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Online a : h ps:// esea ch endsjou nal.com ISSN No: 2584-282X
Indexed Jou nal Pee Re iewed Jou nal
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TRENDS IN EMERGING RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
Volume 3; Issue 5; 2025; Page No. 69-79
Recei ed: 08-07-2025
Accep ed: 09-08-2025
Published: 05-09-2025
Eme gence o Non-S a e Secu i y Ac o s: D i e s o Human Righ s
Abuses in Bo no S a e Nige ia
1Awosanmi Es he Musa, 2P o . Manisha Pa il, 3D . Awodoyin F ancis Olaji e and 4D . Hembe
Aondowase
1Cen e o Peace and Secu i y S udies, Modibbo Adama Uni e si y Yola, Adamawa S a e, Nige ia
2Depa men o Lib a y, San aji Maha idyalaya, A ilia ed o Rash asan Tukadoji Maha aj Nagpu Uni e si y, Nagpu ,
Maha ash a, India
3Depa men o Educa ion Founda ion, Facul y o Educa ion, Modibbo Adama Uni e si y Yola, Adamawa S a e, Nige ia
4Depa men o Gene al S udies, Modibbo Adama Uni e si y Yola, Adamawa S a e, Nige ia
DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.17271396
Co esponding Au ho : P o . Manisha Pa il
Abs ac
In a con inen plagued by iolen con lic s, he eme gence o non-s a e secu i y ac o s has become a signi ican phenomenon, pa icula ly in
Nige ia's Bo no S a e, whe e he Boko Ha am insu gency has se e ely s ained o mal secu i y ins i u ions. While hese olun ee g oups,
like he Ci ilian Join Task Fo ce (CJTF), ha e played a c i ical ole in complemen ing go e nmen coun e -insu gency e o s, hei ise has
c ea ed a dual secu i y h ea o ci ilians. This s udy, he e o e, explo es he na u e, causes, and consequences o human igh s abuses by
hese g oups in Bo no S a e. The s udy adop ed a mixed-me hods esea ch design, using bo h quan i a i e (ques ionnai es) and quali a i e
(KIIs and FGDs) app oaches. Da a we e collec ed om a pu posi ely selec ed sample o 377 esponden s in h ee signi ican ly a ec ed
LGAs: Bama, Monguno, and Gwoza. The indings e ealed ha NSVGs eme ged as a communi y-d i en esponse o he s a e's ailu e o
p o ide adequa e secu i y, d i en by a need o p o ec agains pe sis en Boko Ha am a acks. Howe e , hei in ol emen in human igh s
abuses was p ima ily caused by a complex combina ion o ac o s, including a lack o o mal o e sigh and accoun abili y mechanisms,
coupled wi h a pe cep ion among membe s o being abo e he law. The s udy concludes ha while hese g oups a e a i al p o ec i e hedge
o communi ies, hei lack o egula ion and o e sigh has led o widesp ead abuses, including a bi a y a es s and ex ajudicial killings.
The e o e, he s udy ecommends ha he go e nmen u gen ly implemen s ic o e sigh mechanisms, clea ules o engagemen , and
con inuous human igh s aining o all NSVG membe s o ensu e accoun abili y and es o e public us .
Keywo ds: Non-S a e Secu i y Ac o s, Human Righ s Abuses, Boko Ha am Insu gency, Ci ilian Join Task Fo ce (CJTF), Bo no S a e
In oduc ion
In A ica, he issue o insecu i y has a ained a wo isome
le el, as he his o y o he con inen is ain ed wi h di e en
o ms o iolen con lic . Alimba and Ngige (2020) [5]
obse ed ha iolen con lic emains one o he e en s ha
ha e hal ed he g ow h and de elopmen o A ican
socie ies. The dimensions and pa e ns o mani es a ions o
iolen con lic s ha e p e en ed A ica om li ing up o i s
expec a ions among he con inen s o he wo ld.
Fu he mo e, Alda and Sala (2015) [3] s a ed ha ebel and
ex emis g oups a e inc easing and o en ac u e in o
addi ional g oupings in A ica. This has b ough abou a
s ong link be ween ansna ional o ganized c ime and
e o ism as he allegiances be ween A ica’s domes ic
iolen adicals and hose in he Middle Eas ha e shi ed
om al-Qaeda o Islamic S a e (FATF-GIABA-GABAC,
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2016) [12].
The no he n egion o Nige ia has been expe iencing se e e
le els o insecu i y o mo e han wo decades. The
no hwes geopoli ical zone o ins ance has wi nessed
eligious, e hnic and communal con lic on a la ge scale. In
addi ion o ha , bandi y has become he o de o he day in
he egion, his is e iden in he p e alence o killings and
kidnappings o ansom in he egion. The no hwes has
become a ho bed o c ime, which includes communal
con lic , e hno eligious con lic and bandi y. In he igh
agains insecu i y, he join mili a y ope a ions con ained he
ac i i ies o he insu gen s in Bo no, Yobe and Adamawa
s a es, bu he sec has con inued o ansack whe e he
p esence o he secu i y o ces a e g ea ly in isible.
Consequen ly, indigenes, especially he you hs, hun e s and
igilan e membe s had o s and up o pa ne wi h he
go e nmen secu i y agencies in he igh agains Boko
Ha am insu gency. Conside ing he ac ha majo i y o he
membe s o Boko Ha am we e once oge he wi h hese
people in di e en communi ies and illages, hey we e able
o iden i y hem in pe son when he membe s o he sec
came o spy on he communi ies o he pu pose o
conduc ing a acks. Onuoha and Owonikoko (2019) [25]
indica ed ha he non-s a e olun ee g oups became a child
o necessi y as hei con ibu ion o coun e ing Boko Ha am
canno be o e emphasized. The local people became he
eyes on he s ee o he mili a y, supplying aluable
in elligence which helped in c impling down he insu gen s
and iden i ying hei spies in communi ies. These ci ilians
use hei knowledge o local inhabi an s, geog aphy,
languages, and cul u es o a g ea e ec in coun e e o ism
e o s.
Howe e , al hough he CJTF has con ibu ed o eclaiming
e i o y and es o ing ela i e o de , nume ous epo s ha e
documen ed cases o ex ajudicial killings, sexual abuse,
a bi a y de en ion, o ced ec ui men o child en, and
ex o ion (Human Righ s Wa ch, 2018; Amnes y
In e na ional, 2015) [6, 13]. These iola ions o en s em om
he lack o o mal aining, weak accoun abili y
mechanisms, poli ical manipula ion, and he absence o
legal o e sigh . Mos o hese g oups ope a e ou side any
codi ied command s uc u e, making i di icul o moni o
hei conduc o p osecu e w ongdoings. In some cases, hey
ecei e aci o open suppo om he s a e, which u he
complica es e o s o add ess hei human igh s iola ions
(Okeke, 2021) [23].
In Bo no S a e, some hun e s and igilan e membe s a e
known o a es ing suspec s and bea ing hem me cilessly
in an a emp o ga he in o ma ion om hem. Fu he mo e,
hey ha e u ned hemsel es in o police in communi ies, due
o he way hey de e mine who is igh and no igh . Ideally,
hey ough o ac as a ac ion o an in elligence ga he ing
uni o he secu i y ope a i es and epo wha e e hey ind
ou o hem o necessa y ac ions. Mbah and Nwangwu
(2014) [20] epo ed ha C-JTF has been alleged o commi
de en ion- ela ed human igh s b eaches. The majo i y o he
Boko Ha am suspec s a e held in cus ody o yea s wi hou
ial. This in i sel is a b each o hei igh o a ee and ai
ial. Wi h hei p olonged s ay in de en ion, o he abuses a e
ine i able.
This s udy, he e o e, explo es he na u e, causes, and
consequences o human igh s abuses by non-s a e olun ee
g oups in Bo ne s a e, wi h a pa icula ocus on LGAs
Bama LGA (Bo no Cen al), Monguno LGA (Bo no No h)
and Gwoza (Bo no Sou h). I also examines he ole o
go e nmen , ci il socie y, and in e na ional o ganiza ions in
add essing hese abuses and p omo ing human igh s in
con lic -a ec ed a eas. i is in he ligh o he abo e ha he
s udy examined he eme gence o non-s a e secu i y ac o s:
d i e s o human igh s abuses in Bo no S a e.
P oblem S a emen
Bo no S a e, Nige ia has been cha ac e ized by insecu i y as
a esul o he ac i i ies o Boko Ha am insu gen s. Amids
his complex secu i y landscape, non-s a e olun ee g oups
eme ged, pu po edly o ill he secu i y acuum and p o ec
communi ies om insu gen a acks. Okoli (2016) [22]
epo ed ha he a acks o he insu gen s p esen ed a
si ua ion ha looked as i he go e nmen and i s secu i y
o ces we e unning ou o op ions in igh ing he insu gen s
and es o ing peace o he egion. Mo eso, he p o ac ed
insu gency by Boko Ha am and he Islamic S a e in Wes
A ica P o ince (ISWAP) in Bo no S a e, Nige ia, has
se e ely s ained o mal secu i y ins i u ions, leading o he
eme gence o non-s a e olun ee g oups like he Ci ilian
Join Task Fo ce (CJTF).
In he igh agains he insu gency ac i i ies, ci ilians in
Bo no S a e ace a dual h ea : om he insu gency and
om some o he e y g oups o med o p o ec hem. This
pe pe ua es a cycle o auma and dis us , hinde ing
humani a ian access and eco e y e o s in a egion al eady
g appling wi h a se e e humani a ian c isis. Add essing his
p oblem equi es na iga ing he delica e balance be ween
le e aging he indispensable suppo o olun ee g oups
and ensu ing s ic adhe ence o human igh s p inciples and
e ec i e accoun abili y.
Aim and he Objec i es o he S udy
The aim o he s udy was o examine he eme gence o non-
s a e secu i y ac o s: d i e s o human igh s abuses in
Bo no S a e. The speci ic objec i es o he s udy we e o:
1. Iden i y he ac o s esponsible o he eme gence o
non-s a e olun ee g oups in secu ing he communi ies
in Bo no s a e.
2. Iden i y he causes o he in ol emen o he non-s a e
olun ee g oups in human igh s abuses in Bo no s a e.
Resea ch Ques ions
The s udy answe ed he ollowing esea ch ques ions:
1. Wha a e he ac o s esponsible o he eme gence o
non-s a e olun ee g oups in secu ing he communi ies
in Bo no s a e?
2. Wha a e he causes o he in ol emen o he non-s a e
olun ee g oups in human igh s abuses in Bo no s a e?
Concep Cla i ica ion
Human Righ s
Human igh s a e mo al p inciples o no ms o ce ain
s anda ds o human beha io and a e egula ly p o ec ed in
municipal and in e na ional law. Simmons (2019) [30]
obse ed ha hey a e commonly unde s ood as inalienable,
undamen al igh s o which a pe son is inhe en ly en i led
simply because she o he is a human being and which a e
inhe en in all human beings, ega dless o hei age, e hnic
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o igin, loca ion, language, eligion, e hnici y, o any o he
s a us. They a e applicable e e ywhe e and a e e y ime in
he sense o being uni e sal, and hey a e egali a ian in he
sense o being he same o e e yone. They a e ega ded as
equi ing empa hy and he ule o law and imposing an
obliga ion on pe sons o espec he human igh s o o he s,
and i is gene ally conside ed ha hey should no be aken
away excep as a esul o due p ocess based on speci ic
ci cums ances (Simmons, 2019) [30].
Icelandic Human Righ s Cen e (2017) [17] a gued ha
human igh s a e a he co e o in e na ional law and
in e na ional ela ions. They ep esen basic alues common
o all cul u es, and mus be espec ed by coun ies
wo ldwide. Human igh s a e inalienable undamen al igh s
o which a pe son is inhe en ly en i led simply because he o
she is a human being. The p inciple o equali y and non-
disc imina ion, as s ipula ed in A icle 2 o he Decla a ion,
is he co ne s one o he human igh s p o ec ion sys em,
ensh ined in e e y human igh s ins umen , s ipula ing ha ;
E e yone is en i led o all he igh s and eedoms se o h
in his Decla a ion, wi hou dis inc ion o any kind, such as
ace, colo , sex, language, eligion, poli ical o o he
opinion, na ional o social o igin, p ope y, bi h o o he
s a us. Fu he mo e, no dis inc ion shall be made on he
basis o he poli ical, ju isdic ional o in e na ional s a us o
he coun y o e i o y o which a pe son belongs, whe he
i be independen , us , non-sel -go e ning o unde any
o he limi a ion o so e eign y (Icelandic Human Righ s
Cen e, 2017) [17].
Human Righ s Abuses in Nige ia
Nige ia is one o he wo s ic ims o human igh s abuses
in A ica. Consequen ly, many Nige ians oday li e in ea
and e o , o u e, unlaw ul de en ion, un ai ial and
possible dea h. E en hough Nige ia has a Na ional Human
Righ s Commission, a cons i u ion modelled a e he
Uni ed S a es o Ame ica, and a signa o y o he Uni ed
Na ions Uni e sal Decla a ion o Human Righ s, a ious
go e nmen s (bo h mili a y and ci ilians) ha e always
ea ed he issue o human igh s wi h con emp and le i y.
The uneasiness abou he lag an abuses o human igh s in
Nige ia and he ou ages ha ha e occu ed a e he majo
h ea s o peace and s abili y in he coun y. Ademu (2011)
[1] no ed ha he Nige ia police o ce pa icipa es in mass
killings, bu ying suspec s in shallow g a es, while hei
pe sonnel ail o keep adequa e eco ds o people in cus ody,
knowing well ha hei ailu e o do so acili a es abuse
agains de ainees and suspec s. The e is also ailu e on he
pa o he go e nmen o ins i u e o exe cise due
in elligence in in es iga ing o ensu ing accoun abili y o
police abuses. The police we e empowe ed o make a es s
wi hou wa an s i hey belie ed ha he e was a eason o
suspec ha a pe son had commi ed an o ence. They o en
abuse his powe . Unde he undamen al igh s
En o cemen P ocedu es Rules o he 1999 Cons i u ion,
police may a es and de ain pe sons o 24 hou s be o e
cha ging hem wi h an o ence. The law equi es an
a es ing o ice o in o m he accused o he cha ges a he
ime o a es s and o ake he accused pe sons o a s a ion
o p ocessing wi hin a easonable amoun o ime.
Howe e , he police gene ally do no adhe e o hese legally
manda ed p ocedu es (Ademu, 2011) [1].
Acco ding o he Human Righ s Si ua ion Repo (2002) [16],
he secu i y o ces in Nige ia ha e a his o y o abusing he
human igh s o he ci izen y anging om de en ion due o
e usal o gi e b ibe, sexual and physical assaul o hose in
police cus ody, use o o u e o ex ac con ession, ex a
judicial killings engaged in by police pe sonnel and many
o he ac s which ha e u ned he police o a blood sucking
mons e in he eyes o he ci izen y. In iew o his, many
ci izens see police pe sonnel as an e e las ing enemy and
ela e o hem as such. These human igh s abuses ha e led
o he maiming, physical and psychological auma o many
ci izens. Many ci izens ha e died and con inue o die in
police de en ion cen e s and e en on he highways as he
police commi ac s ha o he mos pa go unpunished.
Ano he dimension o his is ha hese human igh s abuse
a e mos ly commi ed agains some sec ions o he socie y
as he poo , uneduca ed ci izens who a e de enseless and
unable o en o ce hei igh s because hey a e nei he seen
o hea d (Human Righ s Si ua ion Repo , 2002) [16].
Amnes y In e na ional (2022) [7] u he epo ed ha he
s a e ailed in i s esponsibili y o p o ec people om
a ious abuses commi ed by Boko Ha am and ISWAP as
well as unknown gunmen. Acco ding o media epo s, hey
killed a leas 6,907 people, abduc ed 6,157 and o cibly
ans e ed o in e nally displaced a leas 2,000. A acks by
Boko Ha am, which had been p edominan ly in he no h-
eas , sp ead o some s a es in no h-cen al and no h-
wes e n Nige ia du ing he yea . A acks by Boko Ha am
di ec ed agains ci ilians, such as hose a ge ing illage s,
a ming communi ies and highway and ain passenge s,
amoun ed o wa c imes. Ci il socie y o ganiza ions
epo ed ha , on 26 May, Boko Ha am killed a leas 60
people in Rann communi y, Bo no s a e. On 5 July, gunmen
a acked Kuje P ison in Abuja and eed mo e han 60
suspec ed Boko Ha am membe s. Acco ding o media
epo s, on 15 No embe , Boko Ha am epo edly killed
mo e han 15 women in Gwoza communi y, Bo no s a e,
a e accusing hem o being wi ches. O he hund eds o
schoolchild en abduc ed by Boko Ha am in p e ious yea s,
110 gi ls emained in cap i i y a he end o he yea
(Amnes y In e na ional, 2022) [7].
Non-S a e Volun ee G oups
Public sa e y and secu i y a e impo an o communi ies
and o his eason people some imes join oge he o
p o ide o hei own sa e y and secu i y, o example, by
o ming neighbo hood wa ch associa ions, communi y
pa ols, sel -de ense g oups, o gua d sys ems o de e he
in ma ke s and shopping a eas, ade associa ions, among
o he s. In a simila way, communi ies some imes ha e hei
own p ocesses and au ho i ies who can deal wi h
communi y p oblems ha migh o he wise in ol e cou s o
law o o he pa s o he jus ice sec o , o example, dealing
wi h issues o mino c ime, esol ing disag eemen s wi hin
amilies o be ween communi y membe s, o media ing
be ween g oups o indi iduals wi h compe ing claims o
local esou ces. When a angemen s o p o ide secu i y and
jus ice a e es ablished ou side a s a e manda e o public
au ho i y, hey a e some imes called nons a e, hyb id,
in o mal, o communi y secu i y and jus ice ac o s.
In Nige ia, he police o ce, he a med o ces and he
in elligence communi y a e he h ee co e agencies o he
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s a e o iginally manda ed by he cons i u ion o p o ide
ce ain secu i y se ices. Today, he in e nal secu i y
p o ision and o he public o de main enance a e he
esponsibili ies o he Nige ia Police Fo ce (NPF) and o he
pa amili a y agencies. Howe e , e en wi h he exis ence o
hese agencies in he s a e's secu i y sec o , he non-s a e
secu i y ou i s ha e con inued o g ow and gain p ominence
and accep ance wi hin he socie y due o he ailu e o he
s a e agencies and in a iably a con inua ion o he cul u e o
sel - eliance. The s a e secu i y agencies' ailu e in dealing
wi h hese challenges a e a ibu ed o many nega i e
condi ions including inadequa e labo o ce (pe sonnel),
poo aining, lack o mode n policing and secu i y
echniques, inadequa e and ou da ed equipmen , insu icien
und, low emune a ion, low mo ale, unde s a ing o he
s a e secu i y sec o agains he popula ion, language
di e ences, a bi a y exe cise o powe , ins i u ionaliza ion,
lack o poli ical will o e o m he secu i y sec o and non-
decen aliza ion o ope a ions (Bashi u 2018) [10]. The
ci izens a e le wi h he op ion o al e na i e means o
gua an eeing hei secu i y and sa e y. The e o e, he s a e's
ailu e o p o ide secu i y o i s ci izens is boldly linked o
he g owing end o non-s a e secu i y agencies in he
coun y and mos o he agile coun ies. Odo (2016) [22]
poin ed ou ha , igilan es lou ish no only in places whe e
he s a e lacks he capaci y o p o ec ci izens om c ime,
bu also whe e he s a e is belie ed o be co up o
un us wo hy.
Goddey (2018) [14] u he no ed ha CJTF is jus a g oup o
olun ee s who ook hei s icks acco ding o na i e
language Kanu i (go a) in which hey use in igh ing he
BH. Thus, wha compel hem o kick agains he ac i i ies o
BH, due o us a ion and equen a acks on people.
Inspi ed by he zeal o CJTF, go e nmen now ecognize
hei e o s and ga e hem suppo . The CJTF came as a
‘child o necessi y,’ as compelled by he menace o BH,
gi en i s a acks on innocen ci izens o Bo no S a e, and he
incapaci y o he Nige ian mili a y o ces in he ea ly days
o insu gency. I is wo hy o men ion ha he go e nmen
secu i y men a es ed and o u ed innocen locals o
allegedly ha bo ing misc ean s. Thus, innocen locals we e
dying daily om bo h BH a acks and app ehension by he
mili a y o ces. In o de o a es he si ua ion, he CJTF
came in o exis ence. I s o ma ion is legi imized by he
se e e consequences su e ed by he locals (Goddey, 2018)
[14]. I ook some p ocesses o he g oup o be well
es ablished, which s a ed wi h a call o olun ee s by
locals.
Non-s a e ac o s, om a med g oups o p i a e co po a ions
and non-go e nmen al o ganiza ions (NGOs), play a c i ical
ole in heigh ening o lessening human secu i y. The
measu es equi ed o enhance human secu i y o en call o
ac ion om nume ous non-s a e ac o s, pa icula ly NGOs.
These include, o example, add essing he needs o
displaced popula ions, ad oca ing s onge con ol o he
a ms ade and helping go e nmen s p ese e and es o e
agile en i onmen s. Human secu i y can ac as a pla o m
o help s a e and non-s a e ac o s alike add ess he causes o
global insecu i y. Non-s a e ac o s a e pa icula ly well
sui ed o engende ing human secu i y in he new wo ld
con ex . Indeed, in ailed s a es, hey a e he only ac o s who
a e p esen o do so. Du ing in e nal con lic s, non-s a e
ac o s bene i om close in ol emen wi h local
communi ies and hey a e be e able han adi ional ac o s
o build local capaci y. Nons a e ac o s can and do play
many oles in he p o ec ion o human secu i y. Fo
example, o ganiza ions such as he ICRC and Ox am ac as
elie agencies e en when go e nmen s a e unable o
espond o eme gency needs; NGOs such as he Communi y
o San Egidio acili a e nego ia ions be ween wa ing
pa ies; e o s such as Radio Ijambo in Rwanda aim o help
e-es ablish peace.
Fo Ogbozo (2016) [22], in o mal secu i y ac o s a e key
playe s in secu i y p o ision in many A ican communi ies.
S udies on in o mal policing s uc u es o en ocus on
ic ims o igilan ism and b eaches o human igh s
pe pe a ed by igilan es, neglec ing he bene icial ole
igilan es play in ensu ing he sa e y and secu i y o local
communi ies in Nige ia, igilan es ha e bo h nega i e and
posi i e impac s: abuses by igilan es mus be add essed
o mally and s uc u ally while p ese ing he impo an ole
o igilan es as p o ec o s o hei communi ies. In o mal
mechanisms o p o ec ion ha e h i ed in ce ain u al
a eas, whe e he majo i y o he people a e excluded om
mains eam secu i y p o isioning (Kwaja, 2014) [19]. In hese
cases, nons a e secu i y ac o s ha e inc easingly b idged he
acuum c ea ed by he inabili y o o mal secu i y
ins i u ions o ensu e he sa e y o ci izens. Pla eau, Kaduna,
and Kano s a es ha e long his o ies o e hno eligious and
poli ical- ela ed iolence. A numbe o in o mal ac o s a e
ac i e in hese s a es, which ha e high a es o iolence.
This epo p o ides an analysis o he in o mal secu i y
p o ide s in Pla eau, Kaduna, and Kano. I discusses he
in o mal secu i y ac o s p esen in hese s a es, hei
s uc u es, hei ec ui men and aining mechanisms,
accoun abili y issues, hei ela ionships wi h o mal
secu i y ac o s, and pe cep ions o hem (Ogbozo , 2016)
[22].
Vigilan ism is an o ganized a emp by a g oup o o dina y
ci izens o en o ce no ms and main ain law and o de on
behal o hei communi ies, o en by eso ing o iolence,
in he pe cei ed absence o e ec i e o icial s a e ac ion
h ough he police and cou s (Alemika and Chukwuma,
2004) [4].
In Maidugu i, he CJTF is cu en ly made up o wo g oups,
he olun ee s and hose abso bed in o he newly c ea ed
Bo no You h Empowe men Scheme (BOYES). The
Depa men o S a e Se ices e s and p o iles he
olun ee s ec ui ed in o BOYES, while he Minis y o
Jus ice egula es he ac i i ies o he CJTF (Felbab-B own,
2018) [13]. The c ea ion o BOYES is an a emp by he s a e
go e nmen o o malize, es uc u e and legi imize he
CJTF. BOYES ec ui s wea uni o ms, a e ained by he
mili a y and o he o ganiza ions, a e pe mi ed o ca y
a ms, and ecei e a mon hly s ipend o 20,000 Nai a.
BOYES is s uc u ed in o uni s. These include he apid
esponse squad and special o ces, which collabo a e,
h ough join ac ical ope a ions, ac i e comba and pa ols,
wi h he mili a y and he police. O he uni s, such as he
ag o- ange s, wo k wi h he NSCDC o p o ec a me s
agains a acks by he insu gen s. The neighbo hood wa ch
uni o BOYES p ima ily a ge s he en o cemen o o de
and c ime con ol a he neighbo hood le el and in public
spaces. The c ea ion o BOYES has, howe e , le many
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olun ee s eeling excluded om wha hey pe cei e o be
he ewa d package o p i ileged membe s o he CJTF
(Felbab-B own, 2018) [13].
Non-S a e Volun ee G oups and Human Righ s Abuses
in Nige ia
Non-S a e Ac o s in Secu i y Sec o known as he CJTF, a
local g oup o med in 2013 o suppo he Nige ian secu i y
o ces in he igh agains Boko Ha am in no heas Nige ia
and o p o ec local communi ies om a acks by Boko
Ha am, p og essi ely expanded o e he yea s. The g oup
ha e been engaged in secu i y ope a ions and mo e ecen ly,
in ol ed in p o iding secu i y o camps o in e nally
displaced popula ions (UNICEF 15 Sep embe , 2017) [31]. In
2016, he CJTF was lis ed in he annexes o he Sec e a y-
Gene al’s Annual Repo o Child en and A med Con lic
o he ec ui men and use o child en. Following he
lis ing, UNICEF, in i s ole as Co-chai o he Uni ed
Na ions Coun y Task Fo ce o he Moni o ing and
Repo ing Mechanism on g a e abuses agains child en, has
been wo king wi h he g oup and Nige ian au ho i ies o
de elop he Ac ion Plan signed oday. Th ough he Ac ion
Plan, he CJTF commi s o pu in place a numbe o
measu es o end and p e en child ec ui men and use.
Iden i ying and eleasing all child en wi hin he g oup’s
anks and ins uc ing i s membe s no o ec ui o use
child en in he u u e a e examples o such measu es
(UNICEF, 15 Sep embe 2017) [31]. Membe s o ci ilian
igilan e g oups known as he Non S a e Secu i y Ac o s a e
aking an inc easingly ac i e ole in he go e nmen ’s igh
agains Boko Ha am (BH). Bu while some esiden s call
hem he oes, o he s ea hey a e inci ing BH o mo e
di ec ly a ge ci ilians, ha hey a e commi ing abuses
hemsel es and ha hey a e e oding he al eady s ained
ule o law in Nige ia’s no heas (OCHA, 2013) [21].
Mbah and Nwangwu (2014) [20] no ed ha he Chap e Fou
o he 1999 Cons i u ion o he Fede al Republic o Nige ia
and o he laws es ablished unde i ecognize he
undamen al igh s o he na ionals as sac ed and
inalienable. Fo ins ance, Sec ions 33 and 35 o he
Cons i u ion gua an ee ha e e y pe son has he igh o li e
and pe sonal libe y and shall no be a bi a ily dep i ed o
hese igh s. The Cons i u ion also p o ides ha e e y
ci izen is en i led o espec o he digni y o his pe son,
including he igh no o be subjec ed o o u e. Simila ly,
Nige ia is a pa y o se e al in e na ional human igh s
ea ies. These include he In e na ional Co enan on Ci il
and Poli ical Righ s and he A ican Cha e on Human and
Peoples’ Righ s which p ohibi a bi a y dep i a ion o he
igh o li e, o u e and a bi a y a es and de en ion.
Empi ical Re iew
Mallam (2019) [13] wo ked on he Boko ha am insu gency
and human igh s iola ion in No h Eas e n Nige ia. The
insu gency caused by Boko Ha am’s insu gency is among
he p ima y challenges aced by Nige ia. The g oup’s
ac i i ies in he No h ha e esul ed in housands o
casual ies, he displacemen o mo e han one million
people, he des uc ion o hund eds o schools, mosques,
chu ches and go e nmen es ablishmen s and ha e a aged
he economy o he egion. The sample size was 25
pa icipan s who included camp leade s, secu i y agen s,
local leade s and human igh s expe s. The esea ch
ins umen was key in o man in e iews. The s udy ound
ou ha human igh s abuses by Boko Ha am in no heas e n
Nige ia, speci ically, in he S a es o Bo no, Yobe and
Adamawa included: dep i a ion o igh o li e, igh o
educa ion and igh o heal hca e. The s udy concluded ha
Boko-ha am insu gency has g ea ly impac ed on he igh o
li e, educa ion, and heal hca e. The s udy made he
ollowing ecommenda ions: The go e nmen should ensu e
ha igh o li e is p o ec ed i s abo e e e y o he hing.
Emmanuela (2015) [11] wo ked on insu gency and
humani a ian c ises in No he n Nige ia: The case o Boko
Ha am. Insu gency has become a h ea o global peace and
secu i y in he 21s cen u y due o he ac ha i cons i u es
he highes con ibu o o humani a ian c ises in he o m o
ise in human casual ies, in e nally displaced pe sons,
e ugee debacles, ood insecu i y and he sp ead o a ious
diseases. This pape adop s he S a e F agili y heo e ical
amewo k as well as he su ey me hod in ol ing he use
o ques ionnai es ( he eg ession echnique) and in-dep h
in e iew (index ma ix and able echnique) which ocuses
on h ee in e nally displaced Camps in he egion o
analysis. The empi ical indings indica e ha , he e is a
signi ican ela ionship be ween Boko Ha am insu gency
and humani a ian c ises, when a iables such as impac on
human casual ies (IHC), ood insecu i y (FI) and in e nally
displaced pe sons (IDP’s) a e held cons an , while no
signi ican ela ionship exis s when he a iables such as
loss o li elihood (LoL) and go e nmen esponse (GR) a e
held cons an .
Akani (2024) [2] wo ked on he compa a i e analysis o
insu gency and coun e -insu gency app oaches in Nige ia
and o he ju isdic ions. Insu gency is, a guably, one o he
g ea es h ea s o global peace, secu i y and de elopmen in
he con empo a y imes. Since he dawn o his millennium,
he incidence has been on a s eady ise wo ldwide. The
ising wa e o insu gency has assumed a c isis dimension in
Nige ia, esou ce-based and sec a ian insu gency ha e
claimed many li es, des oyed sou ces o li elihood, and
c ea ed a clima e o pe pe ual ea and insecu i y ac oss he
coun y. Indeed, he wo ldwide mani es a ion o insecu i y
has no only been e iden in A ica bu in o he pa s o he
wo ld. In Nige ia, he phenomenon has ound exp ession in
he eme gence o Boko Ha am. This pape compa es and
con as s insu gencies in Nige ia and o he coun ies,
pa icula ly insu gencies in Kenya, I aq and India. I also
compa es and con as s he coun e -insu gency app oaches
by he Nige ian secu i y o ces wi h hose o Kenya, I aq
and India. The pape ound ha while he insu gencies in all
he coun ies compa ed sha e some simila i ies, he coun e -
insu gency measu es di e somewha signi ican ly. I
concluded ha he app oach o he Nige ian o ces is s ill
chao ic and ine ec i e. The pape ecommends o Nige ia
a comp ehensi e coun e -insu gency policy ha p io i izes
espec o human igh s and e iciency.
Ikedinma (2021) [18] examined he challenges o coun e -
e o ism s a egies and human igh s in Nige ia. This
pape examined he poli ical cos s and consequences o
coun e e o ism s a egies; x- ayed he challenges
democ a ic go e nmen s ace in con on ing e o ism;
examined he expe iences o Nige ian coun e - e o ism
laws, policies and p ac ices. The pape using seconda y da a
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es ablished ha coun e e o is policies ha e he po en ial
o unde mine he democ a ic p inciples, ins i u ions, and
p ocesses hey seek o p ese e. This demons a es he
e ec s o has ily d awn policies on ci il libe ies and
cons i u ional no ms. I concluded ha p e en ing and
coun e ing e o ism is now a key policy p io i y o many
libe al democ a ic s a es; and he poli ical cos s o
con on ing e o ism i no p ope ly e i ied in mos cases
o e shadows he main objec i e o coun e ing e o ism.
This is because bo h e o is ac s and coun e e o is
s a egies a e poli ical ac ions. The pape no ed ha e o is
designa ion lis s a e now mo e wide-sp ead in e na ionally
han e e be o e.
Omeni (2017) [24] wo ked on he coun e -insu gency in
Nige ia: The mili a y and ope a ions agains Boko Ha am,
2011-2017. The Boko Ha am insu gency has las ed mo e
han a decade in Nige ia. The p o ac ed and in ac able
na u e o he iolence has es ablished a con ex o mu ual
a on be ween he secu i y agencies who seek o coun e
he insu ec ion on he one hand, and he mili an Islamis s
who seek o en h one a monoli hic poli y dependen on
Islamic ju isp udence on he o he hand. The eligious
undamen alism o Boko Ha am which has esul ed in he
abuse o human igh s (especially eligious eedom) is he
main ocus o his s udy. The compa a i e esea ch
me hodology was adop ed and da a ga he ed om he s udy
we e con en analyzed. Findings showed ha kidnapping,
o ce ul con e sion, ma iage, des uc ion o places o
wo ship, opposi ion o wes e n and Ch is ian educa ion a e
he cen al abuses o eedom o eligion by he g oup
occasioned by hei undamen alism. The s udy concluded
ha he iola ion o eligious eedom as a undamen al
human igh has a ec ed adhe en s o bo h Islam and
Ch is iani y. I ecommends p ope enac men and
implemen a ion o laws, educa ion o peace, in e na ional
suppo and in e en ion o men ion bu a ew.
Yusu (2013) [32] access he ha es o iolence: he neglec
o basic igh s and he Boko Ha am insu gency in Nige ia.
D awing on he co e commi men s o C i ical Te o ism
S udies, and mos ly, he e hic o emancipa ion, his a icle
ocuses on he Boko Ha am insu gency o in es iga e
ecu ing iolen con lic in Nige ia. I iden i ies a
go e nance gap no ad e ed o in he o icial na a i e
which has led o g oss discon en a he lowe le els o he
socie y. The go e nance gap has c ea ed e ile b eeding
g ounds o he ec ui men o disillusioned you hs who a e
easily mobilized o iolence and la ely, insu gency. The e
a e no ma i e and p agma ic easons o adop and p io i ies
social wel a e h ough he implemen a ion o economic,
social and cul u al obliga ions and due-p ocess igh s as a
iable app oach o a leas educing he spa e o iolence in
he coun y. The discussion has ele ance o esol ing
si ua ions o iolence and con lic in sub-Saha a A ica in
pa icula and elsewhe e in he de eloping wo ld.
Theo e ical F amewo k
This s udy is unde pinned by C i ical heo y. This heo y is
a philosophical and in e disciplina y app oach o analyzing
socie y, cul u e and poli ics ha o igina ed wi h he
F ank u School in he 1920s and 1930s. The F ank u
School was a g oup o schola s, including Max Ho kheime ,
Theodo Ado no, He be Ma cuse, and E ich F om, who
we e c i ical o bo h adi ional Ma xis heo y and
mains eam social science (Rensmann, 2017) [28]. They
sough o de elop a heo y ha could explain he pe sis ence
o capi alism and he ise o ascism in Eu ope, while also
p o iding a basis o social c i ique and ans o ma ion.
Ree es (2009) [27] s a ed ha he de elopmen o c i ical
heo y can be aced h ough se e al s ages. In i s ea ly
s ages, c i ical heo y was hea ily in luenced by Ma xis
heo y, pa icula ly in i s emphasis on he c i ique o
capi alism and he analysis o class s uggle. Howe e ,
c i ical heo is s quickly ealized ha adi ional Ma xis
heo y was inadequa e o unde s anding he complexi ies o
mode n socie y (Scheue man, 2011) [29]. They began o
inco po a e insigh s om o he disciplines, such as
psychoanalysis, sociology, and cul u al s udies, in o hei
wo k.
Using his heo y o analyze human igh s abuses will gi e a
deepe unde s anding o hei oo causes and consequences
o he abuse. This will help o ensu e ha go e nmen s and
policy make s wo ks owa ds c ea ing a mo e jus and
equi able socie y whe e human igh s a e espec ed and
p o ec ed o all.
Resea ch Me hodology
The s udy adop ed a mixed me hod esea ch design,
in eg a ing bo h quan i a i e and quali a i e app oaches o
ob ain a comp ehensi e unde s anding o he phenomenon
unde in es iga ion. The esea ch was conduc ed in h ee
LGAs (Bama, Monguno, Gwoza) in Bo no S a e, Nige ia, a
egion signi ican ly a ec ed by he Boko Ha am insu gency,
wi h he popula ion comp ising 385 esponden s, selec ed
using Coch an's o mula o calcula ing la ge Popula ions. A
sample size o app oxima ely 385 esponden s was needed
o a quan i a i e su ey aiming o a 95% con idence le el
and 5% ma gin o e o om a e y la ge popula ion. The
chosen o mula is a s a is ically sound and widely accep ed
me hod o de e mining sample size in quan i a i e s udies
wi h la ge popula ions while pu posi e sampling was
applied o selec pa icipan s based on accessibili y,
a ailabili y, and in ol emen in ield aid deli e y. Da a
collec ion ins umen s included a esea che -designed
s uc u ed ques ionnai e, agged “Human Righ Abuses and
Non-s a e Volun ee G oups Ques ionnai e” (HRANVGQ)”
and a Key In o man In e iew (KII) guide was alida ed by
expe s in peace and con lic s udies and ial- es ed in
Adamawa S a e, yielding a C onbach Alpha eliabili y
coe icien o 0.86. Da a collec ion in ol ed ob aining
o icial app o al le e s, seeking consen om communi y
leade and T adi ional ule s, NGO heads, CSOs heads
Wo king in hese LGAs and aining esea ch assis an s o
ensu e p ope adminis a ion o ques ionnai es and
adhe ence o e hical conside a ions. The p ocess spanned
h ee weeks, du ing which he ques ionnai es we e
dis ibu ed and KIIs conduc ed. Quan i a i e da a we e
analyzed using equency coun s, pe cen ages, mean, and
s anda d de ia ion wi h SPSS e sion 27, applying a 3.50
mean cu -o poin o decision-making. Quali a i e da a
om he KII we e analyzed hema ically. This
me hodological app oach ensu ed iangula ion, imp o ed
alidi y, and p o ided an in-dep h unde s anding o he
eme gence o non-s a e secu i y ac o s and hei ac i i ies in
human igh s abuses in Bo no S a e.
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Resul s
Resea ch Ques ion 1: Wha a e he ac o s esponsible o
he eme gence o non-s a e olun ee g oups in secu ing he
communi ies in Bo no s a e?
Table 1: Mean and S anda d De ia ion on he ac o s esponsible o he eme gence o non-s a e olun ee g oups in secu ing he
communi ies in Bo no s a e
S/N
I ems
SA
A
D
SD
S d
1
P o ec ion o hei communi y om cons an a acks o Boko Ha am insu gency
165
(51.4%)
137
(42.7%)
13
(4%)
6
(1.9%)
3.43
0.66
2
Failu e o he s a e secu i y o ces o adequa ely secu e communi ies
55
(17.1%)
142
(44.2%)
96
(29.9%)
28
(8.7%)
2.69
0.85
3
S oppage o ha assmen /in imida ion o people by Boko Ha am insu gen s in communi ies.
100
(31.2%)
157
(48.9%)
53
(16.5%)
11
(3.4%)
3.07
0.78
4
Lack o us on he secu i y agencies by he people make hem o igh insu gen s in hei
communi ies.
82
(25.5%)
117
(36.4%)
100
(31.2%)
22
(6.9%)
2.80
0.89
5
The de e mina ion ha hey can s op he con inued a acks o Boko Ha am in hei
communi ies.
93
(29%)
161
(50.2%)
50
(15.6%)
17
(5.3%)
3.02
0.81
6
The con inued loss o li es esul ing in he eme gence o non-s a e olun ee g oups in hei
communi ies.
67
(20.9%)
99
(30.8%)
116
(36.1%)
39
(12.1%)
2.60
0.94
7
Unde s anding o he local e ain caused hem o come o igh he insu gen s.
89
(27.7%)
166
(51.7%)
45
(14%)
21
(6.5%)
3.00
0.82
8
To ensu e ha he insecu i y mani es ing in he communi ies is con ained.
79
(24.6%)
179
(55.8%)
48
(15%)
15
(4.7%)
3.00
0.76
9
The belie e ha hey a e capable o igh ing Boko Ha am insu gen s makes hem o come ou .
105
(32.7%)
151
(47%)
48
(15%)
17
(5.3%)
3.07
0.82
10
Humilia ion aced by communi y membe s caused non-s a e olun ee g oups o ge in ol ed
in he igh agains Boko Ha am.
95
(29.6%)
146
(45.5%)
63
(19.6%)
17
(5.3%)
3.00
0.84
Table 1 showed he ac o s ha ac o s esponsible o he
eme gence o non-s a e olun ee g oups in secu ing he
communi ies in Bo no S a e. F om he esponses o he
esponden s, i was clea ha all hem ag ee ha he ac o s
a e signi ican mo i a o o o he eme gence o non-s a e
olun ee g oups in communi ies. Howe e , a o al o 94.1%
indica ed ha he eme gence o non-s a e olun ee g oup
we e as a esul o he p o ec ion o hei communi y om
cons an a acks o Boko Ha am insu gency. The mean sco e
o he i em was ( = 3.43), indica ing ha i is ag ee. Also,
he esponden s ha ag ee o he ac ha he s oppage o
ha assmen /in imida ion o people by Boko Ha am
insu gen s mo i a ed he eme gence o non-s a e olun ee
g oups in communi ies eco ded a mean sco e o ( = 3.07),
and 80.1% o he esponden s indica ed ag ee o he
s a emen . The belie e ha hey a e capable o igh ing
Boko Ha am insu gen s makes hem o come ou ( = 3.07),
while 79.7% o he esponden suppo ed he idea. Ano he
ac o ha makes non-s a e olun ee g oups o eme ge is
he de e mina ion ha hey can s op he con inued a acks o
Boko Ha am in hei communi ies ( = 3.02). Based on his
s a emen , a o al o 79.2% ag ee o i . The assu ance ha
hey unde s and he local e ain caused hem o come o
igh he insu gen s ( = 3.00), and 79.4% o he esponden s
ag ee o he s a emen . Thei eme gence is o ensu e ha he
insecu i y mani es ing in hei communi ies is con ained ( =
3.00). A o al o 80.4% o he esponden s suppo ed he
idea. Equally, humilia ion aced by communi y membe s
caused non-s a e olun ee o ge in ol ed in he igh
agains Boko Ha am ( = 3.00), while 75.1% o he
esponden s ag ee o he s a emen . Lack o us on he
secu i y agencies by he people ( = 2.80), and he ailu e o
he s a e secu i y o ces o adequa ely secu e communi ies (
= 2.69) make hem o igh insu gen s in hei communi ies.
A o al o 61.9% and 61.3% espec i ely o he esponden s
ag ee o he idea. Also, he con inuous loss o li es esul ed
in he eme gence o non-s a e olun ee in hei
communi ies ( = 2.60), while 51.7% o he esponden s
ag ee o he s a emen .
Du ing he KII, he esponden s asse ed ha
Communi y leade in one o he wa ds in Bama LGA
“P og am o ice : Yes, suicide bombing is de ini ely one
o he ac ics Boko Ha am uses agains aid con oys. We
ha e hea d wi nessed si ua ions in which ehicles ca ying
aid wo ke s we e a ge ed by suicide bombe s o cause
maximum damage and c ea e ea in hem.
A communi y leade in one o he wa ds in Bama LGA
obse ed ha : “Be o e he ise o non-s a e olun ee
g oups such as he Ci ilian Join Task Fo ce (CJTF), local
hun e s, and igilan e associa ions, he communi y's secu i y
en i onmen was c i ically uns able. The e we e equen
a acks by insu gen g oups, including aids, abduc ions, and
des uc ion o p ope y. Ci ilians had li le o no wa ning
be o e hese a acks occu ed, leading o widesp ead ea
and unce ain y”.
An FGD o NGOs and CSOs who ac i ely pa icipa ed
helping he abused indi idual in Monguno LGA ha : “In
Monguno LGA he e, The e we e equen a acks by
insu gen g oups, including aids, abduc ions, and
des uc ion o p ope y. Ci ilians had li le o no wa ning
be o e hese a acks occu ed, leading o widesp ead ea
and unce ain y. Though he mili a y is hei bes bu hey
canno be e e ywhe e a he same ime. So, CJTF eally
sa ed he si ua ion o some ex en in his LGA.”
In suppo o he abo e, a commandan o one o he
NSVG has his o add: “In ou local communi ies, he
o icial secu i y o ces, including he police and he mili a y,
we e o en unde - esou ced, slow o espond, o mos imes
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comple ely absen en i ely in many u al a eas whe e hese
a acks happened. This le la ge gaps in secu i y co e age
and allowed non-s a e a med g oups o ope a e wi h ela i e
impuni y…ou g oup eally came in o help he si ua ion and
we a e doing ou bes in ha aspec .”
An FGD o woman leade s in Kasugula wa d asse ed
ha : “…in ou wa d, many esiden s we e o ced o lee
hei homes due o pe sis en insecu i y, esul ing in
in e nally displaced pe sons (IDPs) and dis up ed
li elihoods. E en, he e was g owing dis us in o mal
secu i y agencies, e lec ed in a sense o abandonmen and
us a ion among communi y membe s. The absence o
g ass oo s-le el in elligence hinde ed he abili y o s a e
secu i y agencies o p eemp a acks o app ehend
pe pe a o s e ec i ely”.
A eligious leade in Buduwa/Bula Chi abe wa d added
ha : “As a eligious leade , I can gi e you a i s -hand
accoun o wha ac ually happened. The e was a equen
and cons an dange and helplessness be o e he eme gence
o o ganized olun ee communi y secu i y g oups in ou
locali y. The in oduc ion o g oups like he CJTF and local
igilan es la e shi ed he secu i y si ua ion by p o iding
local suppo , ac ing as ea ly wa ning sys ems, and
coope a ing wi h o icial o ces. Fa ming, ade, and
schooling we e equen ly dis up ed, leading o economic
ha dship, ood sho ages, and a b eakdown in communi y
cohesion”.
F om he abo e, i is clea ha be o e he o ma ion and
ac i a ion o non-s a e olun ee g oups such as he Ci ilian
Join Task Fo ce (CJTF), hun e s, and igilan es, he
secu i y en i onmen in a ec ed communi ies was highly
p eca ious and uns able. F om he KIIs and FGDs, he e was
a equen insu gen a acks, communi ies egula ly
expe ienced aids, kidnappings, killings, and p ope y
des uc ion by insu gen g oups. Ci ilians we e o en
a ge s, and a acks could occu wi hou wa ning. Ine ec i e
S a e P o ec ion: S a e secu i y o ces, including police and
he mili a y, we e ypically unde -equipped, la e in
esponse, o comple ely absen , especially in emo e and
u al loca ions. This esul ed in signi ican gaps in secu i y
co e age. Ongoing h ea s o ced many esiden s o abandon
hei homes, leading o la ge numbe s o in e nally displaced
pe sons (IDPs) and u he des abilizing communi ies.
Fea ul o iolence, communi y membe s es ic ed hei
mo emen s, especially a e da k, and a oided social
ga he ings. Daily ou ines we e equen ly and se e ely
dis up ed.
Resea ch Ques ion 2
Wha a e he causes o he in ol emen o he non-s a e
olun ee g oups in human igh s abuses in Bo no s a e?
Table 2: Mean and S anda d De ia ion on he causes o he in ol emen o he non-s a e olun ee g oups in human igh s abuses in Bo no
s a e
S/N
I ems
SA
A
D
SD
S d
1
Weak/ poo go e nance sys em makes non-s a e olun ee g oups o abuse people in
communi ies
125
(38.9%)
81
(25.2%)
82
(25.5%)
33
(10.3%)
2.92
1.02
2
Non-s a e olun ee g oups ope a e wi hou checks due o a lack o accoun abili y mechanisms.
120
(37.4%)
106
(33%)
75
(23.4%)
20
(6.2%)
3.01
0.92
3
Pa e ns o ec ui men p ocess o non-s a e olun ee g oups make hem o misbeha e in
communi ies.
124
(38.6%)
92
(28.7%)
86
(26.8%)
19
(5.9%)
3.00
0.94
4
Non-s a e olun ee g oups unde s and ha he e is no law s ic ly egula ing hei ac i i ies
which make hem o ge in ol e in human igh abuses in communi ies.
133
(41.4%)
99
(30.8%)
63
(19.6%)
26
(8.1%)
3.05
0.96
5
The p oblem o illi e acy also makes hem o be in ol ed in abuse o people in communi ies
120
(37.4%)
117
(36.4%)
57
(17.8%)
27
(8.4%)
3.02
0.94
6
When people e used o comply wi h hei ins uc ions/o de s, hey will iola e hei igh s
116
(36.1%)
117
(36.4%)
72
(22.4%)
16
(5%)
3.03
0.88
7
The eeling ha hey a e abo e he law, make hem o ge in ol e in abusing people in
communi ies
121
(37.7%)
90
(28%)
89
(27.7%)
21
(6.5%)
2.96
0.95
8
Ine ec i eness o local con ol mechanisms make hem o ge in ol e in abuse o he people
109
(34%)
112
(34.9%)
79
(24.9%)
21
(6.5%)
2.96
0.92
9
The p oblem o po e y also makes hem o abuse people in communi ies
103
(32.1%)
105
(32.7%)
80
(24.9%)
33
(10.3%)
2.86
0.98
Table 2 showed he causes o he in ol emen o he non-
s a e olun ee g oups in human igh s abuses in no heas ,
Nige ia. The esponden s ag ee wi h he ac ha all he
i ems a e signi ican ac o s in d i ing non-s a e olun ee
g oups in o commi ing human igh s abuses in communi ies
in he No heas , Nige ia. The majo ac o iden i ied by
72.2% o he esponden s as he d i ing ac o is he
unde s anding o NSVG ha he e is no law s ic ly
egula ing hei ac i i ies, which make hem o ge in ol e
in human igh abuses in communi ies ( = 3.05). Also,
72.5% o he esponden s indica ed ha when people
e used o comply wi h hei ins uc ions/o de s, hey will
iola e hei igh s ( =3.03). The mean sco e o ( = 3.02)
ep esen ed iews o esponden s ha ag ee ha he p oblem
o illi e acy also makes hem o be in ol ed in abuse o
people in communi ies. Thus, 73.8% o he esponden s
ag ee o he s a emen . Ano he ac o iden i ied by 70.4%
o he esponden s was ha non-s a e olun ee ac o s
ope a es wi hou checks due o a lack o accoun abili y
mechanisms ( =3.01). A o al o 67.3% o he esponden s
ag ee ha he pa e ns o ec ui men p ocess o non-s a e
olun ee make hem o misha iou in communi ies, while
he mean sco e was ( = 3.00). The espoden s 65.7% ag ee
ha he eeling ha NSVG a e abo e he law, make hem o
ge in ol e in abusing people in communi ies ( =2.96).
Also, he mean sco e o ( = 2.96) ep esen ed he iews o
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68.9% o he esponden s ha ag ee ha he ine ec i eness
o local con ol mechanisms make hem o ge in ol e in
abuse o he people. The esponden s ha ag ee ha weak/
poo go e nance sys em makes non-s a e olun ee o abuse
people in communi ies cons i u ed 64.1%, while he mean
sco e was ( =2.92). A o al o 64.8% o he esponden s
ag ee ha he p oblem o po e y also makes hem o abuse
people in communi ies ( = 2.86).
Du ing he KII, he esponden s asse ed ha
Communi y leade in one o he wa ds in Monguno LGA
s a ed ha : “F om he expe ience in ou communi y,
secu i y pe sonnel o en ope a e wi hou p ope moni o ing
o disciplina y consequences. Mos o he abuse s a e p oud
abuse s and hey o en ell you “I will kill you and no hing
will happen”. As a Nige ian hing, abuse s a e a ely
p osecu ed, c ea ing a cul u e o “no consequences.”
An FGD o NGOs and CSOs who ac i ely pa icipa ed
helping he abused indi idual in Gwoza LGA lis ed he
ollowing as he ypes o human abuse ha occu s:
“Abuses con inue because ic ims lack sa e, accessible
ways o epo iola ions. E en when hese cases a e
epo ed, no hing a ely happens o he abuse s. And o
cou se, many o ice s a e unawa e o in e na ional and
na ional igh s amewo ks. They see human igh abuse as
no mal hing. They also claimed ha some imes exhaus ion
and auma om secu i y wo k leads hem o o e eac and
ac b u ally. Ci ilians a e some imes p o iled o suspec ed
based on loca ion o iden i y…especially a e a acks on
secu i y o ces, soldie s may e alia e on communi ies”.
In suppo o he abo e, a commandan o one o he
NSVG asse ed ha : “Some o ou membe s and secu i y
agen s o en ac wi h impuni y despi e e o s o cu b he
menace. We do punish epo ed cases…maybe i is no
enough, bu we punish se e ally. Again, people claim we
a e no ained, bu we a e ained…p obably no enough.
A e all, o mal secu i y ou i s like police and a my men
do abuse ci ilian oo. Some o ou men a e na u ally co up
and his mo i a es abuses such as ex o ion and illegal
de en ion”.
An FGD o women leade s in Bama LGA ag eed ha :
“Some secu i y agen s exploi hei au ho i y o pe sonal
gain, pa icula ly in en i onmen s lacking obus an i-
co up ion mechanisms. E en when hese cases a e epo ed
o case ile a he cou , weaknesses in he judicia y
including slow p ocesses, lack o independence, and
poli ical in e e ence discou age ic ims om seeking
jus ice. Wi h ci il emedies a ely en o ced and lack o
epe cussions o iola ions, secu i y agen s ace minimal
isks o abusi e p ac ices”.
A communi y leade added also ha : “Some o hem
o en eso o ep essi e ac ions, including o u e, a bi a y
de en ion, and excessi e o ce, unde he p e ex o
p o ec ing and p o iding secu i y. Also, absence o sa e,
accessible, and c edible channels o ci izens o epo abuse
os e s a cycle o impuni y. Human igh s abuses by secu i y
agen s a e a esul o en enched s uc u al issues,
ins i u ional laws, and he pe sis en challenges o ope a ing
in high- isk, esou ce-sca ce en i onmen s”.
Discussion o Findings
Fac o s Responsible o he Eme gence o Non-S a e
Volun ee G oups in Secu ing he Communi ies
The ac o s esponsible o he eme gence o non-s a e
olun ee g oups in secu ing hei communi ies in Bo no
S a e as disco e ed in his s udy we e: he s udy ound ha
non-s a e olun ee g oups in Bo no S a e eme ged as a
communi y-d i en esponse o se e e insecu i y. Key
d i e s included he need o de end agains pe sis en Boko
Ha am a acks, widesp ead ha assmen by insu gen s, and
he ailu e o s a e secu i y o ces o p o ide adequa e
p o ec ion. Thei o ma ion was la gely a su i al s a egy,
illing a c i ical secu i y oid le by he s a e. These
indings unde sco e ha he eme gence o non-s a e
olun ee g oups was a despe a e, communi y-d i en
esponse o an exis en ial h ea , bo n ou o necessi y and a
pe cei ed oid in s a e p o ec ion. These indings ally wi h
he asse ions o Pankiand Ru us (2023) [26] ha in ecen
yea s, a med igilan e g oups ha e p oli e a ed in Nige ia,
dedica ing hei e o s o igh ing c ime, p o ec ing and
de ending li es and p ope y. The au ho s wen ahead o
s a e ha i s secu i y agencies a e pe cei ed as becoming
less and less able o educe insecu i y h oughou he
coun y, which is a key in luencing ac o in he eme gence
o hese new secu i y ou i s (Panki and Ru us, 2023) [26].
These indings ag ee wi h he ideas o Bamidele (2017) [9]
ha o he egion’s o e s e ched and unde p essu e
mili a y, hey ha e somewha illed he secu i y gap and
p o ided local knowledge and NSVG can be a powe ul
coun e -insu gency ool. Also, he asse ions o Anjoh and
Nga i (2020) [8] ag eed wi h he indings o his s udy ha
NSVG we e able o ca y ou hei ole o wa ch ulness wi h
p obi y and con ibu e o comba o educe Boko Ha am
ac i i ies in he egion. This s udy equally ound ou ha he
assu ance ha hey unde s and he local e ain caused hem
o come ou o igh he insu gen s; humilia ion aced by
communi y membe s caused non-s a e olun ee g oups o
ge in ol ed in he igh agains Boko Ha am. The
asse ions o Anjoh and Nga i (2020) [8] ha NSVG
con ibu ed g ea ly o he educ ion o he ac i i ies o Boko
Ha am in he egion ally wi h he indings o his s udy.
Causes o he In ol emen o he Non-S a e Volun ee
G oups in Human Righ s Abuses
The s udy also iden i ied se e al c i ical ac o s con ibu ing
o he in ol emen o non-s a e olun ee g oups (NSVGs)
in human igh s abuses wi hin Bo no S a e communi ies.
The indings collec i ely poin o a challenging en i onmen
whe e a lack o o mal o e sigh , in e nal discipline, and a
b oade go e nance de ici c ea e e ile g ound o human
igh s iola ions by g oups ini ially o med o p o ec ion.
On he consequences o human igh s abuses by non-s a e
olun ee g oups, he s udy e eals ha human igh s abuses
by non-s a e olun ee g oups (NSVGs) ha e deep and
widesp ead consequences. These include escala ing
communi y iolence h ough e alia ion, e oding public us
in he g oups, and causing se ious psychological ha m like
PTSD and dep ession among ic ims. O e all, such abuses
weaken communi y s abili y, dis up go e nance, and
wo sen condi ions in al eady agile, con lic -a ec ed a eas.
This inding is in ag eemen wi h he posi ions o Hassan
and Pie i (2018) [5] ha NSVG o ganize hemsel es in o
