne wo ks (pedes ians, cyclis s, public anspo ,
ca s, and hea y goods ehicles) (see Figu e 2).
1 STOP is a Du ch ac onym o S appe s, T appe s, Openbaa e oe , P i é e oe (pedes ians, cyclis s, public
anspo , p i a e anspo ) indica ing he o de o p io i y o modes o anspo .

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Figu e 2: Illus a ion o he STOP p inciple om he Good Mo e plan (© Tous à Pied) (see 1.3.1.1)
Ca -sha ing in B ussels is being de eloped and encou aged as pa o he Good Mo e plan (Ac ion C.11).
The BCR o ganises and egula es ca -sha ing, which is implemen ed by p i a e ope a o s. I in oduced
he “B uxell’Ai ” bonus o esiden s who de egis e hei license pla e. Unde ce ain condi ions, hese
people can bene i om a bonus ( he amoun o which is de e mined acco ding o income) ha mus be
spen on al e na i e mobili y op ions o he p i a e ca , including ca -sha ing. Th ee ypes o ca -sha ing
sys ems coexis in he Region: ound- ip ca -sha ing, ee- loa ing and, o a lesse ex en , pee - o-pee .
B ussels Mobili y ( he egion anspo au ho i y) is cu en ly conduc ing a s udy o assess he
complemen a i y o hese di e en ypes o ca -sha ing.
To ope a e a ound- ip ca -sha ing se ice, ope a o s mus ob ain app o al om he BCR and mee
se e al condi ions. These condi ions make i possible o ensu e ha he e is a good ne wo k o s a ions
in he Region, so ha he sha ed ca s a e sp ead h oughou he e i o y. In ac , a ca -sha ing se ice
is mo e p o i able o an ope a o in he denses u ban a eas, whe e households a e less mo o ised and
whe e al e na i es o he ca a e mo e de eloped, pa icula ly wi h a be e public anspo o e .
Howe e , i is in he a eas u hes om public anspo , which a e mo e dependen on he ca , ha he
challenge o ge ing people ou o hei ca s is g ea es , and whe e ca -sha ing is mo e ele an .
S a ions a e dis ibu ed using a a ing sys em based on he public anspo accessibili y zones se ou
in he Regional U ban Planning Regula ions (RUPR). These egula ions dis inguish be ween h ee ypes
o zones: e y good public anspo accessibili y (A), good accessibili y (B) and a e age accessibili y
(C) (see Figu e 3).
The BCR pa king agency, Pa king B ussels, assigns each s a ion a sco e acco ding o he public anspo
accessibili y zone in which i is loca ed: 3 o zone A, 2 o zone B and 0 o zone C. To ob ain i s i e-
yea app o al, a ound- ip ca -sha ing ope a o mus ins all i s s a ions in such a way as o ha e an
18
a e age sco e less han o equal o 2. . This means ha hey can se up s a ions in p o i able a eas bu
mus always o e s a ions in less p o i able a eas. The ope a o 's sco e is eassessed e e y i e yea s
when i s licence is enewed. The sco e is e-e alua ed based on he s a ions opened a e app o al was
g an ed.
Figu e 3: Ca -sha ing s a ion implemen a ion zones based on public anspo accessibili y zones
(sou ce: B ussels Mobili y, B ussels-Capi al Region, ansla ion: IPR) (see 1.3.1.1)
19
To ob ain app o al, he ope a o mus p o ide a lee o ehicles o di e en ypes: ci y, amily and
comme cial. This makes i possible o o e a ca -sha ing se ice ha mee s a ange o needs, wi h
di e en models o ehicle o di e en a ge g oups. The ehicles mus be ecen and comply wi h
ce ain Ecosco e s anda ds (o e all sco e combining ai pollu an emissions, g eenhouse gases
emissions and noise pollu ion). The ope a o mus ensu e a high le el o a ailabili y: a leas 90% o
ese a ion eques s made 24 hou s in ad ance mus be me . Rese a ions, ope a ion, and elephone
assis ance a e a ailable 24 hou s a day, 7 days a week.
Each yea , ca -sha ing ope a o s mus p o ide B ussels Mobili y wi h ope a ing da a on he numbe o
ehicles sha ed, he numbe o cus ome s, he numbe o ese a ions, he cha ac e is ics o he
jou neys made and he demand co e age a e (di e ence be ween demand and supply).
Pa king.B ussels p oduces an annual epo on ca -sha ing wi h his da a. B ussels Mobili y has se up
an obse a o y which ca ies ou su eys o assess he p og ess o he Good Mo e plan. Be ween 2022
and 2023, he p opo ion households owning a ca will all om 45.5% o 44.2%, due in pa o he
inc ease o al e na i es o he p i a e ca , such as ca -sha ing. This decline hides a signi ican dispa i y
be ween cen al and subu ban municipali ies, wi h municipali ies on he ou ski s being mo e equipped
wi h ca s. (B uxelles Mobili é, 2024). In 2021, ca -sha ing was he second mos popula mode o
anspo , wi h a sa is ac ion sco e o 7.6/10, behind ide-hailing se ices (8), bu ahead o sha ed
mopeds (7.1), sha ed bikes (6.9), ain (6.6), u ban public anspo (6.4), walking and cycling (6). Use s
app ecia e he ease o booking jou neys, he eeling o sa e y in ela ion o he isk o agg ession, he
cos o use and he jou ney imes (ou side ush hou ). (B uxelles Mobili é, 2023).
The BCR's objec i e was o ha e 2% o he egional popula ion using ca -sha ing by 2020. This
ep esen s 25,000 use s and 800 ehicles, o oughly one ca o e e y 30 people (Pa king.B ussels,
2024). To ensu e he geog aphical dis ibu ion o he sha ed ca s, hese 800 ehicles we e dis ibu ed
among he 19 municipali ies acco ding o hei popula ion. Fo example, he municipali y o Koekelbe g,
wi h i s popula ion o 20,000, was o deploy 15 ehicles be ween 2013 and 2020, while he municipali y
o B ussels, wi h i s popula ion o 158,000, was o deploy 116 ehicles.
In 2013, each municipali y in he BCR had o d aw up a ca -sha ing ac ion plan (CSAP) o 2020, in
collabo a ion wi h Pa king B ussels and in consul a ion wi h app o ed ope a o s. These CSAP include a
diagnosis o he exis ing ca -sha ing se ices, a deploymen scena io and he loca ions o he s a ions
and he ime able o b inging hem in o se ice. The ope a o s apply o he local au ho i ies o pa king
spaces in he a eas iden i ied o ca -sha ing s a ions, which a e hen made a ailable ee o cha ge.
Wi hin i e yea s o ecei ing app o al, an ope a o mus ha e 30 s a ions and 75 sha ed ehicles.
The oad au ho i y ( he local au ho i y o he BCR, depending on whe he i is a local o egional oad)
is esponsible o main aining he ca -sha ing s a ions (Gou e nemen de la Région de B uxelles-
Capi ale, 2013). They a e also esponsible o he cos s o egula o y signage, in pa icula he egula o y
sign and oad ma kings. The app o ed ope a o bea s he cos s o equipping he ca -sha ing s a ions,
including ins alla ion, main enance, and eplacemen o equipmen whe e necessa y. Elec ical
ins alla ion cos s a e always bo ne by he ope a o .
I is in e es ing o no e ha he a ing sys em makes i possible o c ea e a ne wo k o ca -sha ing
s a ions ac oss he egion, bu ha i is no enough o achie e a numbe o s a ions p opo ional o he
municipal popula ion. In some municipali ies he a ge s ha e been signi ican ly exceeded (161% in
Wa e mael-Boi s o , 156% in Sain -Gilles, 152% in E e beek, e c.), while in o he s he a ge has been
signi ican ly missed (29% in Molenbeek-Sain -Jean, 42% in E e e, 47% in Koekelbe g, e c.). I seems
ha his is no due o he cen al na u e o he municipali y: some municipali ies close o he hea o
he u ban co e ha e ewe ca -sha ing s a ions han o he s wi h a lowe popula ion densi y, and ice
e sa. I he e o e seems o be a ques ion o poli ical choices made by municipali ies ha a e mo e o
less a ou able o ca -sha ing.
In F ance, he public using ca -sha ing ends o be male, middle-aged, u ban, educa ed, in employmen ,
com o able wi h digi al echnology, and ela i ely well-o (T auchessec e al. 2022). These
cha ac e is ics a e also ound in Belgium, al hough i should be no ed ha he p opo ion o women
among P2P ca -sha ing use s (61%) is signi ican ly highe han ha o men (Au odelen.ne , 2023). In
20
he BCR, a G een Deal Inclusi e Ca -sha ing has been launched o make ca -sha ing mo e accessible o
ulne able a ge g oups such as senio ci izens, people wi h educed mobili y, low-income households,
single-pa en amilies, e c. The G een Deal Inclusi e Ca -sha ing esul ed in a cha e , 34 signa o ies and
he o mula ion o 178 ac ions. A G een Deal Academy has been se up o o ganise ca -sha ing exchange
days o ulne able a ge g oups (Au odelen.ne , 2024).
Two ound- ip ca -sha ing ope a o s a e licensed in he BCR: Cambio and Ge a ound. Cambio s a ions
and ehicles a e a ailable in he BCR as long as in many Belgian ci ies and u al a eas (see Figu e 4).
Al hough Ge a ound mainly is a pee - o-pee ca -sha ing ope a o , i also has a licence o ound- ip
s a ions, mainly loca ed in he B ussels municipali y. Cambio and Ge a ound use s can bene i om he
B uxell’Ai bonus ha can be spen on al e na i e mobili y op ions o he p i a e ca , including ca -
sha ing (B uxelles En i onnemen , 2024) (see 1.3.1.1). Cambio and Ge a ound ha e seen signi ican
g ow h in ecen yea s, b inging he numbe o subsc ibe s o 33,000 o he wo o e s combined (+29%
be ween 2021 and 2023), wi h 309 s a ions (+33%), 1,007 spaces (+28% and 368,000 ese a ions
(+22%), equi alen o 1,000 pe day (Pa king.B ussels, 2024).
Figu e 4: A Cambio ca -sha ing s a ion in a s ee o B ussels (© Cambio) (see 1.3.1.1)
Ope a o Use s in
2023 (% on
2021)
S a ions in
2023 (% on
2021)
Ca -sha ing
spaces in
2023 (% on
2021)
Rese a ions
in 2023 (% on
2021)
Rese a ions
pe day in
2023 (% on
2021)
Cambio 31,183
(+28%) 293 (+28 %) 976 (+34%) 364,844
(+22%) 1,000 (+22%)
Ge a ound 1,747
(+46%) 16 (+25%) 31 (+23%) 3,204 (+59%) 9 (+60%)
TOTAL 33,130
(+29%) 309 (+28%) 1,007
(+33%)
368,048
(+22%) 1,008 (+22%)
Table 1: Use o ound- ip ca -sha ing in he B ussels-Capi al Region
Sou ces: Pa king.B ussels, Cambio, Ge a ound; analyses: IPR, 2024
21
Ca -sha ing
ope a o
(numbe o
s a ions)
Condi ions o
ope a ion S a ion loca ions S a ions u ban
en i onmen
Cambio
(293)
Licence o ope a e
awa ded by he
anspo au ho i y
which se s ehicle
speci ica ions and
ope a ing ules:
ehicle a ailabili y
a e, 24/7 se ice,
obliga ion o
ansmi da a o he
anspo au ho i y,
e c.
Ca sha ing s a ion de elopmen
a ge s se by he anspo au ho i y
and alloca ed by municipali y.
Municipali ies choose he s a ions'
loca ions o mee hei a ge s.
Regional au ho i y de ines PT
accessibili y zones, which depend on
he quali y o he PT o e . Ope a o s
implemen s a ions in loca ions chosen
by municipali ies bu mus main ain a
balance be ween densely popula ed
a eas wi h good PT and ou ski s wi h
ewe PT i hey wan o keep hei
licence.
BCR ci y cen e,
u ban ou ski s
Ge a ound
(16) BCR ci y cen e
Table 2: Round- ip ca -sha ing go e nance in he B ussels-Capi al Region
Sou ces: Pa king.B ussels, B ussels Mobili y, Cambio; analyses: IPR, 2024
1.3.1.2. Round- ip ca -sha ing go e nance in Flande s
The Flemish Region, o Flande s, has a popula ion o 6.8 million sp ead o e an a ea o 13,625 km²,
gi ing a densi y o 501 inhabi an s pe km². Ca -sha ing began in Flande s in 2003 in An we p, Ghen ,
B uges and Mechelen, wi h se e al p i a e ope a o s s a ing up he e. The se ice de eloped g adually
un il, a ound 2012-2013, o he Flemish municipali ies also wan ed o se up a ca -sha ing se ice.
The Flande s Region is di ided in o 15 anspo egions (“ e oe egio” in Du ch language). These
anspo egions can issue in i a ions o ende o selec ca -sha ing se ice ope a o s in he o m o a
p ocu emen o se ice, ei he alone o as pa o a conso ium. The e is no egional policy o he
de elopmen o ca -sha ing, bu since 2020 he e ha e been 2030 clima e a ge s o mobili y. The
egion has a good communica ion plan ha insis on he bene i s o ca -sha ing o e e yone so ha
esiden s, businesses, and public au ho i ies make he swi ch o ca -sha ing (Ma hijs e al., 2021). A
good communica ions campaign has a eal impac on he de elopmen o his se ice, which is s ill no
widely known. The Region plans o deploy 2 sha ed ca s pe 1,000 inhabi an s, o 13,000 ca -sha ing
ehicles o he whole o Flande s. In 2020, he e we e 3,000 ca s in 60% o Flemish municipali ies, and
by July 2024 he e would be 4,600 in 83% o municipali ies. Ope a o s include in 2024 Cambio,
Claus2you (see Figu e 5), S app.in, Mobilize Sha e, Ba Wa and Coops oom.

22
Figu e 5: A Claus2you ca -sha ing s a ion in Izegem, Wes Flande s in 2022 (© S ad Izegem) (see 1.3.1.2)
Ca -sha ing
ope a o
(numbe o
s a ions)
Condi ions o
ope a ion S a ion loca ions S a ions u ban
en i onmen
Cambio
(935)
Calls o ende om
local anspo
au ho i ies
e oe egio’s).
Ca -sha ing s a ion deploymen a ge s
se by he egion as pa o clima e
objec i es o i s 2030 s a egy.
Regional budge s alloca ed o
municipali ies o hese objec i es can
be used o de elop ca -sha ing.
Municipali ies wo k wi h e oe egio’s
o choose s a ion loca ions, in line wi h
he mobili y hubs (Hoppinpun en)
deploymen s a egy and in
collabo a ion wi h ope a o s.
Ci y cen es,
u ban ou ski s,
u al a eas,
mobili y hubs
Claus2you (77)
Ci y cen es,
u al a eas,
mobili y hubs
S app.in (76) U ban ou ski s,
u al a eas,
mobili y hubs
Mobilize Sha e
(222) U ban ou ski s,
u al a eas
Ba Mobili y
(232) Ci y cen es,
u ban ou ski s
Coops oom
(109)
Ci y cen e,
u ban ou ski s,
u al a eas
Table 3: Round- ip ca -sha ing go e nance in Flande s
Sou ces: Cambio, Claus2you, S app.in, Au odelen.ne , Ba Wa , Coops oom; analyses: IPR, 2024
23
1.3.1.3. Round- ip ca -sha ing go e nance in he Pa is Region
The Île-de-F ance egion has a popula ion o 12.3 million and a su ace a ea o 12,011 km², gi ing a
popula ion densi y o 1,025 inhabi an s pe km². I has 1,267 communes, including he Ci y o Pa is, he
capi al o F ance wi h a popula ion o 2.1 million.
In 2007, a law was passed o p omo e ca -sha ing a na ional le el in F ance. In 2012, a dec ee de ined
ca -sha ing in egula o y e ms. Ca -sha ing has been iden i ied as an impo an le e o deca bonising
mobili y by Ademe ( he F ench Na ional En i onmen Agency) in he 2022 na ional ca -sha ing su ey
(T auchessec e al. 2022). One sha ed ca can eplace 5 o 8 p i a e ca s, eeing up space and limi ing
ca jou neys by encou aging mo e mul imodal li es yles. Ca -sha ing eplaces 10,000 ehicles in F ance,
ees up 1,800 oad spaces and sa es 39 million kilome es o mo o ing e e y yea . In ac , many ca -
sha ing use s a e mo ing away om ca use and changing hei mobili y habi s by making g ea e use
o al e na i es o he ca , in pa icula public anspo , cycling and walking. Ca -sha ing has mo e han
460,000 ac i e use s and 13,500 sha ed ca s in F ance. I 's a g owing p ac ice, e en i he numbe o
ca -sha ing ehicles needs o inc ease 100- old o ha e a eal impac on sus ainable mobili y
(T auchessec e al. 2022).
Pa is has a e y dense and well-equipped public anspo ne wo k. Walking is a popula mode o
anspo , and cycling in as uc u e is de eloping apidly. Ca a ic has been alling o decades as a
esul o policies such as pa king es ic ions, a ic calming, sha ed s ee s, ci cula ion plan, bike and
walking in as uc u e, Limi ed T a ic Zone, Low Emission Zone, e c.
The Ci y o Pa is launched i s Local Mobili y Plan (LMP) in 2024 (Ville de Pa is, 2024), based on he 15-
minu e ci y concep , in complemen o he Île-de-F ance egional mobili y plan, which de elops he
concep o he 20-minu e egion (20mR). Pa is’ LMP p oposes solu ions in e ms o mobili y and he
de elopmen o public space o espond o he u gency o he ecological ansi ion and o e he
popula ion a heal hy and p ese ed li ing en i onmen . Bo h mobili y plans aim o de elop ca -sha ing,
and he a ious ca -sha ing se ices in he egion need o complemen each o he i ca -sha ing is o be
de eloped in a balanced way be ween he densely popula ed u ban co e, he u ban ou ski s, and he
u al a eas.
In he Île-de-F ance egion, se e al ound- ip ca -sha ing sys ems a e being o ha e been o e ed by
p i a e ope a o s. As ea ly as 1999, Caisse Commune implemen ed i s se ice in Pa is. In 2007, i was
he u n o Mobizen and Okigo (p o ided by A is and Vincipa k) o o e an equi alen se ice in he
capi al, and an Au opa age Pa is label was c ea ed. In 2016, he Ci y o Pa is di e si ied i s ca -sha ing
se ices and launched he “Se ice de Véhicules Pa agés” (Sha ed Vehicle Se ice), ollowing a call
o ende s. 226 on-s ee pa king spaces we e alloca ed o 5 ope a o s: Communau o ( om he
Mobizen-Caisse Commune me ge ), Zipca (A is g oup), Ubeeqo-Ma cha (Eu opca g oup), Blueca -
sha ing (Bollo é) and IER (Bollo é).
To eplace Au olib' on i s e i o y, he ci y o Pa is called o exp essions o in e es a he end o 2019
o launch a new ca -sha ing sys em called Mobilib'. The Ci y Hall decided o dedica e 1,000 spaces o
ound- ip ca -sha ing: 500 2-space s a ions a new places, and 500 a o me Au olib' s a ions wi h 4
o 6-space s a ions. Fou ope a o s we e selec ed: Ubeeqo (851 ca s, including 713 elec ic ca s in all
he Au olib' spaces), Ada (56 ca s), Communau o (152 ca s) and Ge a ound (141 ca s). In he end,
Ubeeqo only deployed 651 ca s and Ada le he capi al in 2020. Following a ial un by he Ci y o Pa is
and he Pa is Region in conjunc ion wi h Ademe and he Pa is Île-de-F ance Chambe o Comme ce and
Indus y, Mobilib' o e ed Clem', elec ic u ili y ehicles o bo h businesses and p i a e indi iduals, in
new ese ed spaces, om 2020. In 2024, Ubeeqo ( hen Eu opca on Demand) had 683 on-s ee spaces
in Pa is, Communau o 150, Ge a ound 154 and Clem' 264. This means ha a ound 1,260 on-s ee
spaces a e cu en ly ese ed o ound- ip ca -sha ing in Pa is. Communau o also has 50 spaces in
Pa is in public o p i a e unde g ound ca pa ks and 4 “zone s a ions” whe e ehicles can be hi ed and
e u ned in a de ined a ea o an on-s ee pa king space, bu wi hou a ixed loca ion. Eu opca on
Demand se ice s opped in Decembe 2024. Clem’ s opped i s sha ed u ili y ehicle se ice in Pa is in
Sep embe 2024 bu kep ope a ing i s o he se ices in Pa is and he Pa is Region.
24
Communau o is also p esen in 15 municipali ies in he Île-de-F ance egion (excluding Pa is) and Clem'
in 33. Clem' only ope a es elec ic ehicles. I also o e s ehicles in esiden ial buildings in se e al
municipali ies in conjunc ion wi h he home-owne associa ions. I is a good way o o e ing al e na i es
o ca s o esiden s who don' own one and eeing up public space o a mo e e icien use o space.
This ca -sha ing model looks p omising bu is s ill in an eme ging phase. I has been a p ojec o he
SHARE-No h Squa ed (SN²) p ojec and is expe imen ed in Aus ia wi h Mo.Poin 2. Ci iz Île-de-F ance
is ano he ca -sha ing ope a o wi h 7 s a ions in 3 municipali ies nea Pa is, bu no in he capi al. Ci iz
is a no - o -p o i coope a i e c ea ed by he pionee s o ca -sha ing in F ance in 2002. The Ci iz
ne wo k now comp ises 14 independen local ca -sha ing ope a o s, p esen in o e 220 F ench
municipali ies and mo e han 90 SNCF ain s a ions. These se ices enable 50,000 use s o sha e he
use o 2,500 sha ed ca s. By g ouping oge he in a ne wo k, i is possible o pool ools and cu cos s: o
he call cen e, insu ance, g oup pu chases (pa icula ly o ehicles and hei main enance),
communica ion ools, e c., hus educing he isks o ope a o s wishing o expand in o mo e unce ain
sec o s such as spa sely popula ed a eas. The sha ed echnical sys em (booking so wa e, on-boa d
compu e s, mobile applica ion, e c.) means ha a cus ome accoun in one o he local se ices can
access all he ca s in he ne wo k. Use s and local au ho i ies can become membe s o he coope a i e
and a e in ol ed in decision-making.
Île-de-F ance Mobili és has c ea ed he “Île-de-F ance Au opa age” label in 2019 o p o ide a
amewo k o ca -sha ing and acili a e he selec ion p ocess o ope a o s by local au ho i ies wishing
o oll ou ca -sha ing in hei a ea (see E eu ! Sou ce du en oi in ou able.). Communau o, Clem'
and Ci iz ha e been awa ded he Île-de-F ance Au opa age label. In o al, 3.8 million Île-de-F ance
esiden s in 51 municipali ies will ha e access o a ound- ip ca -sha ing sys em in hei ci y by 2024.
This co esponds o mo e han 1,300 ehicles and 500 s a ions.
Figu e 6: The “Île-de-F ance Au opa age” label s icke (© ÎDFM) (see 1.3.1.3)
2 h ps://www.mopoin .a /
25
Ca -sha ing
ope a o (numbe
o s a ions)
Condi ions o
ope a ion S a ion loca ions S a ions u ban
en i onmen
Ubeeqo/Eu opca
on Demand (176)
⚠ The se ice
s opped in
Decembe 2024
Call o exp ession o
in e es om he Ci y o
Pa is
S a ion loca ions decided by he
Ci y o Pa is and alloca ed o 4
ope a o s unde he Mobilib’
b and.
Ci y o Pa is
Communau o
(132)
Call o exp ession o
in e es om he Ci y o
Pa is. Pe mi s wi h
o he municipali ies.
Île-de-F ance
Au opa age label
awa ded by he egion.
S a ion loca ions decided by he
Ci y o Pa is and alloca ed o 4
ope a o s unde he Mobilib’
b and. O he s a ions
implemen ed wi h p i a e
pa king lo ope a o s. Ex a on-
s ee “zone” s a ions submi ed
o he Ci y o Pa is and ope a ed
wi hou physical s a ion.
S a ions ou side Pa is
implemen ed wi h
municipali ies.
Ci y o Pa is,
u ban ou ski s
Ge a ound (102)
Call o exp ession o
in e es om he Ci y o
Pa is. Pe mi s wi h
o he municipali ies.
S a ion loca ions decided by he
Ci y o Pa is and alloca ed o 4
ope a o s unde he Mobilib’
b and. S a ions ou side Pa is
implemen ed wi h
municipali ies.
Ci y o Pa is,
u ban ou ski s
Clem’ (110)
⚠ The sha ed
u ili y ehicle
se ice s opped in
Sep embe 2024
T ial un by he Ci y o
Pa is/ egion, hen
pe mi o ope a e by
he Ci y o Pa is.
Pe mi s wi h o he
municipali ies. Île-de-
F ance Au opa age
label awa ded by he
egion.
S a ion loca ions decided by he
Ci y o Pa is, ope a ion unde
he Mobilib’ b and. S a ions
ou side Pa is implemen ed wi h
municipali ies. Clem' o e s
ehicles in esiden ial buildings
in se e al municipali ies in
conjunc ion wi h he home-
owne associa ions.
Ci y o Pa is,
u ban ou ski s,
u al a eas
Ci iz (7)
Pe mi om he
municipali y. Île-de-
F ance Au opa age
label awa ded by he
egion. Use s and local
au ho i ies can become
membe s o he
coope a i e and be
in ol ed in decision-
making.
S a ions implemen ed wi h he
municipali ies. U ban ou ski
Table 4: Go e nance o ound- ip ca -sha ing in he Pa is Region
Sou ces: Eu opca , Communau o, Ge a ound, Clem’, Ci iz, Ci y o Pa is; analyses: IPR, 2024
32
1.3.3.3. Pee - o-pee ca -sha ing go e nance in he Pa is Region
Pee - o-pee ca -sha ing is possible in he Pa is Region hanks o h ee p i a e ope a o s: Ge a ound,
Tu o and Roads R ( he la e specialising in op-o - he- ange ca s). In F ance, ca -sha ing be ween
p i a e indi iduals is conside ed o be a loan be ween p i a e indi iduals, whe e he e ms o ag eemen
and nego ia ion a e o a p i a e na u e. The e is he e o e no go e nmen in e en ion in his ype o
ca -sha ing. No pe mi is in ended by he Pa is Region om ope a o s o p o ide hei se ices.
Ca -sha ing
ope a o Condi ions o ope a ion S a ions u ban
en i onmen
Ge a ound
Ope a o s can p o ide hei se ices wi hou a pe mi om
he Pa is Region.
Ci y cen e,
u ban ou ski s,
u al a eas
Tu o
Ci y cen e,
u ban ou ski s,
u al a eas
Roads R
Ci y cen e,
u ban ou ski s,
u al a eas
Table 12: Pee - o-pee ca -sha ing go e nance in he Pa is Region
Sou ce: Lecon e e al., 2023; analyses: IPR, 2024
1.4. Business models o ca -sha ing se ices
1.4.1. Round- ip ca -sha ing business models
1.4.1.1. Round- ip ca -sha ing business models in he B ussels-Capi al Region
The e a e a numbe o ac o s in ol ed in c ea ing a iable business model o a ca -sha ing se ice,
such as p icing (by ime, by dis ance, e c.), occupancy a e, pu chase cos s (mos ly o ehicles), uel and
ene gy cos s, commissions ( o pee - o-pee ca -sha ing), subsc ip ion ees, pa king ees and o e head
cos s (s a , eplacing ehicles, main enance, cleaning, e c.) (Au odelen.ne , 2022). Fo example, a ound-
ip ca -sha ing se ice needs a leas an occupancy a e o 25-30% o be p o i able (Seeuws, 2022),
elec ic ehicles (EV) a e mo e expensi e han ossil- uelled ehicles and ensu ing ha ehicles a e in
good condi ion a all imes has a cos , so i is mo e di icul o be p o i able in a low-densi y a ea wi h
widesp ead s a ions and only EVs. The h ee main di e ences in business models be ween dense and
spa sely popula ed a eas a e occupancy a es, o e head cos s and pa king ees (o en lowe in he
ou ski s). This is pa icula ly impo an when de eloping a ca -sha ing se ice in pe i-u ban a eas
(Au odelen.ne , 2022).
In acco dance wi h he ules se by B ussels Mobili y, ound- ip ca -sha ing a es includes all se ice
cos s: uel, main enance, epai s, insu ance, e c. No subsidies a e g an ed o ope a o s by he BCR.
Howe e , B ussels Mobili y o e s he B uxell'Ai bonus o esiden s who de egis e hei numbe pla e.
Unde ce ain condi ions, hese people can bene i om a bonus ( he amoun o which is de e mined
acco ding o income) ha mus be spen on al e na i e mobili y op ions o he p i a e ca , including ca -
sha ing. Mo eo e , Pa king.B ussels o e s ope a o s exemp ion ca ds o ee pa king in public spaces
(ou side zones whe e pa king is limi ed o 2 hou s). The p ice o he exemp ion ca d is

33
€25/yea / ehicle. To encou age mul imodali y, he ope a o s and he STIB ( he B ussels public
anspo company) de eloped a combined o e o ca -sha ing + public anspo and p omo e i o
hei use s.
Cambio is a p ojec ini ia ed by Mpac in 2000 oge he wi h Cambio Mobili ä sse ice gmbh VAB and
NMBS-SNCB2022. To access he se ice, Cambio use s mus pay a ee (be ween €150 and €500) which
is used o de elop he sys em, and ake ou a mon hly subsc ip ion, a e which jou neys a e billed
acco ding o en al ime and dis ance a elled. The e also is a one-o €35 ac i a ion ee. The e is a
educed a e o nigh - ime hou s and kilome es a elled in excess o 100 kilome es. The e is a
maximum a e pe day and pe week. Th ee ypes o subsc ip ion a e a ailable, wi h sliding scale a es
o he mos comp ehensi e subsc ip ions. I is possible o choose o add a supplemen o he
subsc ip ion o ob ain a educed anchise in case o damage. I mee s di e en needs wi h di e en
ehicle models: om small ci y ca s o u ili y ehicles. A special “campus” subsc ip ion is a ailable o
unde -25s wi h less han 2 yea s' d i ing expe ience. Pa ne ships wi h d i ing schools allow u u e ca
sha e s o ake hei d i ing lessons in a Cambio ca . The ehicles a e unlocked using an applica ion o
a badge (i is possible o load a Cambio subsc ip ion on o he Mobib pass which is used o public
anspo ). The e is a combined STIB + Cambio o e which allows egula public anspo use s o
bene i om a educ ion on Cambio a es. In o de o make he se ice accessible o people who a e less
a ease wi h digi al ools, i is possible o book a jou ney by elephone 24/7 o €1. The e is also a call
cen e (managed by Mpac ) ha can be used o call in he e en o damage, acciden s, e c. Cambio is
a ailable on he Floya and Olympus MaaS pla o ms ha include se e al mobili y ope a o s. The E-ca go
bike se ice also le s use s hi e ca go bikes ia he Cambio applica ion. This se ice is pilo ed by B ussels
Mobili y as pa o he Cai go Bike Eu opean p ojec (U ban Inno a i e Ac ions, 2024).
No subsc ip ion is equi ed o Ge a ound. Ra es a e cha ged by he hou o by he day, wi h a
maximum numbe o kilome es o be paid in ad ance, depending on he use 's needs. The ehicles a e
unlocked using an applica ion. Di e en access ules and insu ance excesses apply depending on how
old he d i e 's licence is. Use s unde 25 pay a supplemen . I is possible o pay ex a o be e co e
in he e en o damage. A deposi is equi ed on paymen o he hi e cha ge.
Ca -sha ing
ope a o P icing Public/p i a e subsidy S a ions u ban
en i onmen
Cambio
By hou , day o week, and
km depending on he ype
o ehicle. All se ice cos s
included. Di e en
subsc ip ion o e s o
educed cos s. Pa icipa ion
ee o de elop he sys em.
Pa king.B ussels o e s
ope a o s exemp ion ca ds o
ee pa king in public spaces o
€25/yea / ehicle. Residen s
who pa wi h hei ca can
bene i om he BCR B uxell'Ai
bonus ha can be spen on ca -
sha ing se ices. T a el cos s
may be pa ly co e ed by
employe s as pa o he
mobili y budge .
BCR ci y cen e,
u ban ou ski s
Ge a ound
By hou o day, and km
depending on he ype o
ehicle. All se ice cos s
included. No subsc ip ion
ees.
BCR ci y cen e
Table 13: Round- ip ca -sha ing business models in he B ussels-Capi al Region
Sou ces: Pa king.B ussels, B ussels Mobili y; analyses: IPR, 2024
34
1.4.1.2. Round- ip ca -sha ing business models in Flande s
In he Flemish Region, he budge s alloca ed o municipali ies o he 2030 clima e a ge s can be used
o de elop ca -sha ing. Sol a, o ins ance, is an in e municipal o ganiza ion o 16 municipali ies in he
Sou h o he Eas -Flande s p o ince (Sou h o Ghen ). As pa o i s clima e plan, i launched a call o
ende s and selec ed a ca -sha ing ope a o . Sol a suppo s he ope a o inancially wi h a mon hly
income called “pu chase gua an ee” which co e s he ope a o s’ cos s, in o de o c ea e a business
model on a long e m. The se ice has been able o g ow, and he numbe o jou neys has isen s eadily.
This ga e he ope a o he oppo uni y o c ea e a p o i able ca -sha ing se ice wi hin h ee o ou
yea s, which would no ha e been possible wi hou public unding. Once i had eached he b eak-e en
poin , Sol a had he op ion o s opping i s inancial suppo , bu decided o con inue i o help he
ope a o expand i s lee o sha ed ehicles (Au odelen.ne , 2022). In he municipali y o Glabbeek, in
he p o ince o Flemish B aban , he e is a simila sys em, bu he municipali y can educe i s inancial
suppo as he ca -sha ing ope a o wo ks wi h local companies o pu ad e ising on sha ed ca s
(Au odelen.ne , 2022). In o he pa s o Flande s, au ho i ies called on ope a o s o ins all ound- ip
ca -sha ing ehicles in hei a eas, some o which we e subu ban o u al a eas, as well as small ain
o bus s a ions. The ope a o s ag eed on one condi ion: o sha e he isk o losses esul ing om a
smalle numbe o po en ial use s han in dense u ban a eas (Au odelen.ne , 2024). The sys em, known
as “cashback” o “minimum e enue gua an ee”, is an ag eemen be ween he ca -sha ing ope a o and
he municipali y, which s ipula es ha a minimum u no e mus be achie ed pe ca each mon h
(a ound €800, Rodenbach, 2024). I his minimum amoun is no eached by he ope a o , he
municipali y mus pay he di e ence o he ope a o o enable i o b eak e en. To each his amoun ,
local au ho i ies encou age hei s a o use ca -sha ing ehicles a he han se ice ca s. Employe s
loca ed in business pa ks can be encou aged o eplace hei lee s and employees’ company ca s wi h
ca -sha ing se ices. By combining he jou neys made by esiden s, ain and bus use s, municipal s a ,
associa ions, and local businesses, i is possible o each he minimum h eshold and ope a e ca -sha ing
in u al a eas wi hou public subsidies (Au odelen.ne , 2024). Cambio, Claus2you, S app.in, Mobilize
Sha e, Ba Mobili y and Coops oom also p opose business o e s.
Coops oom is a ca -sha ing ope a o in he o m o a non-p o i coope a i e company. To become a
use , he i s s ep is o buy a sha e in he coope a i e. Sha ed ca s a e equipped wi h an on-boa d
compu e ha au oma ically eco ds jou neys. Use s loca e he ca using he app, and open and lock he
ca using hei sma phone. In B uges, ca s can be le anywhe e in a designa ed a ea. O he wise, ca s
ha e a designa ed pa king space. Coops oom o e s a ious o mulas based on p e-paid d i ing c edi .
Use s pay acco ding o ime o use and pe kilome e. On eques , Coops oom can i a child sea in he
ca , which is ideal o amilies li ing in pe i-u ban a eas. In Wes Flande s, i a g oup o people can
gua an ee 4 COOP o mulas o 6 P epaid Com o o mulas pe mon h, Coops oom will place a sha ed
elec ic ca in hei neighbou hood. This makes i possible o de elop ca sha ing in spa sely popula ed
a eas whe e he e is a demand om local esiden s. To become a membe , use s mus hold a d i ing
licence o a leas 6 mon hs. In addi ion, only people aged 20 o o e a e allowed o become coope a o s.
To become a membe , d i e s mus no ha e been disquali ied om d i ing o a leas 5 yea s. All
ehicles a e elec ic. The coope a i e in es s in enewable ene gy. Anyone who is a Coops oom
sha eholde can also sign a g een ene gy con ac wi h he Ecopowe coope a i e, which supplies
elec ici y om Belgian sola , wind and hyd o powe . Coops oom is pa o he Coop CEDAN ne wo k.
Membe s o his ne wo k o g een ene gy coope a i es can use he Coops oom sha ed ca s wi hou
ha ing o buy a sha e.
I you and you neighbou hood can gua an ee a ce ain le el o usage pe mon h, Ba Mobili y will
conside placing a ca nea you. Ba Mobili y also has a p i a e leasing o mula (Ba Maxx). In his case,
you lease an elec ic ca h ough he company and make i a ailable o o he people when you don'
need i . Ins ead o ge ing money, you ge a discoun on you mon hly cha ges o he ime you sha e
you ca . Va ious ypes o ehicles a e a ailable.
35
Ca -sha ing
ope a o P icing Public/p i a e subsidy S a ions u ban
en i onmen
Cambio
By hou , day o week, and
km depending on he ype
o ehicle. All se ice cos s
included. Di e en
subsc ip ion o e s o
educed cos s. Pa icipa ion
ee o de elop he sys em. Municipali ies can spend some
o he budge he egion alloca e
hem o i s clima e policy o
ca -sha ing se ices.
“Cashback” o “minimum
e enue gua an ee” is an
ag eemen be ween he
ope a o and he municipali y,
which s ipula es ha a
minimum u no e mus be
achie ed pe ca each mon h
(a ound €800). I his minimum
amoun is no eached by he
ope a o , he municipali y mus
pay he di e ence o he
ope a o o enable i o b eak
e en. “Pu chase gua an ee” is
ano he inancial a angemen
o balancing he ca -sha ing
economy: local au ho i ies
gua an ee a egula mon hly
income o he ope a o so ha i
can b eak e en. T a el cos s
may be pa ly co e ed by
employe s as pa o he
mobili y budge .
Ci y cen es,
u ban ou ski s,
u al a eas,
mobili y hubs
Claus2you
By hou o day and km
depending on he ype o
ehicle. All se ice cos s
included. No subsc ip ion
ees.
Ci y cen es,
u al a eas,
mobili y hubs
S app.in
By hou o day and km
depending on he ype o
ehicle. All se ice cos s
included. No subsc ip ion
ees.
U ban ou ski s,
u al a eas,
mobili y hubs
Mobilize Sha e
By hou o day and km
depending on he ype o
ehicle. All se ice cos s
included. No subsc ip ion
ees.
U ban ou ski s,
u al a eas
Ba Mobili y
By hou o day and km
depending on he ype o
ehicle. All se ice cos s
included. Di e en
subsc ip ion o e s o
educed cos s.
Ci y cen es,
u ban ou ski s
Coops oom
By km. All se ice cos s
included. P epaid o mulas.
Possible subsc ip ion ee
o educed cos .
Ci y cen es,
u al a eas,
mobili y hubs
Table 14: Round- ip ca -sha ing business models in Flande s
Sou ces: Cambio, Claus2you, S app.in, Au odelen.ne , Ba Wa , Coops oom; analyses: IPR, 2024
1.4.1.3. Round- ip ca -sha ing business models in he Pa is Region
In he Pa is Region, ound- ip ca -sha ing se ices cha ge pe hou , day and kilome e. I is possible o
choose o add a supplemen o he subsc ip ion o ob ain a educed excess. Vehicles a e unlocked 24/7
using an applica ion o a badge. Ope a o s p opose business o e s. In he Ci y o Pa is, ope a o s pay a
s ee occupa ion cha ge o he municipali y: €200-390 pe yea depending on ype and numbe o
ehicles (Ci y o Pa is, 2020). The e is a €100 g an om he Ci y o Pa is o encou age Pa isians o y
ca -sha ing. Ubeeqo/Eu opca on Demand, Communau o, Ge a ound, Clem’ and Ci iz. also p opose
36
business o e s. Va ious ypes o ehicles a e a ailable. Clem’ p oposes o e s o local au ho i ies and
home-owne associa ions.
In F ance, he “Fo ai Mobili és Du ables” (sus ainable mobili y aid, FMD) is a olun a y scheme
whe eby employe s pay o employees' pe sonal anspo cos s be ween home and wo k. I could one
day be made compulso y o employe s, bu o he momen i is op ional. To a ce ain ex en , he FMD
is exemp om social secu i y con ibu ions and income ax. The means o anspo co e ed by his
scheme a e pe sonal bicycles, ca pooling, public anspo , and sha ed mobili y (including ca -sha ing).
Ca -sha ing
ope a o P icing Public/p i a e subsidy S a ions u ban
en i onmen
Ubeeqo/Eu opca
on Demand
⚠ The se ice
s opped in
Decembe 2024
By hou (minimum o
4h) o day and km
depending on he ype
o ehicle. All se ice
cos s included. No
subsc ip ion ees.
In he Ci y o Pa is, ope a o s
pay a s ee occupa ion cha ge
o he municipali y depending
on ype and numbe o ehicles.
€100 g an om he Ci y o
Pa is o encou age Pa isians o
y ca -sha ing. T a el cos s
may be pa ly co e ed by
employe s as pa o he FMD.
Ci y o Pa is
Communau o
By hou o day and km
depending on he ype
o ehicle. All se ice
cos s included.
Di e en subsc ip ion
o e s o educed
cos s.
Ci y o Pa is,
u ban ou ski s
Ge a ound
By hou o day and km
depending on he ype
o ehicle. All se ice
cos s included. No
subsc ip ion ees.
Ci y o Pa is,
u ban ou ski s
Clem’
By hou depending on
he ype o ehicle. All
se ice cos s included.
Unlocking ee. No
subsc ip ion ees.
Ci y o Pa is,
u ban ou ski s,
u al a eas
Ci iz
By hou , day o week
and km depending on
he ype o ehicle. All
se ice cos s included.
Possible subsc ip ion
ee o educed cos .
U ban ou ski s
Table 15: Round- ip ca -sha ing business models in he Pa is Region
Sou ces: Eu opca , Communau o, Ge a ound, Clem’, Ci iz; analyses: IPR, 2024
37
1.4.2. F ee- loa ing and one-way s a ion-based ca -sha ing business models
1.4.2.1. F ee- loa ing ca -sha ing business models in he B ussels-Capi al Region
The ee- loa ing ca -sha ing ma ke is ola ile and has di icul y consolida ing. Ope a o s a e s uggling
o ind a p o i able business model. In ac , as wi h ee- loa ing scoo e sys ems, he business model o
hese companies is close o a winne - ake-all ma ke , wi h agg essi e comme cial p ac ices o
domina e he ma ke (Wilson, 2020). This means ha ee- loa ing ope a o s o en lose money by
unde es ima ing hei cos s and cha ging low p ices o a ce ain pe iod in o de o achie e a monopoly
o quasi-monopoly be o e becoming p o i able. They o en need o aise signi ican amoun s o en u e
capi al, bu no all a e able o s ay in he ma ke . The companies hen ha e o wi hd aw o a e bough
ou by hei compe i o s. One no able di e ence wi h he sha ed mic omobili y ma ke is ha some
ee- loa ing ca -sha ing ope a o s a e s ongly suppo ed by ca make s, who a e keen o expe imen
wi h he business models o new uses o he ca (INVERS, 2023). They also see i as an oppo uni y o
showcase hei new ehicle models on he s ee s o majo ci ies (Chodo ge, 2019). Mos o he ime,
local au ho i ies egula e he ac i i ies o ee- loa ing ca -sha ing ope a o s by imposing es ic ions,
bu do no seek o a ac ope a o s h ough calls o ende , o example (Gou e nemen de la Région
de B uxelles-Capi ale, 2013).
The e has been a lo o momen um in he ee- loa ing ca -sha ing ma ke ecen ly. In 2021
G eenMobili y, om Denma k, bough he Du ch ope a o Fe ch Mobili y, and in 2022 Miles, om
Ge many, bough WeSha e, Volkswagen’s ee- loa ing sys em (INVERS, 2023). In B ussels, ope a o s
Zipca (owned by Ame ican ca en al company A is) and D i enow (a subsidia y o BMW) began
o e ing hei se ices in 2019 bu ceased ope a ions in 2022 (Au odelen.ne , 2023). G eenMobili y,
wi hd ew om he ci ies o B ussels and Ghen in 2023 a e jus h ee yea s in business. In he same
yea , Belgian ope a o Poppy wi hd ew om Ghen , Mechelen, Leu en (Temme man e al., 2023) and
Lie ( adio 2, Snoeys, 2023). The company had been p esen in Flande s since 2019.
One hing we a e seeing in he ee- loa ing ca -sha ing ma ke oday is a end owa ds hyb id business
models. F ee- loa ing ope a o s such as Miles a e s a ing o en ca s and adi ional ca hi e companies
such as Six a e s a ing o o e ca -sha ing se ices (Six Sha e). In Ge many, we ind ee- loa ing
ope a o s s a ing up ound- ip ca -sha ing (Sha e Now) and ound- ip ca -sha ing ope a o s s a ing
up ee- loa ing (Cambio, s ad mobil, eilAu o, and book-n-d i e). Ano he possible combina ion: he
Bol ide-hailing pla o m is also s a ing o o e ca -sha ing (Bol .D i e) (INVERS, 2023).
In he B ussels-Capi al Region, p icing is based on usage, acco ding o he numbe o kilome es
a elled and he en al ime. Unlocking is made wi h an applica ion. As wi h ound- ip ca -sha ing,
p ices mus be clea and use mus include uel, main enance, epai s, insu ance, e c. Pa king.B ussels
o e s ope a o s exemp ion ca ds o ee pa king in public spaces (ou side zones whe e pa king is
limi ed o 2 hou s). The p ice o he exemp ion ca d is €25/yea / ehicle. Wi h Poppy, subsc ip ions a e
a ailable o e ing discoun s on usage in e u n o a mon hly ee. A paying se ice allows use s o ha e
he ca deli e ed i hey plan hei jou ney in ad ance. Wi h Miles, he e is an unlocking ee.
Subsc ip ions a e also a ailable. Miles o e s se ices o local au ho i ies o p omo e he in eg a ion o
i s ca -sha ing se ice in o hei mobili y o e ings. I some use ob ained i s d i ing licence less han 12
mon hs ago, hey would ha e o pay a “ ookie ee” o €9/mon h. The e a e se ices o p o essionals
and businesses o bo h se ices. I is possible o use Poppy and Miles o a one-way ip o o he a eas
such as An we p, o he ai po s o Cha le oi, B ussels, and An we p wi h an ex a ee.

38
Ca -sha ing
ope a o P icing Public/p i a e subsidy U ban
en i onmen
Poppy
By hou o day and km
depending on he ype
o ehicle. All se ice
cos s included. Possible
subsc ip ion ee o
educed cos .
Pa king.B ussels o e s
ope a o s exemp ion ca ds o
ee pa king in public spaces
(ou side zones whe e pa king is
limi ed o 2 hou s). The p ice o
he exemp ion ca d is
€25/yea / ehicle. Residen s
who pa wi h hei ca can
bene i om he BCR B uxell'Ai
bonus ha can be spen on ca -
sha ing se ices.
BCR ci y cen e,
u ban ou ski s
Miles
By hou o day and km
depending on he ype
o ehicle. All se ice
cos s included. No
subsc ip ion ees.
BCR ci y cen e
Table 1: F ee- loa ing ca -sha ing business models in he B ussels-Capi al Region
Sou ces: Pa king.B ussels, B ussels Mobili y, Poppy, Miles, Au odelen.ne ; analyses: IPR, 2024
1.4.2.2. F ee- loa ing ca -sha ing business models in Flande s
In addi ion o B ussels, Poppy ope a es in he co e a ea o An we p, Miles ope a es in An we p and
Ghen . You can use Poppy and Miles o a one-way ip in-be ween a eas such as An we p, B ussels o
he ai po s o Cha le oi, B ussels, An we p, and Liège wi h an ex a ee. Poppy is a ailable on he Floya
and Olympus MaaS pla o ms ha include se e al mobili y ope a o s. Miles is a ailable on Olympus
only.
Ca -sha ing
ope a o P icing Public/p i a e
subsidy U ban
en i onmen
Poppy
By hou o day and km depending
on he ype o ehicle. All se ice
cos s included. Possible
subsc ip ion ee o educed cos . No public subsidy
Ci y cen es,
u ban ou ski s
Miles
By hou o day and km depending
on he ype o ehicle. All se ice
cos s included. No subsc ip ion
ees.
Ci y cen es,
u ban ou ski s
Table 2: F ee- loa ing ca -sha ing business models in Flande s
Sou ces: Poppy, Miles, Au odelen.ne ; analyses: IPR, 2024
1.4.2.3. One-way s a ion-based ca -sha ing business model in he Pa is Region
Wi h Au olib’, he aim was o o e an in e -municipal ca hi e se ice wi hou cos ing Pa is Ci y Council
“a penny”. P icing was by he minu e, wi h an annual subsc ip ion o mula o e ing a educed cos pe
minu e. Despi e he g ow h o he se ice, he use o Au olib' ell om 2016 onwa ds, mainly due o he
g ow h in he use o ide-hailing se ices a he same ime, which o e he same ype o jou neys a a
39
compa able cos . The lack o p o i abili y can be explained by, among o he hings, a lack o a ailabili y
o ehicles, which “discou ages” subsc ibe s om using he se ice, bu also by he ac ha many
cha ging poin s a e made una ailable on a daily basis ollowing decisions by he public au ho i ies
(demons a ions, oadwo ks, Vigipi a e plan agains e o is a acks, e c.). The Blueca s we e also
inc easingly dilapida ed and di y, due o inadequa e main enance as well as inci ili ies and some imes
e en ca s squa ed by homeless people. In 2018, Au olib' gene a ed annual losses o €50 million, e en
hough he sys em was supposed o be exemp om public subsidies, and e en o gene a e p o i s o
€56 million a yea . The Bollo é g oup hen asked he municipali ies se ed by he se ice o con ibu e
o epaying he deb , which con inued o g ow, and o close 20% o he 1,100 s a ions deemed he leas
p o i able. The SAVM hen e mina ed he con ac wi h Bollo é, which demanded 235 million eu os in
compensa ion o he e mina ion o he con ac , which was due o end in 2023.
Ca -sha ing
ope a o P icing Public/p i a e
subsidy U ban
en i onmen
Au olib’ (ope a ing
2011-2018)
By minu e o day and km. All
se ice cos s included. Possible
subsc ip ion ee o educed cos .
S ong public
subsidy (delega ion
o public se ice)
Ci y o Pa is,
u ban ou ski s
Table 3: One-way s a ion-based ca -sha ing business model in he Pa is Region
Sou ces: SAVM, Ci y o Pa is; analyses: IPR, 2024
1.4.2.4. F ee- loa ing ca -sha ing business models in he Pa is Region
In Pa is, F ee2Mo e is a ailable by he minu e, hou , o day. The i s 200 kilome es a e included, a e
which a cos -pe -kilome e cha ge applies. Unlocking is made wi h an applica ion. As wi h ound- ip
ca -sha ing, p ices include uel, main enance, epai s, insu ance, e c.
Ca -sha ing
ope a o P icing Public/p i a e subsidy U ban
en i onmen
F ee2Mo e
By minu e, hou o
day and km
depending on he
ype o ehicle. All
se ice cos s
included. Possible
subsc ip ion ee o
educed cos .
In he Ci y o Pa is, ope a o s pay a
s ee occupa ion cha ge o he
municipali y depending on ype
and numbe o ehicles. €100 g an
om he Ci y o Pa is o encou age
Pa isians o y ca -sha ing. T a el
cos s may be pa ly co e ed by
employe s as pa o he FMD.
Ci y o Pa is
Table 4: F ee- loa ing ca -sha ing business model in he Pa is Region
Sou ces: F ee2Mo e; analyses: IPR, 2024
40
1.4.3. Pee - o-pee ca -sha ing business models
1.4.3.1. Pee - o-pee ca -sha ing business models in he B ussels-Capi al Region
Cozywheels is a p ojec ini ia ed by Mpac . I o e s ools o make sha ing easie o pee - o-pee ca -
sha ing use s, like a a e calcula o and au oma ic billing. The annual egis a ion ee is €25, p icing is
made by he kilome e. The p ice o a jou ney includes uel, insu ance, oad ax, annual se icing,
oadwo hiness es s and, i necessa y, a ese e po o unexpec ed epai s. The ee co e s only he
ac ual cos o he ehicle and is no in ended o make a p o i . Paymen is made a he beginning o he
ollowing mon h, di ec ly be ween membe s. Fo longe bookings (mo e han 1 day), a daily o hou ly
cha ge may be added. Cozywheels wo ks wi h closed g oups, mos ly neighbou s. Ca owne s ha e o al
con ol o e who uses hei ca s. Cozywheels also p opose business o e s. Cozywheels' acc edi a ion
enables i o issue ehicle-sha ing ce i ica es, which a e used o ob ain se e al esiden s' pa king
pe mi s (possibly o sepa a e sec o s) o a single ehicle. The e is also an o e o companies, enabling
hem o sha e hei comme cial ehicles wi h p i a e indi iduals, o example.
To use Wibee, you need o join a ca -sha ing g oup, o sha e you ca o hi e one om o he membe s
o he g oup. You pay by he hou , day, and kilome e. The e is No subsc ip ion ees o ca use s. When
an owne en s hei ca , 80% o he amoun goes o hem and 20% is alloca ed o Wibee as a se ice
commission. Ca owne s bene i om comp ehensi e insu ance co e nego ia ed speci ically o sha ed
ehicles. The day- o-day ope a ional managemen o he ca s emains he esponsibili y o he owne
(e.g., main enance, oadwo hiness es s, e c.). The e a e se e al subsc ip ion packages o owne s, wi h
bene i s such as he ins alla ion o on-boa d echnology o unlock ehicles wi h a badge o sma phone,
a pla o m o pu owne s in ouch wi h people looking o a ca o hi e, a uel ca d, online e enue
paymen , e c. Wibee also p oposes o e s o businesses, associa ions, and local au ho i ies.
Dégage is a no - o -p o i o ganisa ion ha wo ks wi h ci izens and o e 100 olun ee s. Sha ed ca
use s pay he p ice pe kilome e o each kilome e d i en. These p ices include uel. Use s do no pay
an hou ly a e, a subsc ip ion ee, o any o he o m o con ibu ion. The e is a one-o en y ee o 45
eu os and a deposi o 75 eu os, which is e undable on depa u e. Ca owne s con inue o pay all he
cos s o hei ca (insu ance, ax, main enance, wea and ea and all o he ixed cos s). These cos s a e
en e ed by hem in o he sys em. Dégage also cha ges owne s dep ecia ion cos s as he cos o hei ca .
This means hey know exac ly how much hei ca eally cos s, exp essed as a p ice pe kilome e. Fo
each kilome e a elled by a use in an owne 's ca , he p ice pe kilome e is eimbu sed o he owne .
This p ice is o en lowe han he ixed p ice pe kilome e o use s. Dégage akes a commission on he
ides: wha he use pays pe km is highe han wha he owne ecei es. The use pays Dégage qua e ly
and Dégage pays he owne qua e ly acco ding o he cos s incu ed. The owne he e o e ecei es a
e und a he han a paymen . Owne s can also use o he ca s in he Dégage lee . They pay he same
a e as an o dina y ca bo owe . They hen ecei e an in oice om Dégage o his. I is also possible
o sha e bikes. Since 2022, Dégage has been in es ing pa o i s membe s' deposi s in sus ainable and
e hical ini ia i es. Dégage is a ailable on he Olympus MaaS pla o m ha includes se e al mobili y
ope a o s.
In Belgium, he e is a ax exemp ion sys em called he “mobili ei sbudge ”,”/“budge mobili é”, o
mobili y budge . When an employe chooses o in oduce a mobili y budge in his company, employees
can exchange hei en i lemen o a company ca o a mo e en i onmen ally iendly company ca ,
sus ainable means o anspo , accommoda ion cos s o money. Dégage use s can bene i om his
mobili y budge . Acco ding o Au odelen.ne , “Al hough he mobili y budge has he po en ial o
s imula e (and aise awa eness o ) ca -sha ing, he e a e s ill signi ican obs acles. The mobili y budge
is a cons uc ha s ill p omo es ca -sha ing's bigges compe i o : he company ca . Making ca mobili y
ee (whe he elec i ied o no ) will ne e encou age sus ainable a el beha iou . The company ca
and, all he mo e so, he uel ca d ha goes wi h i , s imula e e lexi e use o he ca , which is
diame ically opposed o he p inciple o ca -sha ing” (Au odelen.ne , 2024).
41
Ca -sha ing
ope a o P icing Public/p i a e subsidy U ban
en i onmen
Cozywheels
By km, depending on he
ype o ehicle, wi h possible
p ice pe day o hou o
longe bookings. All se ice
cos s included. Annual
subsc ip ion ee.
No public subsidy. Licence
om he anspo
au ho i y allows he
ope a o o ob ain se e al
esiden s' pa king pe mi s
(possibly o sepa a e
sec o s) o a single ehicle.
T a el cos s may be pa ly
co e ed by employe s as
pa o he mobili y budge .
BCR ci y cen e,
u ban ou ski s
Wibee
By hou , day and km,
depending on he ype o
ehicle. All se ice cos s
included o he use .
Mon hly subsc ip ion ee o
ca owne s. A commission is
cha ged o he owne on he
en al p ice.
No subsidy BCR ci y cen e,
u ban ou ski s
Dégage
By km. All se ice cos s
included o he use . One-
o en y ee o 35 eu os and
a deposi o 75 eu os
T a el cos s may be pa ly
co e ed by employe s as
pa o he mobili y budge .
BCR ci y cen e,
u ban ou ski s
Table 5: Pee - o-pee ca -sha ing business models in he B ussels-Capi al Region
Sou ces: Pa king.B ussels, B ussels Mobili y, Cozywheels, Wibee, Dégage; analyses: IPR, 2024
1.4.3.2. Pee - o-pee ca -sha ing business models in Flande s
In he Flemish egion, se e al ci ies o e bene i s o Cozywheels use s, like ee esiden pa king ca d,
dedica ed on-s ee pa king spaces, ee on-s ee pa king ca d, eimbu semen o egis a ion ees, o
a mobili y budge o €500 alloca ed o use s pa ing wi h hei ca o moped, which can be used o he
Cozywheels se ice. Dégage ope a es wi h he same condi ions han in he B ussels-Capi al Region.
Ge a ound pee - o-pee (P2P) se ice se es as a ma ke place o en ep eneu s wishing o launch a
ca en al business. The pla o m o e s hem he oppo uni y o equip a ehicle o lee hey own wi h
a ese a ion and unlocking sys em, o o e an “Ube ised” en al se ice on which Ge a ound akes a
commission. I seems his model is in ended o eplace Ge a ound's o iginal business o ca hi e be ween
p i a e indi iduals. As wi h i s se ice wi h s a ions, no subsc ip ion is equi ed o he P2P se ice o
Ge a ound. Ra es a e cha ged by he hou o by he day, wi h a maximum numbe o kilome es o be
paid in ad ance, depending on he use 's needs. The ehicles a e unlocked using an applica ion. Di e en
access ules and insu ance excesses apply depending on how old he d i e 's licence is. Use s unde 25
pay a supplemen . I is possible o pay ex a o be e co e in he e en o damage. A deposi is equi ed
on paymen o he hi e cha ge. Ge a ound also p oposes o e s o businesses.
48
Ci iz
Ci iz is a ound- ip ca -sha ing ope a o , ope a ing in F ance in he o m o a
non-p o i coope a i e company. Use s and local au ho i ies can become
membe s o he coope a i e and a e in ol ed in decision-making. I ope a es in
4 municipali ies in he Pa is’ u ban ou ski s, bu also in a ne wo k which
comp ises 14 independen local ca -sha ing ope a o s, p esen in o e 220
F ench municipali ies and mo e han 90 SNCF ain s a ions. In se e al F ench
ci ies, i p o ides a combined ca -sha ing o e . This solu ion combines he
eliabili y o ound- ip ca -sha ing wi h he lexibili y o ee- loa ing,
sa is ying a a ie y o needs o egula use s who don' own a ca bu need one
occasionally. I can each di e en g oups o use s (pa icula ly younge people
and people om wo king-class backg ounds), e en in he u ban ou ski s. A
use accoun in one o he local se ices can access all he ca s in he ne wo k.
By g ouping oge he in a ne wo k, i is possible o pool ools and cu cos s ,
hus educing he isks o ope a o s wishing o expand in o mo e unce ain
sec o s such as spa sely popula ed a eas (see 1.1, 1.3.3.1, 1.4.1.3 & 1.4.3.1).
Cozywheels
Cozywheels is a no - o -p o i pee - o-pee ca -sha ing ope a o ac i e
h oughou Belgium. I o e s ools ha make ca -sha ing be ween p i a e
indi iduals (mos ly neighbou s) p ac ical and as easy as wi h a p i a e
ope a o . I wo ks closely wi h au ho i ies and bene i s om pa king
ad an ages and bonuses o i s use s in di e en ypes o a eas: u ban cen es,
u ban ou ski s and u al a eas (see 1.3.3.1, 1.3.3.2, 1.4.3.1 & 1.4.3.2).
Dégage
Dégage is a pee - o-pee ca -sha ing ope a o ac i e in he B ussels-Capi al and
Flemish Regions. I does no seek p o i , bu social and li eable neighbou hoods
ha a e mo e local and mul imodal. In his espec , i s model is a ou able o
he 15mC neighbou hood. The o ganisa ion is a common and is un om he
bo om up by olun ee s and ci izens. Dégage use s a e au oma ically membe s
o he Gene al Mee ing and can aise ideas, p oblems, o ques ions wi h he
Boa d o Di ec o s. Since 2022, Dégage has been in es ing pa o i s membe s'
deposi s in sus ainable and e hical ini ia i es (see 1.3.3.1, 1.3.3.2, 1.4.3.1 &
1.4.3.2).
Coops oom
Coops oom is a ound- ip ca -sha ing ope a o , ope a ing in Flande s in he
o m o a non-p o i coope a i e company. To become a use , he i s s ep is o
buy a sha e in he coope a i e. All ehicles a e elec ic. Coops oom is linked o
a ne wo k o coope a i es, mainly supplie s o g een elec ici y. On eques ,
Coops oom can i a child sea in he ca , which is ideal o amilies li ing in
pe i-u ban a eas. In Wes -Flande s, i a g oup o people can gua an ee 4 COOP
o mulas o 6 P epaid Com o o mulas pe mon h, Coops oom will place a
sha ed elec ic ca in hei neighbou hood. This makes i possible o de elop
ca sha ing in spa sely popula ed a eas whe e he e is a demand om local
esiden s (see 1.3.1.2 & 1.4.1.2).
“Île-de-F ance
au opa age” label
This label p o ides a amewo k o ca -sha ing and acili a es he selec ion
p ocess o ope a o s by local au ho i ies wishing o oll ou ca -sha ing in hei
a ea. I has a se o speci ica ions o help u ban ou ski s local au ho i ies ha
a e no used o sha ed mobili y o e s. This can eassu e pe i-u ban
municipali ies abou he eliabili y o ca -sha ing ope a o s be o e
implemen ing hei se ices (see 1.3.1.3).1.3.1.3).

49
Public inancial
suppo o ca -
sha ing in Flande s
In Flande s, ou side he majo ci ies, public subsidy schemes such as he
“pu chase gua an ee” and he “minimum e enue gua an ee” make i possible
o oll ou economically iable ca -sha ing se ices in spa sely popula ed a eas
whe e hey would no ha e been able o eme ge wi hou inancial suppo .
Once he se ice has been implemen ed and is iable, inancial suppo can be
s opped o elie e local inances, o con inued o accele a e i s de elopmen .
Wo king closely wi h local municipali ies, businesses and o ganisa ions makes
i possible o ind compa ible p o iles (companies and municipal employees
du ing he day, amilies du ing he nigh s and weekends), inc ease he ehicle
occupancy a e, he ca -sha ing se ice p o i abili y and hus educe he cos o
public inancial suppo (see 1.4.1.2).
Table 9: Summa y o ca -sha ing good p ac ices
50
2. SHARED MICROMOBILITY IN A 15-MINUTE CITY
NEIGHBOURHOOD
2.1. Backg ound and de ini ion o sha ed mobili y, and i s po en ial use in a
15mC neighbou hood
Backg ound and de ini ion
In line wi h epo 2.1, we use he de ini ion o sha ed mic omobili y as “a sho - e m access o sha ed
ehicles, acco ding o use needs and con enience, a he han equi ing ehicle owne ship” (Shaheen &
Cohen, 2019). Wi h he excep ion o ca -sha ing, all o he ehicles a e o indi idual use and ha e low
speeds (mos up o 30km/h). In his sense, he e m mic omobili y was coined o e e o small,
ligh weigh and low-speed sha ed modes as mopeds, bicycles, and scoo e s (Shaheen & Cohen, 2019). Thus
“ adi ional” sho o long- e m en al sys ems a e excluded om he scope.
One o he i s well-documen ed sel -se ice bicycle schemes was an ini ia i e launched by Luud
Schimmelplannink in 1965, a Du ch indus ialis and poli ician, in associa ion wi h he P o o coun e -
cul u e g oup, in Ams e dam. The “Whi e Bicycle Plan” consis ed o making 50 bicycles a ailable o he
public h oughou he ci y, una ached and accessible o e e yone. The main aim was o elie e
conges ion in he ci y, a a ime when cycling was s ill a om being he no m in Ams e dam, by o e ing
ee access o bikes. Wi hin a mon h, all he bikes had been s olen o h own in o he ci y's canals.
Howe e , he idea behind he scheme was no o achie e a iable sys em in he long e m, bu o y ou
an ini ial expe imen and d aw a en ion o he p oblem o ca s in he ci y (O'Sulli an, 2022).
In 1995, he i s secu e sys em was in oduced in Po smou h (pa ly unded by he Eu opean
ENTRANCE p og amme), wi h he ins alla ion o docks and magne ic ca d access. Simila secu e
sys ems we e hen de eloped in F ance by u ban ad e ising companies (Clea Channel and JC Decaux),
i s in Rennes in 1998 and hen in Lyon in 2005. Howe e , i is he sys em de eloped in Pa is in 2007
(Vélib') ha is a ac ing wo ldwide a en ion and seems o be one o he s a ing poin s o he sp ead
o such sys ems a ound he wo ld. An equi alen sys em had also been de eloped in pa allel in B ussels,
also ope a ed by JC Decaux, ini ially unde he name “Cycloci y” ( om 2006) and hen “Villo!” ( om
2009).
Today, depending on he sou ce, be ween 1,590 (Bikesha emap websi e) and 3,000 (O'Sulli an,
2022) owns a ound he wo ld a e equipped wi h one o mo e bike-sha ing sys ems.
The Bikesha emap websi e, an indi idual ini ia i e, p o ides a egula ly upda ed lis o bikesha e
schemes. I shows a e y high concen a ion o such sys ems in Eu ope (pa icula ly in he UK, Ge many,
Poland, F ance, and I aly), China and he eas coas o he USA (and o a lesse ex en in La in Ame ica)
(see Figu e 10: Wo lwide dis ibu ion o bike-sha ing sys em (© Bikesha emap)
51
Figu e 10: Wo lwide dis ibu ion o bike-sha ing sys em (© Bikesha emap)
The de elopmen o sha ed scoo e s is much mo e ecen . In 2016, Neu on Mobili y de eloped a
sys em o scoo e s wi h a s a ion in Singapo e. In 2017, Bi d and Lime se up a sys em o elec ic scoo e s
wi hou a s a ion, known as ee- loa ing. The ehicle is unlocked using a sma phone. Vi ual docking
s a ions ha e been se up in some ci ies (whe e scoo e s can be “locked” in geog aphically de ined
a eas), o limi he amoun o public space aken up by scoo e s. O e all, hese sha ed scoo e sys ems
a e mainly p omo ed by he p i a e sec o . The a e age se ice use is male (2/3 o cus ome s), wi h an
a e age age o 30-35 and a highe - han-a e age sala y (Ch is o o ou and al., 2021). A me a-analysis o
ips made in Ame ican, F ench and No wegian ci ies shows ha ips a e a he sho (1.81 km on
a e age o a du a ion o 13 minu es), wi h ce ain excep ions (no ably in F ance), linked o ec ea ional
use wi h much longe imes and dis ances. In hese same ci ies, he easons o using sha ed scoo e s
a e mainly ec ea ional o leisu e- ela ed (o e 50% in hal he ci ies), wi h wo k- ela ed use mos ly
below 30%. These esul s a e consis en wi h ai ly low usage a es pe use (10% maximum), in line
wi h he limi ed a ailabili y o subsc ip ions. The use o scoo e s o ge o public anspo s a ions is
also e y low (less han 10% o use in hal he ci ies). In Eu ope, in mo e han 80% o cases, scoo e use
eplaces ano he ecologically sus ainable mode (walking, cycling o public anspo ), while in he
Uni ed S a es he igu e is mo e a ound 50% (Badia and Jenelius, 2023).
Finally, he las decade has also seen he eme gence o sha ed moped sys ems, wi h a s ong accele a ion
in ecen yea s. (Loudon & al., 2023). E-mopeds a e mo o scoo e s “wi h a sea ed-design, elec ic-
powe ed” (Shaheen & Cohen, 2019). They allow longe jou neys han bicycles and scoo e s (Aguile a-
Ga cia & al., 2020).
Po en ial use o sha ed mic omobili y in ou ski s, in a 15mC policy
Today, mos sha ed-mic omobili y sys ems a e implemen ed in densely popula ed ci ies. As a esul ,
subu ban a eas a ely ha e hei own sys em, bu a e in mos (i no all) cases se ed by he sys em o
he ci y on which hey “depend”. This makes i di icul o design a speci ic pa e n o hese sec o s
when se ing up such a sys em (which is designed on a e i o y-wide scale), o e en o s udy
exis ing sys ems by es ic ing he s udy pe ime e o hei subu ban a eas (wi h e y li le
li e a u e on his speci ic scope).
The deploymen o sha ed mobili y sys ems can encou age he use o so e modes o anspo han he
ca o people who don' ha e hei own “so ” ehicle, o who ea ha i may be s olen. In his way, he
deploymen o such sys ems can inc ease accessibili y o a ious se ices and acili ies using so modes,
and hus pa icipa e in a 15mC- ype policy.
52
Implemen ing such sha ed- ehicle sys ems aises pa icula issues in low-densi y a eas: on he one
hand, a c i ical lee size mus be su icien o he sys em o be a ac i e (so ha a po en ial use can
easily ind a ehicle when he o she needs one), while gua an eeing a su icien numbe o daily uses
(jus i ying he e y concep o he sys em and making i possible o inc ease e enues).
2.2. Di e en ypes o se ices ( ehicles, sys ems)
The e a e di e en sys ems o pa king bikes o scoo e , om he mos secu e (s a ions wi h one dock
pe ehicle, making he mo e di icul ) o he mos lexible ( ull ee- loa ing).
 Sys ems wi h physical s a ions (common o bicycles, e y a e o scoo e s)
The exis ence o physical s a ions makes i possible o limi he he and andalism o ehicles. On he
o he hand, i in ol es subs an ial in es men and a high le el o occupa ion o public space.
Fu he mo e, adding, ex ending o emo ing s a ions equi es ci il enginee ing wo k and is he e o e
much less lexible han i ual s a ion sys ems o ull ee- loa ing.
Figu e 11: A Velib' s a ion wi h docks (© Velib')
Some ligh e sys ems exis , such as compac docking sys ems. The idea is ha a dock can accommoda e
se e al bicycles, a ached o each o he . Such sys ems ha e been de eloped, o example, by Fi een ( he
name being a e e ence o he 15mC) (see Figu e 12: A Fi een s a ion ha can accommoda e se e al
bikes in a single dock (© Fi een)). The p oposed dock can accommoda e a leas 10 bicycles, sa ing
space in he public space and educing in es men cos s. P o ision has been made o he e en uali y o
a bike b eaking down in he middle o a queue: a second dock has been ins alled o s o ing damaged
bikes.
This sys em has been implemen ed in medium-sized owns in F ance, including:
 A ignon (90,000 inhabi an s, 1,400 inhabi an s/km²) and h ee neighbou ing owns.
Ins alla ion o 29 s a ions o 300 bicycles,
 The Communau é d'Agglomé a ion d'Épinal: Épinal ( he own cen e wi h 32,000 inhabi an s
and a popula ion densi y o 550 inhabi an s/km², bu also 6 o he communes in he
agglome a ion, some wi h ewe han 1,000 inhabi an s).
53
1Figu e 12: A Fi een s a ion ha can accommoda e se e al bikes in a single dock (© Fi een)
Ano he in e es ing ligh weigh sys em has been de eloped by he s a -up F edo (see Figu e 13). I
o e s an o iginal sys em o connec ed locks ha can be adap ed o all ypes o bikes and allows hem o
be a ached o exis ing pa king hoops. The local au ho i y can de ine he a eas in which he bikes can be
a ached, and an applica ion can be used o lock/unlock he bikes, as well as geoloca ing hem ia he
lock.
In his way, he bicycle lee can be made up o a a ie y o bicycles (pa icula ly second-hand ones), and
he de ini ion by he local au ho i y o he a eas in which he bicycles can be hooked up means ha he
se ice can be upg aded e y easily, wi hou he need o hea y in as uc u e. This sys em could
he e o e be a e y a ac i e al e na i e o less densely popula ed a eas.
Figu e 13: F edo's ligh weigh sys em wi h connec ed padlock (© F edo)

54
 Sys ems wi h i ual s a ions (bicycles and scoo e s)
An e en ligh e sys em consis s o se ing up i ual s a ions ( e y simply ma ked on he g ound, bu
wi h no physical s uc u e). Use s hen ha e o go o hese p ecise geog aphical poin s o be able o lock
hei bikes (by geoloca ing hem). While his sys em makes i possible o egula e he loca ion o bicycles
(in pa icula by p e en ing unau ho ised pa king on pa emen s), i does no p e en he he o
bicycles o ac s o andalism (such as h owing hem in o i e s o canals).
A he end o 2023, he ci y o B ussels began olling ou d op zones, whe e use s can lock sha ed elec ic
bikes and scoo e s. Ini ially numbe ing 450, hey a e expec ed o g ow o a ound 3,000 ac oss he
egion.
 Full ee- loa ing sys ems (bicycles and scoo e s)
Finally, he ull ee- loa ing sys em does no impose any cons ain s on he a eas whe e bikes can be
le and locked. These a e he ligh es in e ms o in as uc u e, bu also he leas secu e, and po en ially
he leas legible o use s. Such a sys em can cause p oblems in e ms o he use o public space.
2.3. Go e nance o sha ed mic omobili y se ices
The sys em can be se up in a ious ways, om en i ely public o almos en i ely p i a e:
 In e nal: ull public managemen o he se ice, wi h public employees dedica ed o unning he
sys em (e.g., Sain -É ienne o La Rochelle in F ance).
 In i a ion o ende o he managemen o he bike-sha e se ice. The sys em is hen managed
by a se ice p o ide paid by he local au ho i y e.g., in he Pa is Me opolis). This in i a ion o
ende can be ca ied ou :
o Wi h o wi hou supply o equipmen and ela ed sys em
o Linked o a s ee u ni u e con ac o no
 Public se ice delega ion/concession, in eg a ed in o he public anspo delega ion o no (e.g.,
S asbou g o La Rochelle in F ance).
 Simple au ho isa ion by he public au ho i y o ope a e a p i a e se ice on he e i o y (e.g.,
Do o Tie )
Fo smalle local au ho i ies, i is likely o be mo e complica ed o se up a sel -managemen sys em, due
o he lack o human esou ces.
Rega dless o he local go e nance chosen o he sys em deploymen , he local au ho i y can impose
( o a g ea e o lesse ex en ) ce ain s anda ds o se ing up he sys em (dis ibu ion o s a ions,
numbe o bicycles pe inhabi an , e c.), hese eques s being po en ially linked o inancial
conside a ions.
In e ms o geog aphical co e age, he e a e se e al ypes o sys em:
 Sys ems loca ed in a single ci y ( he case o mos sys ems)
 Sys ems based in a la ge ci y and i s subu bs, such as:
o Velib' in Pa is and 64 subu ban communes (see Figu e 11)
o Villo B ussels, in 19 di e en municipali ies
o VélO2, in Ce gy-Pon oise (F ance), in 7 di e en communes
 Region-wide sys ems, such as in he Ruh (12 owns)
I is in e es ing o no e ha mos o Eu ope's majo ci ies ha e a bike-sha e sys em. O he 65 ci ies
wi h mo e han 500,000 inhabi an s, only wo do no : K akow (whe e he se ice was discon inued
in 2019, bu whe e discussions a e unde way o c ea e a new se ice) and A hens (whe e a pilo si e is
being s udied).
55
Many medium-sized and e en small owns ha e also de eloped such sys ems: Linz (Aus ia,
popula ion 213,000), Namu (Belgium, popula ion 114,000) and e en Esz e gom (Hunga y, popula ion
28,000).
Medium-densi y owns, whe he cen al ci ies o subu bs o he cen al ci y, a e also equipped wi h such
sys ems.
Finally, o he sys ems a e deployed on a na ional scale. In Belgium, he blue-Bike sys em is being
de eloped a mo e han 110 poin s, co e ing mos o Flande s.
In he Ne he lands, he OV-Fie s sys em, managed by he na ional ailway company, allows ain use s
o bo ow a bike om hei a i al s a ion o ge o hei inal des ina ion. In 2019, he e we e 20,500
bicycles a 300 s a ions, wi h 890,000 subsc ibe s.
The go e nance en isaged will ha e an impac on he spa ial equi y o he dis ibu ion o ehicles. I he
ci y issues a call o ende s, i will ha e comple e eedom o se objec i es in e ms o equi y o se ice,
as well as he desi ed co e age o he e i o y. I i au ho ises a p i a e ope a o o deploy ehicles on
i s e i o y, i will also be able o nego ia e ce ain elemen s (such as he in oduc ion o social a i s).
A s udy (Bac, Ma que and Mi alles-Guasch, 2023) shows he a ie y o s a egies used by ci ies o deal
wi h hese issues, om comple ely un egula ed app oaches o nume us clausus models. Ci ies a e
becoming inc easingly awa e o he need o be e egula e he loca ion o ehicles ( om a spa ial as
well as a social poin o iew), while a he same ime ensu ing ha inancial iabili y does no
de e io a e oo much (as imposing nume ous s anda ds is a bu den on e enues, and may he e o e
equi e inancial pa icipa ion om he communi y, wi h he need o subsidies).
2.4. Business models o sha ed mic omobili y se ices
2.4.1. To subsidize o no o subsidize, ha is he ques ion
In e ms o he business model, he main issue is he le el o subsidy p o ided by he local
au ho i y.
Fo subsidised sys ems ( ega dless o he ype o go e nance), a es a e gene ally e y a o dable,
especially o egula use s. In addi ion o daily a es, mon hly o annual season icke s a e a ailable,
wi h he i s hal -hou o each jou ney ee o cha ge. Fa es a e gene ally di e en ia ed i he e a e
mechanical and elec ic bicycles on he same ne wo k:
 Cos o annual season icke : Vienna (€59), An we p (€58), Budapes (€20), Milan (€35), Lisbon
(€25), Bucha es (€50), Ba celona (€50), London (£120) ...
 Fo sys ems ha include elec ic bicycles, he e may be:
o An addi ional subsc ip ion ee o access o elec ic bikes wi h he i s hal -hou ee: in
Pa is, o example, he annual “mechanical” subsc ip ion cos s €37 bu €112 o he elec-
ic subsc ip ion.
o O he cos o hi ing elec ic bikes om he i s minu e: in Ba celona, he i s hal -hou
o elec ic bike hi e cos s €0.35, e en i you ha e a season icke .
These schemes in ol e a po en ially signi ican con ibu ion om he local au ho i y. A 2019 Ademe
epo on 45 F ench sha ed bike schemes es ima ed ha he local au ho i y would need o spend a ound
€1,500 pe bike pe yea o achie e a inancially balanced sys em. By way o example, o he Vélib'
sys em, in 2023 he a e income came o €28 million, and he subsidies om he a ious local au ho i ies
o €34 million, i.e., almos 55% o he ope a ing budge . These subsidy le els can a y g ea ly om one
sys em o ano he , depending on he ype o equipmen used, andalism a e, ehicle usage a e, a i
le el. Un o una ely, he e seem o be no la ge-scale su ey o subsidy a es o sha ed mic omobili y
sys ems. Howe e , i should be bo ne in mind ha public anspo is also hea ily subsidised. In he Île-
de-F ance egion, passenge e enue co e s only 33% o o al cos s. This igu e is 17% o De Lijn public
56
anspo . Budge a y ade-o s be ween he di e en modes o anspo mus he e o e be made by
he ele an au ho i ies.
O he ypes o e enue can be used o educe he public con ibu ion, pa icula ly ad e ising: pos e s
on he s a ions and on he bicycles, o pa ne ships wi h p i a e companies (pa ne ships wi h Ci ibank
in New Yo k o San ande in London).
O he sys ems do no bene i om any subsidies, in pa icula ce ain ee- loa ing bicycle
sys ems o scoo e s deployed by ope a o s such as Lime o Tie . Fa es a e gene ally much highe
(due o he lack o subsidy and he ac ha many o he ehicles a e elec ic), and a e he e o e aimed
 In Be lin, he cos o a Lime-bike is €1 o unlock he bike, plus €0.27 pe minu e, i.e., €9 o a
hal -hou jou ney (and he e o e much mo e expensi e han a mon hly subsc ip ion o a adi-
ional public-subsidised bike-sha e se ice).
 The TIER scoo e se ice is billed a be ween €0.15 and €0.20 pe minu e, depending on he ci y,
wi h a €1 unlocking ee ( ee i you ake he €4.99 mon hly subsc ip ion). E en wi h a season
icke , a 15-minu e jou ney cos s be ween €2 and €3.
Howe e , some p i a e ope a o s o e p og ammes aimed a ce ain disad an aged g oups. Fo
example, Lime o e s a p og amme called “Lime” Access, which allows di e en ypes o use s
(unemployed, s uden s, e c.) o bene i om special a es. In he UK, o example, a 50% educ ion in
a es is applied o hese use s. Bene icia ies a e o en de ined a na ional le el, bu addi ional
bene icia ies may be iden i ied in ce ain ci ies ( o example, in Bo deaux, s uden s can bene i om he
p og amme, bu no hose om o he ci ies).
A s udy (Delbsc & Thigpen, 2024) ca ied ou on membe s o he “Access” p og amme (in he Uni ed
S a es, New Zealand and Aus alia) shows, in e es ingly enough, ha hey use bicycles and scoo e s
di e en ly (and mo e i uously) han o he use s (non-membe s o he Access p og amme). They use
sha ed ehicles mo e egula ly (35% o daily use compa ed wi h 7% o he o he s), and mo e o en o
ge o a public anspo s a ion (44% compa ed wi h 23%).
Pony, a F ench company o e ing sha ed bikes and scoo e s, has de eloped an inno a i e inancing
model. The ehicles a e no inanced and owned by Pony, bu by p i a e indi iduals, who ecei e 40%
o he e enue gene a ed by jou neys made wi h hei ehicle. They also enjoy a numbe o addi ional
bene i s: hey can use hei ehicle o as long as hey like, ee o cha ge (which can be complica ed i
i 's a om whe e hey s ay) o en ano he one a a p e e en ial a e. Finally, hey can allow hei
ela ions o use hei ehicle a a p e e en ial a e. The e a e h ee ad an ages o his sys em: he
company unning he sys em can deploy i wi hou ha ing o in es oo much i sel , he a e age use o
he bikes can be boos ed by he ac ha he owne has access o hem whene e hey wan , and i is o
be hoped ha , o e all, esiden s will be mo e espec ul o he ehicles i hey know ha hey a e
inanced by o he esiden s (an a gumen pu o wa d by Pony).
2.4.2. Some key da a on sys em sizing and uses
The Ce ema gi es he ollowing ecommenda ions o implemen ing a sha ed bike sys em (Ce ema,
2019):
 Geog aphical co e age o a leas 10 km².
 S a ion densi y: be ween 10 and 16 s a ions / km², i.e., one s a ion wi hin 300 m o each in-
habi an
 Numbe o bicycles pe 1,000 inhabi an s: be ween 10 and 30
 U ilisa ion a e: be ween 4 and 8 jou neys pe day o la ge owns, ewe o smalle ones. 1 ip
pe day o e e y 20 o 40 inhabi an s.
Howe e , a mo e de ailed analysis o la ge sys ems ope a ing in se e al municipali ies shows ha in
Pa is (Vélib') and B ussels (Villo!), hese a ios a e a om being achie ed, pa icula ly in e ms o he
57
numbe o bicycles. Fo each o hese wo a eas, we show he a e age numbe o s a ions and he a e age
numbe o acks as a unc ion o he densi y o he municipali y.
We can see ha he numbe o s a ions and acks is e y low as he densi y dec eases (ou lying
owns). Howe e , ca e should be aken when using hese igu es, because in ou lying owns, i is
some imes only a po ion o he a ea ha is co e ed by he sha ed bike se ice (see Figu e 14).
Figu e 14: Ra io o numbe o s a ions and bicycles acco ding o he densi y o he a ea (sou ces:
Velib' and Villo !, analysis: L’Ins i u Pa is Region)
Fu he mo e, he o e all le el o bicycle use seems o be ai ly low. A benchma k ca ied ou in 2024
on behal o he B ussels-Capi al Region de ails he a e age numbe o en als pe day and pe bicycle
in 18 majo ci ies. Pa is, Ba celona and Lyon a e in he op 3, wi h 6 en als pe bicycle pe day (i should
be no ed ha hese h ee ci ies ha e a e y high p opo ion o elec ic bicycles in hei lee s). 5 ci ies
(Budapes , An we p, Luxembou g, Mad id and Lille) ha e daily usage a es o be ween 3 and 5.5. The
emaining 10 ci ies ha e daily usage a es o less han 2.6 (6 o which a e below 1.5) (Benchma k
in e na ional de se ices de loca ion de élos en lib e-se ice (VLS) e de élos longue du ée (VLD),
B ussels Capi al Region, 2024).
These ai ly modes usage a es seems o be e en lowe in small owns : aa s udy ca ied ou by
he I alian Na ional Obse a o y o Sha ed Mobili y shows ha o he as majo i y o I alian bike-
sha ing schemes, he a e age daily a e o ehicle use in 2019 was below 2, o e en 1 (see Figu e 15).
I should be bo ne in mind, howe e , ha hese igu es a e po en ially unde es ima es, inso a as hey
a e calcula ed on he basis o he en i e lee (some o which is s ill unde going main enance). Howe e ,
hey emain low o he smalles owns. E idence o low usage on low-dense e i o ies is a c ucial issue
o he DREAMS p ojec , o wo easons: i s ly, one o he main objec i es o a sha ed mic omobili y
sys em is o enable he same ehicle o be used by di e en use s o e he cou se o a day; secondly, he
le el o subsidy will depend on he le el o use o he ehicles, wi h low usage equi ing g ea e unding
om he communi y.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
- 5 000 10 000 15 000 20 000 25 000 30 000
Numbe o s a ions pe km²
Human densi y in he commune (inhabi an / km²)
Numbe o s a ions pe km² gi en he human densi y,
on he Pa is Me opolis
-
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
- 5 000 10 000 15 000 20 000 25 000 30 000
Numbe o docks pe 1.000 inhabi an s
Human densi y in he commune (inhabi an / km²)
Numbe o docks pe 1.000 inhabi an s gi en he
human densi y on he Pa is Me opolis
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
- 5 000 10 000 15 000 20 000 25 000 30 000
Numbe o s a ions pe km²
Human densi y in he commune (inhabi an / km²)
Numbe o s a ions pe km² gi en he human
densi y, on he B ussels me opolis
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
- 5 000 10 000 15 000 20 000 25 000 30 000
Numbe o docks pe 1.000 inhabi an s
Human densi y in he commune (inhabi an / km²)
Numbe o docks pe 1000 inhabi an s gi en
he human densi y on he B ussels Me opolis
64
3. CARPOOLING IN A 15-MINUTE CITY
NEIGHBOURHOOD
3.1. Backg ound and de ini ion o ca pooling, and i s po en ial use in a 15mC
neighbou hood
Ca pooling can be concep ualized as an a angemen whe e wo o mo e people, no belonging o he
same household, sha e he use o a p i a ely owned ca o a ip (o pa o a ip), and he passenge s
con ibu e o he d i e ’s expenses (Cia i & Axhausen, 2012; Rod igue e al., 2006).). By ensu ing be e
ca illing, inancial gains can be expec ed o a elle s, and po en ially ime sa ings i lanes ese ed
o ca poole s a e se up along he ou e, on conges ed s e ches o oad.
His o ically, he e ha e been majo su ges in ca pooling du ing oil sho ages (pa icula ly du ing he
wo ld wa s and oil c ises), bu ca pooling has always emained a ai ly modes le els.
I is pe ec ly sui ed o medium-densi y subu ban a eas: in dense u ban cen es, i is conside ed
i ele an when compa ed wi h o he modes ha allow g ea e massi ica ion and be e speeds (in
pa icula public anspo ), bu i s de elopmen equi es he abili y o ind a po en ial ca poole and
can he e o e only be ac i a ed in a eas wi h a minimum o densi y. Indus ial si es and economic si es
a e also pa icula ly ele an a eas o o ganising ca pooling, because o he high densi y o wo ke s,
especially i he wo k is o ganised in shi s (employees ha e common s a ing and inishing imes), as
his makes i easie o ind a ca poole .
A he same ime, he e a e a numbe o obs acles o ca pooling: in pa icula , he eluc ance o sha e a
ca , he di icul y o inding a ca poole who makes he same jou ney, and he need o use he ca o
o he ac i i ies du ing he day (picking up child en, e c.), ea s abou sa e y (pa icula ly o women).
The de elopmen o ca pooling can be encou aged by an ecosys em o measu es, implemen ed by
di e en playe s and ac ing a di e en le els (pu ing ca poole s in ouch wi h each o he , acili ies
enabling hem o mee physically o sa e ime, subsidies, e c.). These le e s a e desc ibed in de ail
below.
Howe e , ca pooling doesn' seem o be one o he majo le e s o be ac i a ed when ex ending he
15mC concep o subu ban a eas. I is mainly ele an o longe ips (a leas 10 km) and longe
jou neys (in all cases o e 15 minu es). Indeed, i 's only on longe jou neys ha he mone a y gains can
be subs an ial (one o he majo a gumen s d i ing use s o ca pool), and ha po en ial de ou s emain
accep able ( o pick up a ca poole o o join one). The e o e, like ca -sha ing, ca pooling seems o be an
ancilla y le e , po en ially enabling people o do wi hou a p i a e ca (o he household's second ca ),
and o adop mo e “ i uous” modal habi s o local a els.
In addi ion, he de elopmen o his se ice can make ce ain acili ies mo e accessible, pa icula ly o
people who do no use a ca on hei own (because hey do no ha e a d i ing licence, o hey do no
ha e a ehicle o because hey a e no longe i o d i e). Ca pooling can he e o e help o inc ease
accessibili y o ce ain se ices (o o addi ional jobs) o hose popula ions (o en mo e modes o
ulne able han a e age popula ion).

65
3.2. Di e en ypes o se ices o ca pooling
To encou age ca pooling, many ypes o le e s can be ac i a ed, by a wide ange o playe s:
3.2.1. Dedica ed ca pool lanes
High Occupancy Vehicles Lanes (HOV Lanes) began o be de eloped in he Uni ed S a es in he 1970s.
They can educe conges ion by educing he numbe o ehicles on he oad ( o a cons an o al numbe
o people anspo ed), and he e o e sa e ime o he communi y. By p o iding a compe i i e
ad an age o ca poole s (HOV lanes a e less conges ed han o he ou es), hey encou age ca pooling.
While nume ous s udies ha e shown he e ec i eness o hese in as uc u es in educing jou ney imes
(pa icula ly du ing ush hou ), some c i ics eg e ha he e ec s a e mo e mixed on ce ain p ojec s:
he unde -use o HOV Lanes can lead o excess conges ion on he o he lanes and he money in es ed by
he communi y would he e o e no be socio-economically p o i able o e all.
While housands o kilome es o ese ed lanes ha e now been ins alled in he Uni ed S a es and
Canada, he concep is s uggling o ca ch on elsewhe e, pa icula ly in Eu ope. Howe e , he e a e some
in e es ing examples:
 A he end o he 1990s, Mad id de eloped a 16km bus and ca pool lane on he A6, a adial
mo o way unning h ough a apidly g owing u ban co ido , a a cos o 57 million eu os. I
connec s di ec ly o a mul imodal in e change in he no h-wes o Mad id. When he lane was
opened, ime sa ings o buses we e subs an ial, bu hen ell back sligh ly wi h he ise in
ca pooling. Time sa ings o ca poole s ell o 43% a he peak, and he a e age occupancy a e
ose sha ply. Mo e ecen ly, he lane has been opened o ze o-emission ehicles.
 Much less expensi e p ojec s a e being de eloped in Spain in he wake o successi e economic
c ises. Fo example, Ba celona has c ea ed a lane ese ed o buses and ca poole s on he C-31,
using only pain , a a cos o €30,000. O he in e media e solu ions a e also being conside ed
(dynamic alloca ion o lanes, wi hou modi ying he hea y in as uc u e) (see Figu e 16).
 In he UK, some dedica ed bus and ca pool lanes ha e been in oduced on majo non-mo o way
sec ions o u ban oads, no ably in Leeds, B is ol, Bi mingham, Po bu y and B ad o d. They
ha e o en e ol ed o e ime, aking in o accoun eedback om public consul a ions.
 In F ance, G enoble was a pionee , c ea ing a dedica ed bus lane on he A48 in 2007, and
ese ing he le lane o ca poole s, axis and ze o-emission ehicles om 2020. In he Île-de-
F ance egion, a numbe o dedica ed bus lanes ha e been c ea ed on mo o ways, and hei
deploymen should con inue ia he “Schéma Di ec eu des Voies Rése ées,” (F ench o
Dedica ed Lanes Mas e Plan) wi h he addi ion o dedica ed ca pooling lanes.
66
Figu e 16: Dedica ed bus and ca pooling lane on he C-31 in Ba celona © Google S ee View
(2021)
3.2.2. Ca pooling pa ks
Ca pooling pa ks enable ca poole s o mee up: one ca poole lea es hei ehicle in a ca pa k, usually
close o an exp essway, and hen ge s in o he ehicle o he o he ca poole . To encou age ca - pooling,
some local au ho i ies a e building ca pa ks h oughou hei a eas (see Figu e 17).
Fo example, he Belgian egion o Wallonia has 112 ca -sha ing ca pa ks, wi h 3,700 spaces a ailable
ee o cha ge. These a e ei he ca pa ks c ea ed speci ically o his pu pose, o po ions o p e-exis ing
ca pa ks ha ha e subsequen ly been ese ed o ca poole s, whe he public o p i a e
(supe ma ke s, la ge e ail chains, e c.).
In a con ex whe e he issue o land a i icialisa ion is becoming inc easingly impo an , i is impo an
o gi e p io i y o sha ing wi h exis ing ca pa ks whe e e possible.
he use o such ca pa ks is gene ally ee o cha ge. The local au ho i y's aim is o encou age he use o
a mino i y mode o anspo . The e is he e o e no business model as such. Howe e , he p io i y use
o exis ing ca pa ks o de elop spaces ese ed o ca poole s can signi ican ly limi in es men cos s.
67
Figu e 17: Ca pooling a ea a l'Isle-Adam, Île-de-F ance © La gaze e du Val-d'Oise
3.2.3. Ma chmaking pla o ms
One o he majo challenges o he de elopmen o ca pooling is he possibili y o inding ano he
pe son making he same jou ney (o pa o he same jou ney). In e ne ma chmaking pla o ms a e one
way o inding a ca poole . They a e o e ed ei he by public au ho i ies o by ca pooling ope a o s (who
may ea n a commission om he inancial exchanges be ween ca -sha e s, pa icula ly o long-dis ance
ca -sha ing and, o a lesse ex en , o daily sho -dis ance ca -sha ing).
The challenge a ound he de elopmen o he a ious pla o ms is o p e en hem om mul iplying oo
much (each use ha ing o sea ch on he a ious pla o ms and needing o ha e an accoun o each
ope a o ). Some local au ho i ies ( o example : Île-de-de-F ance Mobili és, he Pa is Region anspo
au ho i y) may choose o in eg a e sho -dis ance ca -sha ing se ices in o hei public anspo ou e
planne s.
Some people a e eluc an o ca pool because hey ea o hei sa e y. Howe e , by ca pooling egula ly
wi h a known colleague, his ype o obs acle can be o e come. In his case, a company's in e nal
ma chmaking pla o m is an in e es ing ool.
3.2.4. Ca pooling ou es
Ca pooling ou es ope a e on he same model as public anspo se ices. Unlike adi ional ca pooling,
whe e you need o ind a ca poole in ad ance, ca poole s a e ma ched spon aneously on he day o he
jou ney.
Va ious s ops a e loca ed in he public space, jus like con en ional bus s ops. On a i al a he s a ion,
passenge s use a dedica ed mobile applica ion o indica e he s op hey wish o go o. This eques is
hen elayed o all he d i e s who ha e egis e ed o he se ice and ac i a ed he no i ica ions on hei
68
applica ion. Po en ial d i e s hen olun ee o pick up he passenge . I he wai ing ime is oo long,
acco ding o a h eshold se by he local au ho i y, he la e can o e o pick up he passenge by axi.
This op ion o e s g ea e secu i y o po en ial use s o hese ou es.
Fo example, he ci y o G enoble in F ance has e y ecen ly de eloped a ne wo k o 23 s ops and 15
lines, some o which bene i s om HOV lanes on a po ion o hei ou e (8 km, sa ing 10 minu es a
ush hou ). The ne wo k is o ganised by SMMAG, G enoble's anspo au ho i y. In 2023, 90,000 sea s
we e o e ed by d i e s, and 2,000 passenge s used he se ice egula ly, wi h an a e age wai ing ime
o less han h ee minu es (see Figu e 18).
Figu e 18: Ca pooling ou es deployed in he G enoble conu ba ion (© Eco )
The de elopmen o such ca pooling lines is gene ally suppo ed by local au ho i ies, in pa icula he
mobili y o ganising au ho i ies. These ou es a e in eg a ed in o he o e all mobili y o e (me o, ail,
bus). These pooling lines a e o en de eloped in a eas whe e he e is no enough a ic po en ial o se
up a bus ou e.
An ope a o is esponsible o he smoo h unning o he applica ion and o o de ing axis i wai ing
imes a e oo long. Ca -sha ing se ices a e gene ally subsidised in he same way as o he modes o
public anspo , acco ding o a subsidy a e speci ic o each local au ho i y. The d i e is gene ally paid
acco ding o he numbe o jou neys made (o en wi h mon hly ceilings o a oid his becoming a
p o essional ac i i y). Passenge s pay a a e, in he o m o a icke . The se ice may o may no be
included in public anspo season icke s.
3.2.5. O he bene i s o ca poole s
O he ad an ages can be o e ed o ca poole s. In pa icula , ese ed spaces in ca pa ks, as close as
possible o acili ies (spaces closes o public anspo access in pa k-and- ide acili ies, o as close as
possible o o ice access in company ca pa ks).
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3.3. Go e nance o ca pooling se ices
3.3.1. Dedica ed ca pool lanes
Depending on he local o ganisa ion o he a ea and he di ision o esponsibili ies, ese ed lanes may
be in oduced by he mo o way ope a o o concessionai e, ei he on i s own ini ia i e o a he eques
o and in coo dina ion wi h local au ho i ies (ci y, egion, mobili y au ho i y).
3.3.2. Ca pooling pa ks
Ca pooling pa ks a e o en de eloped a he ini ia i e o local au ho i ies. They can build hem
hemsel es (o ha e hem buil ) o en e in o ag eemen s wi h p i a e ca pa k owne s o ese e spaces
o ca pooling. Fo example, in Wallonia, some ca pooling pa ks a e sha ed wi h comme cial pa ne s
like IKEA.
3.3.3. Ma chmaking pla o ms
Ca pooling pla o ms may be de eloped by ca -sha ing ope a o s, o a he eques o local au ho i ies
o la ge companies (wishing o connec hei employees o o m ma ches), which hen pay o he
deploymen o he se ice (o en wi h ca pooling ope a o s).
3.3.4. Ca pooling ou es
The de elopmen o such ca pooling lines is gene ally suppo ed by local au ho i ies, in pa icula he
mobili y o ganising au ho i ies. These ou es a e in eg a ed in o he o e all mobili y o e (me o, ail,
bus). An ope a o is esponsible o he smoo h unning o he applica ion and o o de ing axis i
wai ing imes a e oo long.
3.4. Business models o ca pooling se ices
3.4.1. Dedica ed ca pool lanes
I he ese ed lane is ins alled on a sec ion o oad ha is no subjec o olls, he e will be no impac on
oad ne wo k e enues. Bu i i is ins alled on a sec ion o oad ha is subjec o olls, he change in
e enue will be linked o he o e all change in he numbe o ehicles using he sec ion ( he la e being
linked in pa icula o he ac ha he ese ed lane is an addi ional lane o c ea ed in place o a p e-
exis ing lane). In he Uni ed S a es, some ope a o s cha ge o he use o he ese ed lane by people
a elling alone in hei ca s ( his gene a es addi ional e enue and could po en ially inc ease he use
o he lane i i is no e y busy).
3.4.2. Ca pooling pa ks
The use o such ca pa ks is gene ally ee o cha ge. The local au ho i y's aim is o encou age he use o
a mino i y mode o anspo . The e is he e o e no business model as such. Howe e , he p io i y use
o exis ing ca pa ks o de elop spaces ese ed o ca poole s can signi ican ly limi in es men cos s.

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3.4.3. Ma chmaking pla o ms
The business model o sho -dis ance ca -sha ing is s ill s uggling o eme ge. Unlike long-dis ance ca -
sha ing, which o en equi es a new ca -sha e o be ound o each jou ney, sho -dis ance ca -sha e s
o en lea e he pla o m once hey ha e made hei ma ch (and a e he e o e no longe a po en ial
sou ce o emune a ion). As a esul , hese pla o ms a e o en subsidised by he local
au ho i y/company ha asked o he se ice o be se up.
The ca pool.be e enues come om selling dedica ed ca pool pla o ms and guidance o en e p ises,
making i possible no o ask commission on he ides.
In F ance, he “Regis e de P eu es de Co oi u age” (Ca pooling P oo Regis e , CPR) was c ea ed in 2018.
This is a na ional egis e collec ing all jou neys made by ca pooling ia ca pooling ope a o s. This
anonymised egis e makes i possible o check whe he a jou ney has ac ually been made by ca pooling
and se es as a basis o public au ho i ies o gi e inancial incen i es o ca poole s on hei e i o y
when hey decide o in oduce such aid. Ca poole s end o s op using an applica ion once he daily
ca pooling c ew has been o med (ca poole s usually a el wi h he same people). They only con inue
o use he applica ion when inancial incen i es a e o e ed by local au ho i ies o encou age hem o
ca pool, such as eimbu semen o he ca pooling jou ney o passenge s o d i e s. In he end, hese
incen i es can be e y expensi e o local au ho i ies, which aises he ques ion o whe he hese
expenses a e a d ain on he budge ha could ha e been alloca ed, o example, o de eloping public
anspo .
In addi ion, acco ding o he na ional obse a o y o e e yday ca pooling, analysis o his egis e
shows ha only 4% o ca pooling jou neys a e eco ded in he CPR, wi h he as majo i y o ca pooling
aking place in o mally, o en wi hin he same amily. The CPR also shows ha a signi ican p opo ion
o ca pooling jou neys a e e y sho o could heo e ically ha e been made using public anspo .
Some audulen use o he inancial incen i e is also obse ed. The public au ho i ies ha e been able o
use he CPR da a o adap hei inancial incen i e mechanisms (minimum and maximum dis ance o a
jou ney, exclusion o jou neys ha can be made using public anspo , daily and mon hly ceilings, e c.)
and o comba aud mo e e ec i ely, bu hese analyses ha e shown he limi s o he economic model
o ca pooling se ices based on cha ging commissions and inancial incen i es pe jou ney. This model
is also p oblema ic o he public au ho i ies inso a as he ope a o s' da a emains p i a e. Fo example,
he au ho i y does no ha e access o he da abases o people egis e ed o he se ice, which a e
ca e ully kep by he ope a o s o easons o compe i ion, no o he da abases o jou neys, which a e
o en only ansmi ed o he CPR. Fo he au ho i ies, he algo i hms used by ope a o s o p opose
ma ches be ween ca poole s a e also a black box. So, when an ope a o wi hd aws om an a ea, i akes
i s da a and so wa e wi h i , and he au ho i y canno capi alise on he da a and se ices i has helped
o de elop.
In he Pa is egion, he anspo au ho i y Île-de-F ance Mobili és (ÎDFM) has in oduced a policy o
inancial incen i es o encou age ca pooling. This policy has been implemen ed be ween May 2021 and
Decembe 2024, wi h a o al budge o €16,800,000 (€6,500,000 o 2024). I ollows on om se e al
expe imen al measu es o subsidise ca pooling ha had been pu in place be ween 2017 and 2020. The
new ag eemen was signed be ween ÎDFM and ou ca pooling ope a o s: Klaxi , BlaBlaCa Daily,
Yns an and Ka os (BlaBlaCa Daily acqui ed Klaxi in Ap il 2023). The scheme subsidises ca pooling
jou neys o be ween 2 and 30 km made in he Pa is egion (excluding Pa is). The jou ney is ee up o
30 km o passenge s who a e public anspo season icke holde s (up o a limi o wo jou neys pe
day) and equi es a inancial con ibu ion o o he ypes o passenge s o o jou neys o e 30 km o
season icke holde s. Depending on he dis ance a elled, he d i e can bene i om €1.5 o €3 pe
passenge ca ied, up o a limi o 6 jou neys pe day and €150 pe mon h. Du ing pe iods o majo
anspo dis u bances (s ikes, e c.) o pollu ion peaks, assis ance o d i e s is inc eased and can
ange om €2.25 o €4.50 pe passenge , wi h no mon hly limi . ÎDFM also pays ope a o s a ee based
on he numbe o passenge jou neys made h ough hem (€0.5 excluding VAT pe jou ney o he i s
100,000 jou neys, hen deg essi ely by h eshold up o €0.15 excluding VAT o jou neys made beyond
he 2,000,001s jou ney). This emune a ion is used o inance pa o he di ec p oduc ion cos s o a
passenge jou ney o he ope a o (ma ching algo i hms, cloud hos ing, bank cha ges o paymen s o
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ca poole s, sending o ex messages, e c.). Las ly, ÎDFM o e s emune a ion o ca -sha ing ope a o s
o he de elopmen o echnical unc ionali ies o in eg a ion in o he Île-de-F ance Mobili és MaaS.
The de elopmen cos s incu ed a e inanced up o 70% o he expenses paid, up o a maximum o
€100,000 excluding VAT. In he ÎDFM mobile applica ion, he sea ch o an i ine a y includes a
sugges ed jou ney by public anspo , bu also by ca pooling i a jou ney has been sugges ed by a d i e
on he applica ion o an ag eed ope a o . The jou ney sugges ed on he ÎDFM applica ion hen edi ec s
he use o he applica ion o he ope a o . The use can egis e o he se ice, book he jou ney wi h
he d i e and bene i om ee a el i hey ha e a public anspo season icke ( o p o e his, he o
she mus iden i y himsel o he sel wi h his o he ÎDFM accoun ). In Decembe 2023, ÎDFM announced
ha i would be aking o e he ask o connec ing ca poole s o subsidised sho -dis ance jou neys. A
call o ende s was launched in ea ly 2024 o selec a single pla o m unde he ÎDFM b and, o be
ope a ed by a single ope a o om 2025.
In Decembe 2022, he F ench go e nmen launched a na ional plan o commu e ca pooling, wi h he
aim o ipling he numbe o ca pools by 2027 ( om 900,000 o 3 million daily ca pools). The plan
includes a €100 subsidy o d i e s egis e ing o he i s ime on a ca pooling applica ion, aid o
encou age local au ho i ies o se up inancial incen i es o ca poole s, and unding o ca pooling
pa ks, dedica ed ca pooling lanes and ca pooling ou es. I has been alloca ed 150,000,000 eu os o
2023 and has been enewed o 2024. Since 2020, he Fo ai Mobili és Du ables (Sus ainable Mobili y
Aid) has enabled employe s o encou age hei employees o use al e na i es o he ca , including
ca pooling, by gi ing hem a ax- ee bonus o up o €800 pe yea . Despi e hese schemes, only 10,000
ca pooling jou neys pe day we e eco ded by he CPR in Île-de-F ance in Sep embe 2024, ou o a o al
o 42 million daily jou neys in he egion (14 million o which a e by ca ). This aises ques ions abou
he e ec i eness o inancial incen i es o de eloping ca pooling. We migh also ques ion he
subsidising o p i a e companies wi h public money o a disappoin ing se ice (only 0.04% o he
kilome es a elled on daily jou neys a e co e ed by ca pooling ia a pla o m) and a ques ionable
ecological balance (compe i ion wi h public anspo in pa icula ).
Ano he possible model o ca pooling se ices is he coope a i e model. Mobicoop is a F ench limi ed-
p o i coope a i e o e ing ca pooling se ices o public au ho i ies and businesses. Unlike companies
such as Klaxi , Yns an o BlablaCa Daily, which a e paid by aking commission on ca pooling jou neys
made by d i e s and passenge s, Mobicoop o e s a pe sonalised ma chmaking pla o m se ice o local
au ho i ies and, o a lesse ex en , businesses. Ca poole s con ac each o he ia he pla o m and sha e
he cos o hei jou neys, i hey wish, in he way hey choose. Mobicoop akes no commission on
jou neys, and ca poole s do no ha e o use an applica ion o each jou ney. The link be ween he
ope a o and he local au ho i y is a public se ice delega ion es ablished o a de ined pe iod, gene ally
a ew yea s. The au ho i y owns he da a, and bo h he pla o m and he mobile applica ion a e
de eloped using open-sou ce so wa e, enabling he au ho i y o main ain he se ice i he con ac is
no enewed, bu also o de elop i as i likes i i wan s o. The coope a i e o m allows all pa ne s o
pa icipa e in Mobicoop's go e nance and democ a ic li e. Use s, local au ho i ies and employees can
become membe s by aking a sha e in he coope a i e and o e a he gene al mee ing on he basis o
one pe son, one o e. Local au ho i ies a e ep esen ed on he supe iso y boa d and can he e o e
in luence decisions aken by he coope a i e. Mobicoop also o e s local au ho i ies a spon aneous
ca pooling se ice, o o ganised hi chhiking, called Rézopouce. People wishing o ca pool can s and a
hese s ops o le mo o is s know ha hey a e looking o a d i e and indica e hei des ina ion using
a simple sign o he Mobicoop mobile applica ion. This low- ech, low-cos solu ion can, o example, be
used o each a mobili y hub om u ban ou ski s wi h poo public anspo .
3.4.4. Ca pooling ou es
Ca pooling ou es a e subsidised in he same way as o he modes o public anspo , acco ding o a
subsidy a e speci ic o each local au ho i y. The d i e is gene ally paid acco ding o he numbe o
jou neys made (o en wi h mon hly ceilings o a oid his becoming a p o essional ac i i y). Passenge s
pay a a e, in he o m o a icke . The se ice may o may no be included in public anspo season
icke s.
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In he Pa is Region, Île-de-F ance Mobili és will c ea e 12 ca pooling ou es in 2025, physically ma ked
by s ops and equipped wi h pa k-and- ide acili ies. Th ee ou es will be ialled a he beginning o
2025 in he Essonne and Y elines depa men s o link small owns o he Saclay pla eau, in a eas wi h
ewe public anspo . ÎDFM will only und he d i e 's sha e, i.e., be ween €1.50 and €3 (depending
on he dis ance) pe passenge and pe jou ney. Fo he 12 lines al eady planned, ÎDFM plans o elease
€26 million be ween 2024 and 2027.
Inso a as ca pooling is a he an “ancilla y” le e o he 15mC concep , and he ypes o measu es ha
can be pu in place a e e y nume ous, we a e no p oposing any ecommenda ions in his sec ion.
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3.5. O e iew o ca pooling se ices o he 15mC
neighbou hood
Ca pooling
Rele ance
Ca pooling doesn' seem o be one o he majo le e s o be ac i a ed when
ex ending he 15mC concep o subu ban a eas. I is mainly ele an o
longe ips (a leas 10 km) and longe jou neys (in all cases o e 15
minu es). Indeed, i 's only on longe jou neys ha he mone a y gains can be
subs an ial (one o he majo a gumen s d i ing use s o ca pool), and ha
po en ial de ou s emain accep able ( o pick up a ca poole o o join one).
The e o e, like ca -sha ing, ca pooling seems o be an ancilla y policy,
po en ially enabling people o do wi hou a p i a e ca (o he household's
second ca ), and o adop mo e “ i uous” modal habi s o local a els.
Po en ial
The de elopmen o his se ice can make ce ain acili ies mo e accessible,
pa icula ly o people who do no use a ca on hei own (because hey do
no ha e a d i ing licence, o hey do no ha e a ehicle o because hey a e
no longe i o d i e). Ca pooling can he e o e help o inc ease accessibili y
o ce ain se ices (o o addi ional jobs) o hose popula ions (o en mo e
modes o ulne able han a e age popula ion).
Go e nance /
egula ion
P e iously men ioned solu ions showed ha he de elopmen o ca pooling
can be based on a numbe o le e s ha can be ac i a ed by di e en playe s:
public au ho i ies, anspo au ho i ies, oad manage s, companies,
ca pooling ope a o s, e c.
Business amewo ks
Inso a as sho -dis ance ca pooling is s ill eme ging and in he mino i y in
Eu ope, he de elopmen o business models doesn' seem o be on he
agenda. We' e s ill in a si ua ion whe e local au ho i ies subsidize ca pooling
o encou age i s de elopmen .
Issues / poin s o
imp o emen
The modal sha e o ca pooling is cu en ly low, bu subsidising ca pooling
jou neys could lead o a sha p inc ease in public spending i ca pooling akes
o . De eloping dedica ed ca pooling lanes on main oads and ca pool pa ks
ups eam o commu es made mainly by p i a e ca can encou age ca pooling.
These a e in es men s ha do no equi e subsidies linked o he numbe o
jou neys made and will he e o e no equi e an inc ease in public spending
i ca pooling becomes mo e widesp ead. Ma chmaking pla o ms can be
use ul and ha e an ope a ing cos ha is no di ec ly linked o he numbe o
ca pooling jou neys. Ca pooling ou es ha e po en ial on ce ain co ido s,
bu hei ope a ing cos s may a y acco ding o he le el o se ice p o ided.
Table 17: O e iew o ca pooling se ices o he 15mC in u ban ou ski s
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o in oducing elec ic buses o Po uguese ci ies. In his con ex , he ci y o Viseu de eloped and
implemen ed a semi- lex DRT sys em wi h h ee elec ic minibuses, which ollows a se ou e and
ope a es on demand, p ima ily o he elde ly popula ion o he ci y o be able o access acili ies in he
ci y cen e. Passenge s could a el o ee, bu low-cos a es we e in oduced in 2020 o main ain he
sus ainabili y o he scheme. S a ing as a demons a ion p ojec , i is s ill unning, wi h a ound 13,000
use s pe yea . DRT schemes like his could be in e es ing o o he ci ies wi h a his o ic ci y cen e ha
limi s access ( o example, a low-emission zone), wi h many elde ly ci izens o ou is s (K ell & Hunkin,
2024).
Taxi se ices a e bo h eliable and lexible o use s bu a a high cos .
Hyb id and semi- lexible DRT se ices a e mo e con enien and cos -e icien in he u ban ou ski s,
hey p o ide op imal balance be ween eliabili y, ope a ional cos s, and cus ome sa is ac ion, unless
he e is a la ge economic con ibu ion om he subsidising public au ho i y in deploying and ope a ing
a la ge lee o ehicles (EIT, 2022).
4.3. Go e nance o demand- esponsi e anspo
Public au ho i ies play a leading ole in es ablishing, implemen ing and moni o ing DRT schemes,
helping o b ing oge he he necessa y ac o s o un hem. (K ell & Hunkin, 2024). Thei ole co e s
e e y hing om licencing and sa e y o unding and communi y engagemen . They se he o e all
egula o y and licencing amewo k in which DRT sys ems ope a e, including se ice s anda ds, sa e y
and en i onmen al equi emen s, d i e aining obliga ions, a e s uc u es and accessibili y
equi emen s. Licencing can ensu e ha ope a o s comply wi h hei egula o y equi emen s and
deli e a minimum se ice quali y. Essen ial pa ne s a e local public anspo companies, axi
companies o o he p i a e companies ac i ely in ol ed in deli e ing he se ice, bu also local
associa ions and companies ha can be help ul in engaging wi h ci izens, in o ming hem and engaging
hem in se ice planning.
Mobi win (see 4.2) desks a e always es ablished in collabo a ion wi h local municipali ies. A e all,
hey a e bes in o med abou local mobili y needs and can easily each ou a ge g oup. In he
pa ne ship be ween Mpac and he local municipali y, he di ision o esponsibili ies is as ollows:
The local municipali y is esponsible o :
 Dispa ching: Use s ese e hei ides a leas 48 hou s in ad ance, and he municipali y ma ches
he eques wi h a olun ee .
 En olling new use s o he se ice and e i ying ha hey a e less mobile and ha e limi ed
income.
 Rec ui ing olun ee s and o ganizing small ac i i ies o hem, such as sha ing cake on a
olun ee ’s bi hday.
Mpac is esponsible o :
 De eloping and main aining he so wa e pla o m (Mobi win O ice) ha enables municipali ies
o en oll use s and olun ee s, plan ides, manage in oicing, and s o e da a on he ides.
 De eloping and main aining he applica ion (Mobi win Calenda ) ha allows olun ee s o
check who hey need o anspo , when, and o/ om which loca ions.
 Following up on acciden s ha occu du ing he ides, managing epai s ia ou collec i e
insu ance, and handling he adminis a i e ollow-up.
 O ganizing s udy days and webina s on a ious opics, such as how o use he Mobi win O ice
so wa e, wha o do in he e en o acciden s, how o assis use s wi h men al heal h issues,
s a egies o ec ui ing new olun ee s, cybe secu i y, and mo e.
 Engaging in poli ical ad ocacy o de end he in e es s o people wi h limi ed mobili y.

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 Conduc ing esea ch and inno a ion ac i i ies, such as explo ing he possibili y o Mobi win
ides ia sha ed ehicles, conduc ing sa is ac ion su eys among use s, olun ee s, and
municipali ies, es ing new communica ion ini ia i es, e c.
In he Île-de-F ance egion, he i s public anspo se ice, Allobus, was in oduced in 1998 o se e
he Roissy Cha les de Gaulle ai po a ea. In 2010, he egion's single mobili y au ho i y, Île-de-F ance
Mobili és, designed a egion-wide public anspo ne wo k unde a public se ice delega ion con ac
wi h Keolis, and Allobus was enamed Filéo. The pa ne s we e he Val-d'Oise depa men al council, he
Seine-e -Ma ne depa men al council, he o me Te es de F ance communi y, which is now pa o he
Pa is Te es d'En ol communi y, he public limi ed company Aé opo s de Pa is, Ai F ance and Île-de-
F ance Mobili és. In 2017, he DRT ne wo ks we e b ough oge he unde a single b and, wi h a single
applica ion and a single call cen e: “TàD Île-de-F ance Mobili és” (TAD = T anspo à la demande, DRT
in F ench language). The e a e 40 DRT ope a ing zones, all loca ed in he u ban ou ski s, ep esen ing
767 communes, o hal o he 1,268 communes in Île-de-F ance. Some ope a e as hyb id se ices, o he s
as semi- lexible se ices, wi h a ia ions possible du ing he day (hyb id se ices a peak imes and
semi- lexible se ices a o -peak imes). DRT se ices a e open o compe i ion and ope a ed by a ious
p i a e ope a o s wi h 161 ehicles, mos o en minibuses. DRT se ices a e a ailable wi h a no mal
icke , a he same p ice as a egula bus. Rese a ions can be made on he TAD websi e, by elephone
o ia he mobile applica ion. 133 s a ions a e se ed, and 1.4 million jou neys ha e been made be ween
2019 and 2024 (Île-de-F ance Mobili és, 2024).
De Mobil (see Figu e 20) is a DRT sys em ope a ing in Eas Ty ol (Aus ia). I wo ks on a ixed ime able,
bu he ou e a elled a ies depending on demand. Use s can book hei jou ney by elephone, a leas
one hou in ad ance o depa u e. While he municipali ies ook he lead, he success o he scheme was
ensu ed h ough co-ope a ion wi h he local axi ope a o , who ope a e he ehicles, hough hose
ehicles a e owned by he Go e nmen o Ty ol. In 2017, De Mobil was aken o e by he egional public
anspo associa ion, which p o ides unding and ensu es ha he sys em is in eg a ed in o he b oade
mobili y sys em and is ma ke ed as pa o he wide ne wo k. Ticke s ha e also been uni ied and
in eg a ed in o a single icke ing sys em.
The TADEx DRT sys em ope a es in he eas e n pa o Ex emadu a (Spain), linking smalle owns (less
han 2,000 inhabi an s) wi h he nea es anspo ne wo k hubs. TADEx aims o inc ease he cos and
ene gy-e iciency o he anspo sys em, ensu e be e use o capaci y by using app op ia e ypes and
sizes o ehicles based on demand, and encou age g ea e use o public anspo . The se ice is
comp ised o wo in e ci y bus lines, and use s can eques and book ips ia websi e, app o phone
call. Ope a ing since 2022 as a pilo p ojec unded by he egional go e nmen , Ex emadu a aims o
oll he sys em ou o o he pa s o he egion. Swi ching om adi ional bus lines o TADEx saw a
mon hly educ ion o 2,331 km a elled pe mon h by public anspo ehicles and an inc ease o
use s, demons a ing inc eased e iciency om op imised ehicle use (K ell & Hunkin, 2024).
I is e y impo an o se clea objec i es acco ding o speci ic use cases and communi ies o be se ed,
as shown in he ci cula p ocess o planning and implemen a ion on E eu ! Sou ce du en oi
in ou able..
82
Figu e 23: DRT planning and implemen a ion p ocess (sou ce: UITP)
4.4. Business models o demand- esponsi e se ices
DRT sys ems a e highly adap able o egional con ex . “This can include lexibili y o ou e design,
me hods o inance, booking channels, ypes o ehicles and me hods o paymen , depending on he scale
o he scheme, i s a ge audience and he echnical complexi y o he suppo ing ICT amewo k.” (K ell
& Hunkin, 2024, p.4)
Wi h so many di e en DRT se -ups being possible, and wi h he challenge o ensu ing he sus ainabili y
o he solu ion, he business model mus be ca e ully conside ed. This in ol es hinking abou key
pa ne s and esou ces (human and inancial) o success o he scheme, i s a ge audiences, ac i i ies,
booking and paymen op ions, and e enue s eams. I also in ol es conside a ion o digi al and physical
in as uc u e.
Simila o adi ional public anspo se ices, he economic model o DRT se ices o use s is elian
on public subsidies, al hough he le el o public subsidies a ies g ea ly ac oss geog aphies and
depending on he exac ype o DRT se ice p o ided (e.g., ull lexible o semi- lexible). Fo example, in
he case o he DRT se ice se up be ween 2012 and 2015 in Ku suplus (Helsinki egion, Finland), use s
would pay an es ima ed a e age o €7 (compa ed o he Helsinki public anspo s anda d a e o €2
o one zone icke s and €3,88 o c oss-zonal icke s). S ill, he subsidy o each ip was €20 (EIT U ban
Mobili y, 2022).
No e e yone is eligible o use Mobi win (see 4.2 & 4.3): wo condi ions mus be me . Fi s , use s mus
be “less mobile,” o example, ha ing di icul y walking o li ing in an a ea wi h inadequa e public
anspo . Second, he use ’s income mus no exceed wice he o icial minimum income h eshold
( e enue d’in ég a ion sociale, lee loon). Bo h condi ions a e sc eened be o e en olmen in he se ice.
This ensu es ha we p o ide anspo solu ions o people who canno a o d a axi o who li e in a eas
unde se ed by public anspo . In p ac ice, we ind ha mos Mobi win use s a e 65+. The cos s o
become a Mobi win use a e in en ionally kep as low as possible and consis o an annual membe ship
ee o €18 o an indi idual membe and €27 o a amily (i.e., all pe sons li ing unde he same oo ).
Addi ionally, he Mobi win use pays a ixed p ice pe kilome e o he olun ee , which cu en ly s ands
a a maximum o €0.44. This amoun is based on he eal cos s ha he olun ee incu s o p o ide he
83
ide using hei own ehicle (including uel, insu ance, e c.). Bo h membe s and olun ee s a e insu ed
du ing he Mobi win ides ia collec i e insu ance.
DRT sys ems can be unded by local and/o na ional go e nmen s, o se -up as public-p i a e
pa ne ships - he bene i o his model is ha hey can ensu e schemes as public se ices, eaching
ci izens mos in need. P i a e companies can o ganise hei own DRT se ices o a ac new employees
o loca ions ha a e no easy o each by egula public anspo . Se ing up a DRT sys em can be a way
o collec ing da a o de e mine whe he i is app op ia e o se up a pe manen bus se ice. G ouping
bus ou es on a common co ido and p o iding eede DRT se ices o hese ou es can de elop modal
shi and imp o e DRT pa onage (EIT U ban Mobili y, 2022).
In pe i-u ban o u al a eas whe e jou neys a e long, ope a ing a public anspo se ice is expensi e
and o en una ac i e o use s. This can lead o a educ ion o e en supp ession o bus se ices. The
in oduc ion o a DRT sys em can s op his icious ci cle and main ain a public anspo se ice in a eas
whe e social exclusion can be high (EIT U ban Mobili y, 2022).
“DRT will emain a niche se ice, which will no lead o massi e eplacemen o ixed bus lines” (EIT
U ban Mobili y, 2022, p.33). The e is a place o DRT on a eede le el wi hin e y localised con ex s
whe e DRT se ices can complemen he exis ing ne wo k o egula bus lines. In la ge ci ies, DRT use
cases a e mos ly deemed sui able in speci ic ci cums ances such as nigh bus se ices. Ou side u ban
a eas, he e is a po en ial o DRT se ices o go beyond jus he niche in a con ex o ansi ion owa d
less ca -dependan mobili y sys ems (EIT U ban Mobili y, 2022).
In DRT se ices, he e is a ques ion o he igh p icing le el depending on local condi ion and anspo
dep i a ion: wi h DRT, ehicles s op close o use s' homes and des ina ions - i may he e o e be
accep able o use s o pay a “com o ee” o being collec ed and d opped close o o igin o
des ina ion. This is he case o he Hub axi se ice in he p o inces o D en he and G oningen in he
Ne he lands, which is no included in he local public anspo p icing (see below). This howe e aises
a social jus ice issue in he cases whe e people do no ha e any o he anspo op ion bu would s ill be
o ced o pay mo e han o ixed bus lines because o his “com o ee” (EIT, 2022, p.13).
Hub axi is a se ice se up in conjunc ion wi h he ne wo k o mobili y hubs in he p o inces o D en he
and G oningen. This se ice enables esiden s o hese p o inces o a el om hei home o a mobili y
hub loca ed wi hin a adius o 20 km, as well as he e u n jou ney. I is also possible o a el doo - o-
doo o ano he add ess o jou neys o 2 o 20 km, bu a a highe a e. Hub axi is a se ice ope a ed by
anspo companies unde con ac wi h he p o inces o D en he and G oningen. Rese a ions a e
made by elephone, eques ing hem a leas one hou be o e he jou ney. The se ice ope a es be ween
6am and 1am. I is e en possible o book ea lie o la e o ake he i s o las ain o bus jou ney.
Connec ions wi h he bus o ain a e gua an eed i booked a leas wo hou s in ad ance. An ope a o
can pool se e al use s o op imise Hub axi jou neys. Fa es a e lowe han hose o a con en ional axi:
€1.08 en y ee and €0.19 pe kilome e o a hub (€1.62 and €0.28 om 2025), and €5.42 en y ee and
€0.61 pe kilome e o doo - o-doo a el (Publiek Ve oe G oningen D en he, 2024).
The e a e se e al key issues o conside he e, also ela ed o cus ome ela ionships. Booking can be
pe o med h ough a ious means, including phone calls, websi es o mobile apps, speci ying pick-up
ime and loca ion. I is impo an o conside he a ge audience o DRT when conside ing he booking
sys em, bea ing in mind he digi al di ide. The sys ems will hen agg ega e mul iple eques s and
op imise ou es o pick-up and d op-o passenge s. In some smalle DRT sys ems his may be done
manually, bu digi al ools a e inc easingly used. Nex comes ehicle dispa ch, o ul il he ag eed-upon
se ice. This may be mini-buses, ans o ca s depending on numbe o passenge s o ehicle a ailabili y.
The egion o Ca alonia has been in eg a ing i s DRT se ices unde a common b and, Clic.Ca (see
Figu e 24). The se ice now has 235 lines, co e ing mo e han 730 illages in Ca alonia. Clic.Ca , as a
b and, has been olled ou o all ehicles, s ops and in o ma ion se ices, wi h a common app and ICT
in as uc u e. Rese a ions o jou neys can be made by app, 15 minu es ahead o he jou ney -
compa ed o 24 hou s be o e digi isa ion. To emain accessible, he se ice also allows booking by
84
phone call. A common communica ion campaign was c ea ed o aise awa eness o he in eg a ed
se ices. The new app oach led o an inc ease in ide ship o on-demand se ices by 175% be ween
2021 and 2022 (K ell & Hunkin, 2024).
Figu e 24: Ca alan DRT se ice Clic.Ca ope a es an elec ic bus (© ACN)
The lexibili y in oduced by DRT can be bo h an ad an age and a disad an age depending on he
con ex as well as on he use s. P o ound knowledge o local equi emen s p o ides p ecious
in o ma ion on he ex en o which a DRT should be lexible and linked o he exis ing o e o o mal
and in o mal sha ed mobili y se ices (including s op and equency planning). I is impo an o ocus
mo e on a el expe ience han on a e age speed and s ops o shi om sys em le el o use le el and
o imp o e se ice alignmen and use expec a ions.
Somewhe e along his chain, paymen mus also be aken in o accoun . This can be done a he ime o
booking o a he ime o se ice, implemen ing on boa d he ehicle, o ia a digi al pla o m. Fa es may
be calcula ed a a la a e, based on dis ance, o e en h ough subsc ip ion models. Fo example, Hoppin
Flex is a DRT sys em in Flande s (Belgium) ope a ing be ween ixed s ops o which use s pay pe ide
(max. €2.50 o 60min). Wi h Mobi win, se ice is €0.44 pe km, wi h a yea ly membe ship ee o €12.
Ne e heless, as “DRT mus adap o eal- ime eques s, his can lead o demand exceeding he a ailable
capaci y, pa icula ly du ing peak hou s, causing longe wai imes and po en ial se ice dis up ions.
Consequen ly, his can a ec DRT's eliabili y, a key ac o o i s use s who depend on imely se ice.”
(Road XS, 2024). DRT p o ide s mus balance he need o da a o op imise se ices while espec ing
use p i acy.
I he se ice ope a es in an a ea whe e egula bus lines al eady exis , he e's a possibili y ha some
passenge s may p e e he con enience o DRT o e s anda d bus o me o se ices. This could lead o
a decline in ide ship o adi ional public anspo , posing a inancial challenge (Road XS, 2024). This
85
is why i is impo an o hink ca e ully abou how he wo sys ems complemen each o he , and possibly
ese e he DRT o ce ain a ge g oups (people wi h disabili ies, he elde ly...) when egula se ices
a e a ailable in he a ea, like i is done in Leipzig wi h Flexa (see 4.1) and in Flande s wi h De Lijn Flex.
Bummelbus (see Figu e 25) is an on-demand se ice ope a ing in Ösling egion, Luxembou g, co-
inanced by he Minis y o Labou , Employmen , and he Social Economy wi h an ini ial dual mission o
p o iding mobili y se ices o he elde ly popula ion, as well as b inging long- e m unemployed people
back in o he wo k o ce. D i e s a e e-educa ed and gi en a wo-yea con ac o gain wo k expe ience
and make hem i o he job ma ke . The se ice p o ides lexible ou ing o indi idual des ina ions
(doo - o-doo ), wi h a ying icke a es depending on he dis ance a elled. While ini ially ocused on
he elde ly popula ion, he se ice is now a ailable o all segmen s o socie y, wi h a po en ial use ship
o 82,000 inhabi an s in 255 illages. Bookings can be made by elephone bu mus be booked he day
be o e a el. Since he se ice also has a social mission, i is 70% unded by he s a e, wi h he emaining
cos s co e ed by icke ing and municipal budge s. The se ice now has a ound i y ehicles, has
ein eg a ed 370 long- e m unemployed people, and se es a ound 140,000 passenge s pe yea (K ell
& Hunkin, 2024).
Figu e 25: In Luxembou g, he Bummelbus DRT se ice helps people who a e a om employmen
o ain as bus d i e s (© Fo um pou l'emploi)
DRT se ices could incu highe cos s han ixed- ou e se ices because hey a e designed o smalle
passenge loads and ex ended ip dis ances, making i challenging o main ain economic iabili y. Bu
he DRT alue p oposi ion should be conside ed beyond se ice cos s and e enues. Bene i s in e ms
o deli e ing access o educa ion, heal hca e, cul u e, wo k oppo uni ies, should also be conside ed o
assess he pe o mance o DRT se ices.
In he Médio Tejo egion (Po ugal), a mos ly ca -dependan u al egion wi h 13 municipali ies and
low popula ion densi y (74 people pe sq. km), he bus se ice equency in he municipali y o Sa doal
is e y low du ing he summe holiday pe iod and lowe in he Ch is mas and Eas e aca ions. Some
public anspo bus lines a e no a ailable a all du ing he weekend. In addi ion, he e a e a ia ions
in le el o se ice in ixed- ime schedules ha show la ge disc epancies du ing he hou s o se ice (e.g.,
h ee peak hou s a day: mo ning, lunch ime, e ening). The DRT se ice in he egion has been g owing
since 2014. F om Oc obe 2017 passenge numbe s ha e been g owing s eadily wi h a minimum o 60
pe mon h, and by July 2019 he e we e 150 passenge s a mon h. A peak in se ice usage du ing he
summe mon hs can be obse ed. “In e es ingly, mos o he use s in his a ea a e olde han 51 yea s

86
(91%), who use he se ice mos ly o heal hca e easons (50%) o o g oce y shopping (30%). O e all,
71% o he ips a e going o he municipali y cen e” (EIT, 2022, p.22).
In Coimb a, a egion spanning ac oss 19 municipali ies (112 people pe sq. km), he local DRT se ice
saw a la ge inc ease in ide ship despi e a launch du ing he Co id-19 pandemic, wi h a somewha
highe usage in ea ly 2022 (369 passenge s in May) compa ed o Decembe 2021 (269 passenge s).
Qui e simila ly o Médio Tejo, he a e age use s’ age o he DRT se ice in he Coimb a egion (SIT
FLEXI se ice) is 69,6 yea s, and he main ip pu pose is heal hca e (69% o use s) (EIT, 2022).
4.5. Recommenda ions o demand- esponsi e anspo in a 15mC
neighbou hood
Recommenda ions:
- Ma ke esea ch should be pe o med o iden i y he a eas whe e anspo a ion needs a e no
adequa ely me by exis ing public anspo op ions, o example by analysing popula ion densi y, socio-
demog aphic p o iles, a el pa e ns and exis ing anspo in as uc u e (o en lowe in he u ban
ou ski s) (see 4.3).
- Mul i-le el and mul i-ac o go e nance models a e needed. The egional o na ional le el should se
he amewo k, p o ide unds, and es ablish eplicable pla o ms, while he local le el de e mines
objec i es, ga he s da a, designs ne wo ks and o e sees implemen a ion. In an u ban egion, se ing
u ban ou ski s wi h a DRT equi es go e nance a anspo au ho i y le el (see 4.3).
- Hyb id and semi- lexible DRT se ices a e mo e con enien and cos -e icien in a low demand con ex ,
hey p o ide op imal balance be ween eliabili y, ope a ional cos s, and cus ome sa is ac ion, unless
he e is a la ge economic con ibu ion om he subsidising public au ho i y in deploying and ope a ing
a la ge lee o ehicles (see 4.2).
- DRT needs o be as easy as possible o use, ideally wi h a ew booking and paymen op ions ha ake
accoun o di e en skills wi h ICT. DRT se ices should be in eg a ed in o he exis ing public anspo
scheme, wi h uni ied icke ing and a common applica ion, so use s in he u ban ou ski s can use DRT
o go o a ci y cen e and hen use egula public anspo (see 4.4).
- DRT schemes need o be well p omo ed o in o m ci izens abou wha is a ailable and ensu e demand.
Communica ion is essen ial o build up a use base - ind a s ong name and iden i y. In u ban ou ski s,
municipali ies a e a good pa ne o p omo ing a DRT o he ele an a ge g oups (see 4.4).
- Design wi h he end use s in mind - pa icipa o y p ocesses and ci izen engagemen a e essen ial. Tes
he applica ion in ad ance, especially wi h some o he mo e ulne able use s ha DRT se es. In u ban
ou ski s, municipali ies a e a good pa ne o o ganising hese es s wi h esiden s. (4.4).
- Focus mo e on a el expe ience han on a e age speed and s ops o shi om sys em le el o use
le el and o imp o e se ice alignmen and use expec a ions. The se ice mus be adap ed o he
con ex : in u ban ou ski s, use s may ha e di e en p o iles and he e o e di e en expec a ions han
in u al a eas. (see 4.4).
- DRT needs o be hough o no only in e ms o economic pe o mance, bu also he many social
bene i s i can o e o keep u ban ou ski s and u al a eas connec ed (see 4.4).
- Cons an moni o ing is impo an , making changes and imp o emen s o a ac and e ain cus ome s.
This includes checking cos -e ec i eness and e iciency, collec ing da a on ide ship le els, se ice
eliabili y, use sa is ac ion, and en i onmen al impac s, which can be used o consis en ly imp o e
se ice. In u ban ou ski s, municipali ies a e a good pa ne o collec ing da a on use s’ sa is ac ion
(see 4.4).
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4.6. O e iew o demand- esponsi e anspo o he 15mC neighbou hood
Demand- esponsi e anspo
Rele ance
DRT se ices a e ele an o 15mC neighbou hoods as he p o ide a quali y
anspo se ice whe e con en ional bus ou es a e in equen and
expensi e o main ain. I has bene i s in e ms o deli e ing access o
educa ion, heal hca e, cul u e, wo k oppo uni ies, e c. (see 4.1).
Po en ial
DRT has po en ial in spa sely popula ed pe i-u ban and u al a eas. I can be
used as a eede se ice o a s a ion o a mobili y hub in he u ban ou ski s.
I can also be used as a las -mile solu ion o ge o a Poin o In e es o ou is
a ac ion. O he uses include nigh se ices, subs i u ion o unde u ilised
ixed- ou e buses, p emium se ices, o anspo ing speci ic g oups o use s
(e.g., he elde ly, people wi h educed mobili y, e c.) (see 4.1).
Go e nance /
egula ion
Public au ho i ies play a leading ole in es ablishing, implemen ing, and
moni o ing DRT schemes, helping o b ing oge he he necessa y ac o s o
un hem. Thei ole co e s e e y hing om licencing and sa e y o unding
and communi y engagemen . They se he o e all egula o y and licencing
amewo k in which DRT sys ems ope a e, including se ice s anda ds,
sa e y and en i onmen al equi emen s, d i e aining obliga ions, a e
s uc u es and accessibili y equi emen s. Licencing can ensu e ha
ope a o s comply wi h hei egula o y equi emen s and deli e a minimum
se ice quali y. Essen ial pa ne s a e local public anspo companies, axi
companies o o he p i a e companies ac i ely in ol ed in deli e ing he
se ice, bu also local associa ions and companies ha can be help ul in
engaging wi h ci izens, in o ming hem, and engaging hem in se ice
planning (see 4.3).
Business amewo ks
Many se ice o e ings and business models exis (hyb id, Semi-Flexible,
Full-Flexible, DRT wi h lexible layou s and s ops), making i a highly
adap able solu ion o sui di e en u ban en i onmen s. This can include
lexibili y in ou e, s ops and schedule designs, inancing me hods, booking
channels (phone calls, websi es, o mobile apps), ehicle ypes and paymen
me hods, e c. The business model mus be ca e ully conside ed. This means
hinking abou he pa ne s and esou ces (human and inancial) ha a e key
o he p ojec 's success, i s a ge audiences, i s ac i i ies, i s booking and
paymen op ions, and i s sou ces o e enue. Digi al and physical
in as uc u es mus also be conside ed. DRT se ices a e elian on public
subsidies, he amoun o which depending on geog aphies and he ype o
se ice p o ided. DRT sys ems can be unded by local and/o na ional
go e nmen s, o se -up as public-p i a e pa ne ships. P i a e companies
can o ganise hei own DRT se ices o a ac new employees. Hyb id and
semi- lexible DRT se ices a e mo e con enien and cos -e icien in a low
demand con ex , hey p o ide op imal balance be ween eliabili y,
ope a ional cos s, and cus ome sa is ac ion, unless he e is a la ge economic
con ibu ion om he subsidising public au ho i y in deploying and
ope a ing a la ge lee o ehicles (see 4.4).
88
Issues / poin s o
imp o emen
DRT will emain a niche se ice and will no eplace all egula bus ou es. I
is possible ha some passenge s will p e e he con enience o DRT o
con en ional public anspo se ices whe e hey exis . This could lead o a
d op in ide ship on adi ional public anspo and a all in e enue. Whe e
possible, ou e planne apps should sugges a con en ional bus ou e a he
han he DRT. The wo sys ems mus complemen each o he , DRT can be
ese ed o ce ain a ge g oups (disabled people, he elde ly, e c.) (see
4.4).
Table 19: O e iew o demand- esponsi e anspo o he 15mC in u ban ou ski s
89
4.7. Summa y o demand- esponsi e anspo good p ac ices o 15mC
neighbou hoods
Demand- esponsi e anspo (DRT)
Flexa
(Leipzig,
Ge many)
Flexa o e s demand- esponsi e anspo se ices o he subu bs o Leipzig
(Ge many), which a e poo ly se ed by public anspo , o connec hem wi h
anspo hubs. Cus ome s use an app o inpu hei cu en loca ion and des ina ion
(based on a lis o 120 i ual s ops), pick-up ime and numbe o passenge s o
ecei e an o e o a cus omised ide. (see 4.1)
Mobi win
(Flande s,
Belgium)
Mobi win is a DRT se ice ha p o ides a anspo solu ion o people wi h limi ed
mobili y ia a ne wo k o olun ee s. The se ice was launched in 1982 and cu en ly
ope a es in mo e han 200 Flemish municipali ies ( ep esen ing 75% o Flande s) as
well as in B ussels. Toge he , ou olun ee s p o ide a anspo solu ion o a ound
38,000 use s, ensu ing o e 350,000 ides annually (see 4.2, 4.3 & 4.4).
Viseu
(Po ugal)
The ci y o Viseu de eloped and implemen ed a semi- lex DRT sys em wi h h ee
elec ic minibuses, which ollows a se ou e and ope a es on demand, p ima ily o
he elde ly popula ion o he ci y o be able o access acili ies in he ci y cen e.
S a ing as a demons a ion p ojec , i has been unning o mo e han i een yea s,
wi h a ound 13,000 use s pe yea . (see 4.2)
TàD Île-de-
F ance
Mobili és
(Pa is egion,
F ance)
In 2017, he Pa is egion DRT ne wo ks we e b ough oge he unde a single b and,
wi h a single applica ion and a single call cen e: “TàD Île-de-F ance Mobili és”. The e
a e 40 ope a ing zones, all loca ed in he u ban ou ski s. Some ope a e as hyb id
se ices, o he s as semi- lexible se ices, wi h a ia ions possible du ing he day.
133 s a ions a e se ed, and 1.4 million ips we e made be ween 2019 and 2024.
(see 4.3)
Hub axi
(p o inces o
D en he and
G oningen,
The
Nede lands)
Hub axi is a se ice se up in conjunc ion wi h he ne wo k o mobili y hubs in he
p o inces o D en he and G oningen. This se ice enables esiden s o hese
p o inces o a el om hei home o a mobili y hub loca ed wi hin a adius o 20
km, as well as he e u n jou ney. I is also possible o a el doo - o-doo o ano he
add ess o jou neys o 2 o 20 km, bu a a highe a e. Fa es a e lowe han hose o
a con en ional axi. (see 4.4)
Table 20: Summa y o demand- esponsi e anspo good p ac ices
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6. MOBILITY HUBS IN A 15-MINUTE CITY
NEIGHBOURHOOD
6.1. Backg ound and de ini ion o mobili y hubs, and hei po en ial use in a
15mC neighbou hood
The concep o a mobili y hub eme ged in B emen in 2003. “A sha ed mobili y hub is a physical loca ion
whe e di e en sha ed anspo op ions a e o e ed a a dedica ed, non- empo a y and ecognisable
loca ion, and public anspo is a ailable wi hin walking dis ance” (Geu s e al., 2024). “A hub
maximises access o mobili y and o he esou ces, while ensu ing a ans e be ween modes o i s -
and las -mile connec i i y” (UITP, 2023). The aim o mobili y hubs is o educe he owne ship and use
o ca s, and he e o e he emissions associa ed wi h hem. Mobili y hubs can mee he mobili y needs o
a wide ange o people in di e en ypes o a ea: ci ies, u al a eas, and u ban ou ski s. The lexibili y
o hei design and hei adap abili y o he local con ex allows hem o limi ca owne ship and ca use
ou side dense u ban cen es. By acili a ing a el and concen a ing in one place he se ices sough by
people li ing in ou lying a eas, mobili y hubs make i possible o limi ca a el and a e a ool o
implemen ing he 15mC in u ban ou ski s.
Mobili y hubs a e ecognisable and accessible in e modal loca ions whe e a elle s can easily ansi
and/o choose be ween di e en modes o public and sha ed anspo . Fo an op imal a el
expe ience, maximum coo dina ion o public anspo modes is necessa y. In his way, mobili y hubs
a e an impo an ool o modal shi . In addi ion o mobili y op ions, mobili y hubs also o e
complemen a y se ices ha inc ease com o , accessibili y, and a ac i eness. Access o mobili y
se ices can be op imised using a MaaS sys em. The hubs also ea u e physical in o ma ion media wi h
easily accessible in o ma ion, such as ime ables and ele an in o ma ion abou he su ounding a ea
(Aono, 2019).
In 2019, Saki Aono o T anslink highligh ed 7 main common objec i es o mobili y hubs (Aono, 2019):
- In eg a ion o sus ainable anspo a ion op ions.
- Imp o ing use expe ience
- Ensu es sa e y and secu i y
- C ea es a sense o place h ough e ec i e and meaning ul placemaking s a egies
- Flexibili y o emb ace echnological inno a ions and os e esilience
- Equi y by conside ing accessibili y o and a ailabili y o anspo a ion op ions in di e en
neighbou hoods.
- Oppo uni ies o o m e ec i e pa ne ships
The B emen hubs, o mobil.punk en (see Figu e 31) ha e in luenced a numbe o ci ies and coun ies,
and ha e been s udied and es ed in se e al Eu opean p ojec s dealing wi h sha ed mobili y. These
p ojec s a e summa ised in he able below and we e used in d a ing his pa o he epo .

97
P ojec
p og am P ojec name P ojec
du a ion
Pa ne ci ies, e i o ies, and o ganisa ions
(coun y)
In e eg
No h Sea
SHARE-No h 2016-2022
B uges, De Panne, Diksmuide, Ghen , Leiedal,
Zedelgem in e -municipal o ganisa ion (Belgium),
Copenhagen (Denma k), B emen (Ge many),
Be gen, Ho daland Coun y (No way), Helsingbo g,
Lund (Sweden), Edinbu gh, Wes Yo kshi e (UK)
Sha eDiMobiHub
2023-2025
Leu en (Belgium), Capi al Region o Denma k
(Denma k), Ams e dam, U ech P o ince,
Ro e dam (The Nede lands), Tønsbe g, Ves old
Coun y, G enland dis ic , Skien, Po sg unn
(No way)
In e eg 2
Seas MOBI-MIX 2020-2022
An we pen, B ussels, Ghen , Mechelen (Belgium),
Valenciennes (F ance), B emen, Hanno e
(Ge many), Lisboa (Po ugal), Mad id (Spain),
O egon (USA), Camb idge, No wich, Plymou h
(UK)
In e eg
No h Wes
Eu ope
eHubs 2019-2023
Leu en, Walloon Region (Belgium), D eux
(F ance), Kemp en (Allgäu) (Ge many),
Ams e dam, A nhem, Nijmegen (The
Ne he lands), Region Manches e , In e ness (UK)
Ho izon
Eu ope SPINE 2023-2026
Šibenik (C oa ia), Talinn (Es onia), Rouen
(F ance), He aklion (G eece), Bologna (I aly),
Gdynia (Poland), Ba ei o (Po ugal), Žilina
(Slo akia), Las Palmas de G an Cana ia, Valladolid
(Spain)
Table 22: Summa y o Eu opean p ojec s and p og ams ela ed o mobili y hubs
In he Pa is egion, mobili y hubs ha e been se up in G and Pa is Seine & Oise (G and Pa is Seine &
Oise, 2024), Y elines (Dépa emen des Y elines, 2023) and Seine-e -Ma ne (Dépa emen de Seine-e -
Ma ne, 2020). Mul imodal Road In e change Cen es (Pôles d’Échanges Mul imodaux Rou ie s, PEMR in
F ench language) in he Île-de-F ance egion can also be hough as mobili y hubs (Gui on, Riou,
Tedeschi, 2024), as a Long illie s (Vinci Au o ou es, 2024) and B iis-sous-Fo ges (Dépa emen de
l’Essonne, 2023). O he examples include Vienna, wi h i s ne wo k o WienMobil s a ions (Ci y o Vienna,
2022).
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Figu e 31: A mobil.punk in B emen wi h i s ypical column (© F eie Hanses ad B emen)
6.2. Di e en ypes o mobili y hubs
The equipmen and design o mobili y hubs depend e y much on he ype o mobili y hub and a e
always adap ed o he local con ex . The e a e u ban hubs, s a ion hubs, hubs in esiden ial a eas, pe i-
u ban o u al hubs, among o he examples. While he main p inciples emain he same (o e ing
in e modal and mul imodal acili ies o educe he use o p i a e ca s), he way in which hey a e
designed, planned, and implemen ed di e s.
In B emen (popula ion 563,000 inhabi an s), 100 mobili y hubs ha e been planned in s a egic a eas
since 2003. The mobil.punk en a e he la ges mobili y hubs loca ed in he ci y cen e and a ound
s a ions, while he mobil.pünk chen a e smalle and loca ed in esiden ial a eas. In Be gen (286,000
inhabi an s), since 2018, 14 mobili y hubs (Mobilpunk e ) ha e been designed o u ban esiden ial
a eas, wi h a second phase o 5 addi ional hubs planned o he u ban pe iphe y. In S a ange (145,000
inhabi an s), since 2020, 5 mobili y hubs (Mobili e spunk e ) a e planned o u ban esiden ial a eas.
In Ams e dam (921,000 inhabi an s), 17 mobili y hubs (Buu Hubs) ha e been planned o dense u ban
a eas since 2021. Since 2017, in he p o inces o G oningen and D en he (1.1 million inhabi an s), in he
Ne he lands, 55 mobili y hubs a e planned in u al and u ban a eas and a ound ailway s a ions. In he
Belgian egion o Flande s (6.6 million inhabi an s), 1,000 mobili y hubs (Hoppinpun en, o Hoppin
poin s) ha e been planned since 2017, wi h ou ypes o hubs: in e - egional, egional, local and
neighbou hood hubs. In Flande s, he ci y o Leu en (popula ion 102,000) has de eloped 50 Hoppin
poin s loca ed in he ci y cen e, in esiden ial a eas and a ound ailway s a ions.
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Ci y (Coun y) Popula ion Hubs ne wo k’s
name
Yea o
implemen a ion
Numbe o hubs
B emen (Ge many)
563,000 mobil.punk en /
mobil.pünk chen 2003 100
Be gen (No way) 286,000 Mobilpunk e 2018 19
S a ange
(No way) 145,000 Mobili e spunk e 2020 5
Ams e dam (The
Ne he lands) 921,000 Buu Hubs 2021 17
G oningen &
D en he p o inces
(The Ne he lands)
1,100,000 Hubs 2017 55
Flande s Region
(Belgium) 6,600,000 Hoppinpun en 2017 1,000
Leu en (Flande s,
Belgium) 102,000 Hoppinpun en 2017 50
Table 23: Summa y o he hub ne wo ks s udied in his epo
Figu e 32: A Hoppin poin wi h i s column in Temse, Flande s (© Vlaams Gewes )
100
Some se ices a e a ailable in all mobili y hubs, such as public anspo , ca -sha ing, elec ic ehicle
cha ging s a ions and cycle pa king. In mos cases, he e is good access o ac i e modes o anspo ,
wi h cycling and pedes ian links encou aged. Howe e , sha ed mic omobili y is no sys ema ically
p o ided, no a e ca pooling, kiss-and- ide (d op-o ) o axi se ices: hubs mus be ailo ed o local
needs. Mobili y hubs a e some imes combined wi h olun a y was e d op-o poin s. Some ci ies s and
ou o he la ge numbe o se ices a ailable in hei mobili y hubs, which make i much easie o use s
o ge a ound in a seamless expe ience, because “ac i i ies a ound a hub can enable ip chaining
connec ed o he hub” (Geu s e al., p.5, 2024). Fo example, Du ch hubs o en o e wa e aps, oile s
and Wi-Fi, as well as o he se ices such as bicycle epai poin s, picnic ables, pa cel machines, luggage
locke s, ATM, i ness equipmen and e en he loan o pushchai s and cycle aile s o child en. Shops
and public se ices may also be a ailable, such as as - ood ou le s, a g oce y s o es, a public lib a y o
a medical cen e. In he p o inces o D en he and G oningen, walks and hikes s a a mobili y hubs ha
a e easily accessible by bus and/o ain. The walks ake in na u e ese es o special landscapes.
Mobili y hubs in B emen we e his o ically cen ed a ound ca -sha ing, while hose in No way place
g ea e emphasis on mic o-mobili y and echa ging o elec ic ehicles. In he Ne he lands, he ca is
less impo an (Hached & L’Hos is, 2022). In Ams e dam, he emphasis is mo e on bicycle se ices,
ca go-bikes, mic o-mobili y and ca -sha ing, while in he p o inces o G oningen and D en he, g ea e
in e modali y is sough be ween cycling and public anspo , as well as he c ea ion o li ing spaces. In
Flande s, he e y la ge numbe o mobili y hubs means ha he e is a wide a ie y o se ices on o e ,
which di e acco ding o he ype o hub. The in eg a ion o mobili y hubs in o he MaaS sys em is a
s ong desi e in Be gen. I is also an objec i e o he hubs in he Flande s egion.
The c ea ion o a logo and isual iden i y means ha use s can easily ecognise he mobili y hubs
(Bague , 2024). B emen's mobil.punk en a e iden i ied by columns wi h a logo. In Flande s, he Hoppin
poin s also ha e a column o help hem be clea ly iden i ied (Vlaamse Gewes , 2022). A isual iden i y
guide wi h a g aphic cha e has been de eloped, con aining all he logos, pic og ams, colou codes and
u ni u e o be used o he Hoppin poin s. Signage is codi ied and explained, and accessibili y guidelines
a e laid down (see E eu ! Sou ce du en oi in ou able.). Du ch mobili y hubs also ha e hei own
signage (Mijksenaa , 2022), as do hose in Be gen (Ci y o Be gen, 2021).
Gene ally, i is impo an o conside he speci ic needs o ulne able o exclusion g oups, as “people
wi h physical impai men s and low digi al skills a ely use sha ed mobili y se ices because he se ices
a e no adap ed o hei needs” (Geu s e al., p.5, 2024).
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Figu e 33: The columns o Hoppin poin s wi h hei s anda dised ho izon al and e ical signs (©
Hoppin.be)

102
6.3. Go e nance o mobili y hubs
I is o en he ci y, as manage o he u ban space and p ojec owne , ha assumes esponsibili y o
c ea ing mobili y hubs. I has he leading ole, ini ia es con ac s wi h he a ious ac o s and b ings hem
oge he a ound he same p ojec . Bu in some mobili y hub ne wo ks, he in ol emen o ci izens is
mo e de eloped. The a ge cus ome g oups may be di e en : esiden s, commu e s, ou is s, people
on low incomes, senio ci izens, e c. Some mobili y hubs a e se up on a neighbou hood o ci y scale,
o he s on a p o incial o egional scale. In Belgium, egions ook he lead o mobili y hub ne wo ks
implemen a ion. In Flande s, when a local au ho i y wan s o implemen a Hoppin poin s, e en when
implemen ed on i s own land, hey mus comply wi h egula ions (b anding, accessibili y, ypology) se
by he Region. The Region has le e age o do so, as hey p o ide mos o all he unding o he
de elopmen and main enance o hubs. They a e now p esen in he Flande s and a e being conside ed
in he B ussels-Capi al egion, which is cu en ly de eloping a small ne wo k o 20 es -hubs, which will
be e alua ed o know i a mo e ex ensi e ne wo k will be olled ou (Bo zęcka e al., 2023). As
go e nance models di e om one ci y o ano he , mobili y hubs a e some imes included in u ban
planning documen s (as in S a ange , B emen, G oningen, and D en he) and o he imes in mobili y
plans (Ams e dam, Flemish Region, B emen, G oningen) o clima e, ai , and ene gy plans (as in Be gen,
Ams e dam and Leu en) (Geu s e al., 2024). Hubs can also be included in se e al documen s a di e en
le els. Mobili y hubs a e se up by municipali ies in No way, B emen, and Ams e dam, by p o inces in
G oningen and D en he and by egions in Belgium.
In ol ed s akeholde s a e no always he same, wi h a ying deg ees o in ol emen by local
au ho i ies, anspo ope a o s, local public se ices, nea by businesses, o p i a e se ice p o ide s.
O he pa ne s may include business pa k owne s o eal-es a e de elope s, local communi y g oups
including esiden s and businesses, o he go e nmen agencies and anspo au ho i ies, no - o -p o i
o ganisa ions including disabili y and o he communi y g oups, echnology p o ide s, majo
employmen si es and o he key ip gene a o s, asse s, in as uc u e and u ili y companies, o he
es ablished mobili y hubs (GO SES an e al., 2020). In he p o ince o G oningen, a mobili y hub has
been se up a Del zijl s a ion (popula ion 25,000) wi h unding om he p o ince, he municipali y, and
he in ol emen o he na ional ail ope a o NS. Two ocus g oups we e in ol ed in de eloping he
p ojec , made up o shopkeepe s and use s, including people wi h educed mobili y. The aim was o
c ea e a place o li e in a small, ageing communi y in economic decline. A es au an has been c ea ed,
and he s a ion squa e has been gi en a aceli wi h g eene y, benches, a wa e ap and Wi-Fi. In
Siddebu en (popula ion 3,000), a o me chu ch and communi y cen e ha e been con e ed in o a
illage hall ollowing a consul a ion wi h esiden s. Doc o s mo ed in, ollowed by homeca e
o ganisa ions and he local lib a y. A mobili y hub p ojec was added o a ange o communi y p ojec s
al eady unde way, including a public anspo s op and bicycle pa king. In Gie en (popula ion 5,000),
a local and exp ess bus in e change has been ans o med in o a mobili y hub by adding secu e cycle
pa king, a kiss-and- ide, a pa k-and- ide acili y, a axi s and, picnic ables, a ca é, a wa e ap, oile s, a
pa cel machine, Wi-Fi, and i ness acili ies (see E eu ! Sou ce du en oi in ou able.).
103
Figu e 34: The hub o Gie en in he G oningen P o ince (© Mi anda D en h, OV-bu eau G oningen
D en he)
In Be gen (No way), he ci y has de eloped an in e nal so wa e ha allows he au ho i y o
communica e in a luid way wi h p i a e pa ne s. I allows hem o loca e each o he sha ed e-scoo e s
on hei e i o y, o display he in o ma ion on he iden i y o he p i a e pa ne who manages hem,
he le el o hei ba e y cha ge, he las ime hey we e used, e c. This sys em makes i possible o he
ci y o immedia ely in o m he p i a e pa ne o o example, dispa ch he ehicles in a mo e
ha monious manne . The pa ne hen has limi ed ime o mee his eques and i he ails o do so, he
may be subjec o inancial sanc ions (o e en suspension o he pa ne 's license and he e o e a ban
om ope a ing). The pa icula i y o he sys em de eloped by he ci y o Be gen is ha i is a
collabo a i e one. Ci y agen s and e e y ci izen can epo p oblems wi h sha ed e-scoo e s (such as
pa king p oblems) ia a dedica ed applica ion.
Ci izen in ol emen is no conside ed in he same way in he ci ies ha ha e se up mobili y hubs. In
S a ange , he aim was o build on use expe ience o gain a be e unde s anding o ci izens' needs.
P o o ype hubs we e c ea ed and es ed by use s so ha hey could be de eloped u he . In Ams e dam,
he hubs we e co-cons uc ed wi h esiden s based on hei needs, using a bo om-up app oach. A e a
es phase, a neighbou hood su ey was ca ied ou o de e mine whe he he hub should be e ained
o abandoned. The hub was e ained when 50% o o e s in he neighbou hood we e in a ou o
keeping i (see Figu e 35). Howe e , i seems ha oday he op-down me hod has become he dominan
app oach (Bague , 2025). Ano he pa icipa o y p ocess was ca ied ou in Leu en on ou hubs.
104
Figu e 35: A buu hub in Ams e dam. These hubs we e co-cons uc ed and alida ed by esiden s
as pa o a bo om-up app oach (© Gemeen e Ams e dam)
In p ac ice, se ing up mobili y hubs can un in o di icul ies. Some imes, he objec i es o he au ho i ies
do no coincide wi h he se ices p o ided by hei ne wo k o hubs. Fo example, i he au ho i ies wan
o o e commu e s an al e na i e o he ca , i is necessa y o c ea e a e y dense ne wo k o hubs wi h
a subs an ial ange o se ices. I only a ew expe imen al hubs a e se up, hey will no mee he needs
o he nume ous commu e s.
S akeholde (poli icians and policymake s, public in e es g oups, o sha ed mobili y ope a o s)
engagemen and communica ion o e a longe pe iod a e essen ial o implemen sha ed mobili y
measu es and o a ac a ge g oups o use mobili y hubs (Ka baume and Me z, 2020). The au ho i y's
aim is o demons a e o businesses ha he use o sha ed mobili y can be used du ing wo king hou s
and could be an al e na i e o he company lee . I is impo an o s ess he possible sa ings, including
sa ings on pa king space. Communica ion and discou se on emission educ ion o heal h o sa ings is
no e y e ec i e o p i a e use s. The e a e h ee communica ion p io i ies in pa icula : s eng hen
mo i a ions (con enience, com o , sa e y, emo ions o a el), emo e ba ie s (pe cei ed cos ,
complica ed, loss o eedom...) and p o ide igge s (p o ision o ee ca -sha ing membe ship o a
a el budge o sha ed mobili y and public anspo ) (Ka baume and Me z, 2020).
A common di icul y is also o in eg a e s akeholde s like eal-es a e de elope s, business pa k owne s
and employe s, ha a e o en key o he success and a ac i eness o mobili y hubs. These s akeholde s
a e also impo an because hey can p o ide esou ces o implemen he hubs.
Di icul ies linked o he incomp ehension o opposi ion o esiden s may a ise, especially i a u u e
mobili y hub in ends o occupy/ educe pa king spaces ha a e al eady highly co e ed. I is impo an
o p esen he mobili y hub se ices as a se ious al e na i e o hei p i a e ca s. A bo om-up,
105
pa icipa i e app oach ha akes accoun o use s' needs a oids his di icul y. I allows ci izens o be
included in he design o mobili y hubs and o help hem e ol e.
I can also be di icul o align he objec i es o a mobili y hubs ne wo k wi h he business models o
sha ed mobili y se ice p o ide s. Fo example, a dense ne wo k o mobili y hubs equi es a lo o
ebalancing e o s and asse in es men s ha could be oo high o a sha ed mobili y p o ide , and he
au ho i ies would ha e o compensa e o hese expenses. When c ea ing mobili y hubs, ci ies/ egions
should ensu e he eliabili y and esilience o he pa ne s wi h whom hey collabo a e (s ong business
models), as well as he lexibili y o he in as uc u e and i s ease o adap a ion o u u e echnologies
and compa ibili y wi h olde echnologies (Aono, 2019).
Public anspo au ho i ies a e also some imes ha d o in ol e in mobili y hubs p ojec s, while public
anspo should be he backbone o a ne wo k o mobili y hubs.
6.4. Business models o mobili y hubs
As mobili y hubs o e a wide a ie y o se ices, se e al s akeholde s and business models o e lap. The
business models o mobili y se ices p esen in mobili y hubs such as ca -sha ing, sha ed
mic omobili y, ca pooling and demand- esponsi e anspo a e de ailed in hei espec i e sec ions.
Rega ding he business models o mobili y hubs hemsel es, he Eu opean eHubs p ojec o ganised
ocus g oups wi h a ne wo k o ele an ac o s o he ci y o An we p, consis ing o sha ed mobili y
p o ide s, local au ho i ies, public anspo ope a o s, and MaaS se ice p o ide s (Coeneg ach s e al.,
2021). The aim o his explo a o y app oach was o de ine which kind o alues mobili y hubs could
p o ide, o which a ge g oups, and which s akeholde s, ac i i ies, esou ces, and isks a e in ol ed.
The ocus g oups iden i ied i e ca ego ies o business model o mobili y hubs: i s -/las -mile hubs,
clus e ed hubs, hyb id hubs, poin -o -in e es (POI) hubs and closed hubs (Coeneg ach s e al., 2021).
These business model bluep in s a ge di e en end-use s and in ol e di e en s akeholde s, se ices,
p icing models, p o ided alues and in ol ed echnologies.
Fi s -/las -mile hubs ne wo k's main alue p oposi ion is s imula ing in e modal a el beha iou by
implemen ing a i s /las -mile solu ion (like sha ed bikes), ha complemen s public anspo . This
equi es a ine mesh mobili y hub ne wo k ha is in eg a ed wi hin he public anspo ne wo k,
he eby ex ending he ca chmen a ea o public ansi and eaching mo e po en ial use s. This model
equi es a lo o in es men om he public au ho i y o o he hi d pa ies ha could be in ol ed. A
MaaS applica ion is use ul in his model o p o ide seamless in e modal a el expe ience. This model
a ge s mo e commu e s and mus be eliable o use s ha use hese mobili y hubs e e y day. This
equi es a lo o edis ibu ion o ehicles be ween he hubs o keep a high a ailabili y a e.
Clus e ed hubs ne wo k ocuses on clus e ing sha ed mobili y se ices, enhancing awa eness abou
sha ed mobili y and he eby gene a ing demand o hese se ices. Clus e ed mobili y hubs a e mainly
loca ed in subu ban/ esiden ial neighbou hoods o small ci y cen es, cen alising he supply o sha ed
mobili y modes in ha egion. This, oge he wi h in as uc u e p o isions such as cha ging s a ions,
will s imula e sha ed mobili y p o ide s o be ac i e in o he wise unde se ed a eas. These mobili y
hubs a e no ocusing on commu e s and a e mo e cen ed on ound- ip se ices. They p o ide amilies
al e na i es o ca owne ship wi h sha ed ca s o ca go-bikes o go shopping, isi ing ela i es o
p ac icing leisu e ac i i ies.
Hyb id hubs ne wo k ocuses on he o ma ion o a hyb id ne wo k o mobili y hubs ha p o ides an
ex ensi e ange o anspo a ion modes, om ee- loa ing o s a ion-based sha ed mobili y se ices.
The combina ion o ee- loa ing and s a ion-based schemes inc eases he se ices' lexibili y and he
a ea co e ed by hem, wi h a iew o enable doo - o-doo anspo a ion. I ee- loa ing can inc ease
he lexibili y o a sys em, i also comes wi h p oblems like clu e ing on he s ee s (nume ous e-
scoo e s blocking sidewalks, many ee- loa ing ca s pa ked in he same a ea using signi ican s ee
112
i is necessa y o ocus on li es yles a he han mobili y supply and p ac ices alone. This means o o e
u ban ou ski s quali y public spaces and quie s ee s, ee a las om excessi e pa king and he
nuisance o mo o ised a ic, wi h he same high s anda ds as hose ound in ci y cen es. I is also
necessa y o ha e an o e all cohe ence in he de elopmen o an a ea: ans o ming a ca -cen ed
subu ban a ea in o a peace ul, people-cen ed a ea will show disappoin ing esul s i , a he same ime,
a la ge shopping cen e wi h a as ee ca pa k and an exp essway se ing i is buil nea by. The 15mC
neighbou hood is no an island, bu pa o an u ban sys em o e i o ial in e dependencies.
We ha e seen in his epo ha a good go e nance amewo k is needed o se up sha ed mobili y
se ices, DRTs, lexible hubs, and mobili y hubs. I is o en he same au ho i ies ha a e esponsible o
implemen ing hese policies and o u ban planning. The sea ch o cohe ence be ween u ban planning
and mobili y policies mus he e o e be conside ed ups eam, join ly in he mas e plans o u ban
planning, mobili y, and clima e.

113
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Timo hé Buen Abad, B ussels Mobili y
Nicolas F asie, Associa ion des Ac eu s de l'Au opa age
Johannes Rodenbach, Au odelen.ne
Jel en Bague , Mpac
Daniela A ias Molina es, Uni e si y o Twen e (UT)
Ka s Geu s, Uni e si y o Twen e (UT)
Cha lo e an Vessem, V ije Uni e si ei B ussel (VUB)
Benjamin Bü ne , Technische Uni e si ä München (TUM)