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Online a : h ps:// esea ch endsjou nal.com ISSN No: 2584-282X
Indexed Jou nal Pee Re iewed Jou nal
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TRENDS IN EMERGING RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
Volume 3; Issue 1; 2025; Page No. 166-171
Recei ed: 10-10-2024
Accep ed: 24-11-2024
E olu ion o Gende Neu ali y in Indian C iminal Law: A His o ical and
Compa a i e Pe spec i e
D . Sukhade Ghas i
Assis an P o esso , Facul y o Law, B.L.D.E Associa ion Law College, Jamkhandi, Ka na aka, India
DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.17132809
Co esponding Au ho : D . Sukhade Ghas i
Abs ac
Gende neu ali y in India’s c iminal jus ice sys em has eme ged as a cen al issue in ecen legal and policy deba es. This e lec s a g adual
mo emen away om colonial-e a, p o ec ion- ocused laws owa d a mo e equali y-d i en app oach. Fo decades a e independence, many
c iminal s a u es we e buil on he assump ion ha women a e he p ima y ic ims and men he ypical pe pe a o s. This pe spec i e le
li le oom o ecognizing he expe iences o male, ansgende , and non-bina y su i o s o c ime.
In ecen yea s, howe e , global human igh s no ms and e ol ing mo al s anda ds ha e ein o ced he p inciple ha legal p o ec ion mus
ex end equally o all gende iden i ies. This pape examines he his o ical de elopmen o gende neu ali y in Indian c iminal law, beginning
wi h he Indian Penal Code o 1860 and acing i s ajec o y h ough cons i u ional gua an ees, landma k cou decisions, and majo
s a u o y e o ms. These include he C iminal Law Amendmen s o 1983, 2013, and 2018; he P o ec ion o Child en om Sexual O ences
Ac o 2012; and he T ansgende Pe sons (P o ec ion o Righ s) Ac o 2019.
By compa ing India’s legal amewo k wi h hose o coun ies such as he Uni ed Kingdom, Canada, and Sou h A ica, he pape highligh s
p ac ical lessons o d a ing and en o cing gende -neu al laws. Al hough signi ican p og ess has been made, impo an gaps emain-mos
no ably he lack o legal ecogni ion o ma i al ape and he con inued gende -speci ic aming o domes ic iolence legisla ion.
Keywo ds: Gende Neu ali y, Indian C iminal Law, Compa a i e Ju isp udence, Sexual O ences, Domes ic Violence, T ansgende Righ s,
Cons i u ional Equali y, In e na ional Human Righ s, Legal Re o m
In oduc ion
The idea o gende neu ali y in c iminal law s ems om he
Cons i u ion’s undamen al p omises o equali y and non-
disc imina ion. When he Indian Penal Code was i s
enac ed in 1860, i mi o ed he Vic o ian and pa ia chal
iews o i s ime-po aying women as passi e ic ims
whose honou equi ed p o ec ion and men as he sole
po en ial o ende s. This p o ec ionis amewo k no only
excluded male and non-bina y ic ims bu also ein o ced
igid s e eo ypes abou masculini y and eminini y.
Following independence, he Indian Cons i u ion in oduced
s ong equali y gua an ees unde A icles 14 and 15, which
began o in luence and eshape legal hinking. Judicial
ac i ism, public in e es li iga ion, and sus ained social
e o m e o s g adually p essed lawmake s o ques ion
gende ed assump ions embedded in c iminal s a u es. Laws
such as he C iminal Law Amendmen Ac s, he P o ec ion
o Child en om Sexual O ences Ac (POCSO), and he
T ansgende Pe sons (P o ec ion o Righ s) Ac ma k a slow
ye meaning ul shi owa d inclusi i y and gende
neu ali y.
Despi e his p og ess, key gaps pe sis . The absence o legal
ecogni ion o ma i al ape, he gende -speci ic aming o
domes ic iolence laws, and he con inued eliance on
gende ed language in sexual o ence p o isions e eal how
a India s ill has o go in building a uly gende -neu al
c iminal jus ice sys em.
A he in e na ional le el, key human igh s ins umen s-
including he Uni e sal Decla a ion o Human Righ s, he
In e na ional Co enan on Ci il and Poli ical Righ s, he
Con en ion on he Elimina ion o All Fo ms o
Disc imina ion Agains Women, and he Yogyaka a
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P inciples-ha e p essed s a es o disman le disc imina ion
based on gende iden i y and sexual o ien a ion. Many
ju isdic ions, no ably he Uni ed Kingdom and Canada, ha e
al eady adop ed gende -neu al sexual o ence laws,
explici ly acknowledging ha men, ansgende , and non-
bina y indi iduals can be bo h ic ims and pe pe a o s o
such c imes. These e o ms o e impo an lessons o
India, which con inues o na iga e he ension be ween
p ese ing special p o ec ions o women and emb acing
comp ehensi e gende neu ali y.
Aims and Objec i es
This pape aims o c i ically examine he e olu ion o
gende neu ali y wi hin Indian c iminal law and o cha a
p ac ical oadmap o u u e e o ms aligned wi h
cons i u ional p inciples and in e na ional s anda ds. I
aces he de elopmen o gende ed p o isions om he
colonial e a o he p esen day, analyzing how s a u o y and
judicial in e en ions ha e ei he ad anced o impeded
p og ess owa d neu ali y. Alongside his his o ical e iew,
he s udy unde akes a compa a i e analysis wi h selec ed
ju isdic ions o highligh global bes p ac ices. I u he
assesses how e ec i ely cu en Indian laws p o ec
indi iduals o all gende s-bo h as ic ims and as he
accused-and concludes by o e ing policy and legisla i e
ecommenda ions designed o es ablish a uly gende -
neu al c iminal jus ice sys em.
Resea ch Me hodology
This s udy uses a combined doc inal, compa a i e, and
quali a i e esea ch design o examine how gende
neu ali y has e ol ed in Indian c iminal law. Because he
subjec conce ns s a u es, judicial ulings, and policy
amewo ks a he han measu able beha iou , a doc inal
app oach o ms he ounda ion o he analysis. The esea ch
begins by sc u inizing key p ima y legal sou ces-including
he Indian Penal Code, he Code o C iminal P ocedu e, he
C iminal Law Amendmen Ac s o 1983, 2013, and 2018,
he P o ec ion o Child en om Sexual O ences Ac 2012,
and he T ansgende Pe sons (P o ec ion o Righ s) Ac
2019. These laws a e e alua ed o hei language, scope,
and he deg ee o which hey ei he ein o ce o challenge
gende ed assump ions. Leading judgmen s o he Sup eme
Cou and High Cou s a e also analysed o assess how
judicial in e p e a ion has shaped, suppo ed, o cons ained
gende -neu al applica ions.
To si ua e hese indings wi hin a b oade con ex , he s udy
d aws ex ensi ely on seconda y ma e ials such as Law
Commission epo s, pa liamen a y deba es, academic
publica ions, policy b ie s, and epo s om bo h na ional
and in e na ional NGOs. This laye ed app oach helps
explain no only how he law has been w i en bu also why
i has de eloped in pa icula ways. In addi ion, a
compa a i e lens is applied o ju isdic ions including he
Uni ed Kingdom, Canada, Sou h A ica, and Aus alia-
coun ies selec ed o hei common-law he i age o o
pionee ing gende -neu al c iminal legisla ion. By s udying
how hese ju isdic ions d a , in e p e , and en o ce c iminal
p o isions, he esea ch iden i ies bo h bes p ac ices and
lessons applicable o India.
Al hough no ield su ey o p ima y da a collec ion has
been unde aken, he s udy inco po a es a quali a i e
dimension by analysing publicly a ailable c ime s a is ics
and epo s om he Na ional C ime Reco ds Bu eau, he
Na ional Human Righ s Commission, and leading human
igh s o ganisa ions. This da a helps e eal whe he male
and ansgende ic ims a e epo ing c imes and whe he
law en o cemen agencies espond o such complain s on an
equal oo ing. The use o seconda y empi ical da a also
helps highligh he p ac ical eali ies o gende -speci ic and
gende -neu al laws in ope a ion.
Analy ical ools include con en analysis o s a u o y ex s o
iden i y gende -speci ic language, hema ic analysis o
judicial opinions and schola ly li e a u e o cap u e ecu ing
pa e ns such as “p o ec ionism” o “cons i u ional
equali y,” and compa a i e legal easoning o syn hesise
insigh s om in e na ional ju isdic ions. By combining hese
me hods, he esea ch is able o mo e beyond a pu ely
ex ual eading o he law o explo e i s social and policy
implica ions.
Reliabili y and alidi y a e ensu ed by c oss-checking
claims ac oss mul iple sou ces and using he mos up- o-
da e and au ho i a i e legal ex s. E hical conside a ions
guide he en i e esea ch p ocess: sensi i e opics such as
sexual o ences and domes ic iolence a e handled wi h
ca e, inclusi e e minology is used o all gende s, and
e e ences o in e na ional human igh s no ms a e
con ex ualised wi hin Indian cons i u ional ju isp udence.
O e all, his mixed-me hod app oach p o ides a
comp ehensi e amewo k o unde s anding how gende
neu ali y has eme ged, de eloped, and been con es ed in
Indian c iminal law. I cap u es no only he ex o s a u es
bu also he social o ces, judicial ends, and in e na ional
p ac ices ha shape hem, he eby c ea ing a solid
ounda ion o he analysis and ecommenda ions ha
ollow.
Table 1: O e iew o Resea ch Design
Componen
Desc ip ion
Resea ch Type
Doc inal, Compa a i e, and Quali a i e
Focus A ea
E olu ion o gende neu ali y in Indian c iminal law
Time F ame Co e ed
1860 (Indian Penal Code) – P esen (la es judicial p onouncemen s and amendmen s)
Scope
S a u es, judicial decisions, policy documen s, in e na ional compa isons
Pu pose
To ace his o ical de elopmen , e alua e cu en p o isions, and p opose policy e o ms
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Table 2: P ima y Legal Sou ces Analysed
Legal Ins umen / Ac
Yea (s) o Enac men /
Amendmen
Gende -Neu al Focus / Rele ance
Indian Penal Code (IPC)
1860 (subsequen amendmen s)
Baseline c iminal p o isions; la gely gende ed language
Code o C iminal P ocedu e (C PC)
1973 (wi h amendmen s)
P ocedu al amewo k; ic im and accused igh s
C iminal Law Amendmen Ac s
1983, 2013, 2018
Expanded de ini ions o sexual o ences; pa ial mo e
owa d neu ali y
P o ec ion o Child en om Sexual O ences Ac
(POCSO)
2012
Gende -neu al p o ec ion o mino s
T ansgende Pe sons (P o ec ion o Righ s) Ac
2019
Recognises igh s o ansgende pe sons; ele an o
inclusi i y
Table 3: Seconda y Sou ces and Da a Se s
Type o Sou ce
Examples
Pu pose
Law Commission Repo s
Repo s on IPC e o ms, sexual o ences, ic im p o ec ion
P o ide e o m ecommenda ions
Pa liamen a y Deba es
Lok Sabha & Rajya Sabha deba es on c iminal law
amendmen s
Unde s and legisla i e in en
Academic Li e a u e
Books, jou nal a icles, wo king pape s
Theo e ical & c i ical amewo ks
NGO Repo s
Human Righ s Wa ch, Amnes y In e na ional, Indian NGOs
G ound eali ies and ic im pe spec i es
C ime S a is ics
NCRB, NHRC, UNDP, in e na ional c ime su eys
Show ends, unde - epo ing, and en o cemen
gaps
Table 4: Compa a i e Ju isdic ions S udied
Coun y
Legal He i age / Reason o Inclusion
Key Gende -Neu al Fea u es
Uni ed Kingdom
Common law, o me colonial powe
Gende -neu al sexual o ence laws, equalised age o consen
Canada
Common law wi h p og essi e e o ms
Recognises male & ansgende ic ims, comp ehensi e an i-disc imina ion laws
Sou h A ica
P og essi e cons i u ional amewo k
Gende -neu al app oach o sexual iolence & ha e c imes
Aus alia
Common law wi h ecen e o ms
Clea s a u o y language ensu ing inclusi i y
Table 5: Analy ical Tools Used
Tool / Me hod
Applica ion
Con en Analysis
Iden i y gende -speci ic language in s a u es
Thema ic Analysis
Code judicial opinions & seconda y li e a u e o ecu ing hemes
Compa a i e Legal Reasoning
Syn hesise lessons om in e na ional ju isdic ions o de elop ecommenda ions
C oss-Ve i ica ion
Ensu e eliabili y by compa ing mul iple da a sou ces
Table 6: E hical and Quali y Measu es
Aspec
P ac ice Adop ed
Inclusi i y
Use o gende -neu al e minology and espec ul discussion o sensi i e opics
Da a Reliabili y
C oss-check indings om mul iple au ho i a i e sou ces
Con ex ualisa ion
P esen in e na ional no ms wi hin Indian cons i u ional amewo k
Acknowledging Limi a ions
Recognise eliance on seconda y da a and e ol ing legal landscape
Resul s and In e p e a ion
An examina ion o India’s key s a u es and judicial
decisions shows ha he coun y has mo ed a om i s
colonial legal oo s bu s ill alls sho o ull gende
neu ali y. The Indian Penal Code o 1860 was d a ed wi h
clea gende ed assump ions-mos no ably in i s ea men o
sexual o ences, whe e men we e cas as pe pe a o s and
women as ic ims. Despi e a se ies o amendmen s o e he
decades, he language o Sec ions 375 and 376 con inues o
e lec hese assump ions, signalling how g adual e o m has
been in his a ea. The C iminal Law Amendmen Ac o
2013 ma ked a majo u ning poin by widening he
de ini ion o sexual assaul , in oducing o ences such as
s alking and oyeu ism, and s eng hening penal ies. Ye ,
e en hese pa h-b eaking e o ms s opped sho o ue
neu ali y, e aining emale- ic im and male-pe pe a o
e minology.
Mo e ecen special laws, howe e , e eal s onge
mo emen owa d inclusi i y. The P o ec ion o Child en
om Sexual O ences (POCSO) Ac o 2012 is gende -
neu al, applying equally o boys and gi ls. Likewise, he
T ansgende Pe sons (P o ec ion o Righ s) Ac o 2019
ep esen s a landma k in acknowledging di e se gende
iden i ies in Indian law, al hough i s c iminal p o isions a e
s ill limi ed. Toge he , hese de elopmen s sugges ha
Pa liamen is inc easingly willing o adop inclusi e
p inciples in some a eas, e en i mains eam c iminal law
emains slowe o change.
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Table 7: E olu ion o Gende Neu ali y in Key Indian C iminal Laws
Law / P o ision
Yea
Gende Neu ali y S a us
Key Fea u es / No es
Indian Penal Code –
Sec ions 375 & 376
1860 (mul iple
amendmen s)
No gende neu al – de ines men as
pe pe a o s and women as ic ims
O iginal colonial aming; pa ial e o ms bu e ains
gende ed language
C iminal Law Amendmen
Ac
2013
Pa ially gende neu al
Expanded de ini ion o sexual assaul ; c iminalized s alking
& oyeu ism; s onge penal ies bu s ill gende -speci ic
ic im e minology
POCSO Ac
2012
Fully gende neu al
P o ec s all child en ega dless o gende
T ansgende Pe sons
(P o ec ion o Righ s) Ac
2019
Recognises di e se gende iden i ies
Limi ed c iminal p o isions bu symbolically impo an
Table 8: Compa a i e Global App oaches o Gende Neu al Sexual O ences
Coun y
Key Law
Gende Neu al De ini ion
o Rape / Sexual Assaul ?
No able Aspec s
Uni ed Kingdom
Sexual O ences Ac 2003
Yes
Recognises male and ansgende ic ims;
gende -neu al e minology
Canada
C iminal Code
Yes
Applies equally o all gende s wi hou
dis inc ion
Sou h A ica
C iminal Law (Sexual O ences and Rela ed
Ma e s) Amendmen Ac 2007
Yes
Inclusi e app oach co e ing all gende s
Aus alia
Va ious s a e/ e i o y laws
Yes (mos s a es)
P og essi e inclusion o di e se ic ims
Table 9: P o ec ionis Laws and Thei Gende Focus
Law / P o ision
Yea
Vic im G oup Co e ed
Limi a ion / C i icism
Sugges ed Re o m
P o ec ion o Women om Domes ic
Violence Ac
2005
Women only
Excludes male and ansgende
ic ims
Add pa allel gende -neu al
p o isions
Sec ion 498A IPC
1983
Women only (dow y-
ela ed c uel y)
Male/ ansgende ic ims
excluded
B oaden scope o in oduce
complemen a y law
Table 10: Judicial De elopmen s Suppo ing Gende Neu ali y
Case / Decision
Yea
Cou
Signi icance o Gende Neu ali y
NALSA . Union o India
2014
Sup eme Cou
Recognised ansgende pe sons as hi d gende
Na ej Singh Joha . Union o India
2018
Sup eme Cou
Dec iminalised consensual same-sex ela ions unde Sec ion 377 IPC
Va ious High Cou decisions
2010s
High Cou s
Expanded in e p e a ion o “ ic im” o include men and ansgende
pe sons in some con ex s
Table 11: P ac ical Gaps Be ween Law and Implemen a ion
A ea
Obse ed Gap
Consequence
Sugges ed Ac ion
Police P ocedu es
Lack o guidelines o male/ ansgende ic ims
Unde - epo ing o c imes
Gende -neu al SOPs and aining
Da a Collec ion
Limi ed o icial s a is ics on non- emale ic ims
In isible ic im g oups
Gende -disagg ega ed da a collec ion
Public Awa eness
Low awa eness o male/ ansgende ic imisa ion
Con inued s igma and silence
Campaigns and sensi isa ion p og ams
Judicial in e p e a ion also shows a g adual shi . O e he
pas decade, Sup eme Cou and High Cou ulings ha e
inc easingly ecognised he igh s o male and ansgende
ic ims and ha e demons a ed a willingness o in e p e
s a u es in gende -neu al e ms whe e e possible. The
Na ej Singh Joha judgmen , which dec iminalised
consensual same-sex conduc unde Sec ion 377 IPC, and
he NALSA decision ecognising ansgende igh s ha e
been pa icula ly in luen ial. Ne e heless, cou s emain
bound by s a u o y language, and wi hou legisla i e
amendmen s ull neu ali y canno be ealised.
A compa ison wi h ju isdic ions such as he Uni ed
Kingdom, Canada, Sou h A ica and Aus alia u he
highligh s his gap. Each o hese coun ies has adop ed
gende -neu al sexual o ence laws-examples include he
UK’s Sexual O ences Ac 2003, which de ines ape wi hou
e e ence o gende and ecognises male and ansgende
ic ims; Canada’s c iminal code, which applies o all
gende s; and Sou h A ica’s Sexual O ences Amendmen
Ac o 2007, which akes an explici ly inclusi e app oach.
These models unde sco e how a India s ill needs o go o
align i s laws wi h in e na ional bes p ac ices.
A he same ime, p o ec ionis legisla ion such as he
P o ec ion o Women om Domes ic Violence Ac 2005
and Sec ion 498A IPC emains in o ce. While hese
p o isions espond o he disp opo iona e ulne abili y o
women o domes ic abuse, hey exclude male and
ansgende ic ims and isk pe pe ua ing inequali y. This
esea ch sugges s ha he answe is no o oll back
p o ec ions o women bu o expand exis ing laws o
in oduce pa allel p o isions ha sa egua d all ic ims while
e aining special suppo measu es o women whe e
jus i ied.
Da a om he NCRB, NGO epo s and human igh s
s udies u he e eal ha c imes agains male and
ansgende ic ims a e unde - epo ed and o en unde -
ecognised. Police o ice s equen ly lack clea guidelines
o egis e ing such complain s, c ea ing a gap be ween he
p omise o equali y unde he law and i s day- o-day
applica ion. This gap ein o ces s igma and discou ages
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non- emale ic ims om seeking jus ice.
Taken oge he , hese indings depic a c iminal jus ice
sys em in ansi ion. Cons i u ional equali y and
in e na ional human igh s commi men s a e pushing India
owa d neu ali y, bu en enched social a i udes and
legisla i e ine ia slow he pace o change. The esul is a
hyb id amewo k: inclusi e p o isions in a eas such as
child p o ec ion and ansgende igh s coexis ing wi h
gende -speci ic laws on sexual o ences and domes ic
iolence.
In e p e ing hese ends, he pape a gues ha genuine
gende neu ali y will equi e mo e han amending s a u o y
ex . I calls o e o ms in ins i u ional p ac ices, including
police aining, judicial sensi isa ion and public awa eness
e o s. Achie ing his goal also demands a ca e ul balance-
main aining necessa y sa egua ds o women while ensu ing
ha no gende is excluded om p o ec ion o au oma ically
cas as an o ende . This balanced app oach upholds India’s
cons i u ional alues o equali y and digni y while echoing
he global shi s highligh ed in he compa a i e analysis o
his s udy.
Discussion and Conclusion
The indings o his s udy e eal a s iking con adic ion a
he hea o Indian c iminal law. On he one hand,
cons i u ional p inciples, judicial decisions, and
in e na ional ends inc easingly suppo he idea o gende
neu ali y. On he o he , he penal code con inues o e lec
deeply embedded, gende -speci ic assump ions inhe i ed
om he colonial e a. This disconnec aises impo an
conce ns abou whe he he c iminal jus ice sys em can uly
p o ide equal p o ec ion and equal accoun abili y o people
o all gende s.
One key insigh is ha he gende ed language in sexual
o ence and domes ic iolence p o isions e lec s a
p o ec ionis philosophy. While hese laws we e designed o
add ess he eal and disp opo iona e isks aced by women,
hey unin en ionally deny male and ansgende ic ims he
same le el o legal p o ec ion. By con as , mo e ecen laws
such as he POCSO Ac and he T ansgende Pe sons
(P o ec ion o Righ s) Ac demons a e ha Pa liamen is
capable o d a ing inclusi e, gende -neu al legisla ion
when he e is su icien poli ical will.
Howe e , gende neu ali y canno be achie ed h ough
s a u o y language alone. T ue equali y equi es p ocedu al
ai ness, gende -sensi i e policing, and comp ehensi e
aining o in es iga o s, p osecu o s, and judges. I also
calls o an e idence-based unde s anding o how c imes
a ec people di e en ly ac oss gende iden i ies. Wi hou
hese ins i u ional e o ms, e en laws ha appea gende -
neu al on pape can all sho in p ac ice. Lessons om
coun ies such as he Uni ed Kingdom, Canada, and Sou h
A ica show how legisla i e e o m, public educa ion, and
ins i u ional aining can wo k oge he o c ea e genuinely
inclusi e jus ice sys ems. These examples make clea ha
gende neu ali y does no diminish p o ec ions o women;
ins ead, i b oadens access o jus ice while s ill ecognising
unique ulne abili ies h ough suppo mechanisms a he
han exclusiona y ules.
This esea ch also unde sco es he impo ance o India’s
cons i u ional amewo k. A icles 14, 15, and 21-
in e p e ed alongside in e na ional human igh s ins umen s
such as CEDAW and he Yogyaka a P inciples-p o ide a
s ong legal ounda ion o equal p o ec ion i espec i e o
gende . Recen Sup eme Cou ulings on p i acy, sexual
o ien a ion, and gende iden i y ein o ce ha equali y,
digni y, and au onomy a e a he hea o Indian
cons i u ional mo ali y. B inging c iminal law in o
alignmen wi h hese p inciples is bo h a legal du y and an
e hical necessi y.
India now s ands a a pi o al poin . Inc emen al bu decisi e
changes-such as making sexual o ences ully gende -
neu al, c ea ing pa allel domes ic iolence p o ec ions o
men and ansgende pe sons, and e o ming police and
judicial p ocedu es-can help close he gap be ween
cons i u ional ideals and legisla i e eali y. These e o ms
should be designed o ex end p o ec ions a he han dilu e
hem, ensu ing ha women’s sa e y emains a p io i y while
also sa egua ding o he ulne able g oups. Such an
app oach would align Indian c iminal law wi h in e na ional
bes p ac ices, s eng hen public con idence in he jus ice
sys em, and gi e new li e o he cons i u ional p omise o
equali y be o e he law.
Ul ima ely, his s udy demons a es ha gende neu ali y in
Indian c iminal law is no only possible bu necessa y.
Achie ing i will demand legisla i e cla i y, judicial
c ea i i y, and ins i u ional sensi isa ion. Wi h a balanced
and inclusi e app oach, India can build a c iminal jus ice
sys em ha p o ec s he digni y, sa e y, and igh s o e e y
indi idual- ega dless o gende -while also es ablishing i sel
as a leade in he Global Sou h and con ibu ing
meaning ully o he global con e sa ion on jus ice, equali y,
and human igh s.
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