Ocean li e acy in managing
ma ine p o ec ed a eas: b idging
na u al and cul u al he i age
Sı
´l ia Go
´mez
1,2
*, Anna Ga iga
3
, Ma ia Te esa Bosch
4
,
Ma a Bosch
3
, Sebas ian Villasan e
5
and Jani e Salaza
6,7
1
Depa men Social and Cul u al An h opology, Au onomous Uni e si y o Ba celona,
Ba celona, Spain,
2
ICREA Academia, Ca alan Ins i u ion o Resea ch and Ad anced S udies (ICREA),
Ba celona, Spain,
3
Depa amen d'Economia, Uni e si y o Gi ona, Gi ona, Spain,
4
Depa amen
d'Emp esa, Uni e si y o Gi ona, Gi ona, Spain,
5
CRETUS Cen o de In es igacio
´n In e disciplina en
Tecnologías Ambien ales-EqualSea Lab, Uni e si y o San iago de Compos ela, San iago de
Compos ela, Spain,
6
Depa amen de Biologia Ma ina i Oceanog afia, Ins i u e o Ma ine Sciences,
Spanish Na ional Resea ch Council, Ba celona, Spain,
7
P og ama de Ciències del Ma , Facul a de
Ciències de la Te a, Uni e si a de Ba celona, Ba celona, Spain
This s udy explo es he ac o s d i ing he in eg a ion o ocean li e acy in o he
managemen o Ma ine P o ec ed A eas, highligh ing i s ole as a powe ul ool o
ans o m he human–ocean ela ionship o imp o e conse a ion e o s. A
su ey was comple ed by 197 isi o s in Cap de C eus (No heas e n Ca alonia,
Spain). The findings show ha isi o s who we e mo e willing o pay o
conse a ion alued cul u al and na u al he i age mo e highly, and held mo e
posi i e opinions abou p o ec ion, ega dless o hei knowledge and despi e
hei lowe income and educa ional le el. These esul s show us ha knowledge
does no necessa ily indica e g ea e en i onmen al awa eness. The need o
conside he ma ine en i onmen as a cul u al-na u al embedded he i age is
highligh ed o os e a cul u al connec ion, inspi e commi men o i s p o ec ion
and p omo e conse a ion ha ensu es human well-being and heal h. Finally,
some ecommenda ions a e o e ed o imp o e he in eg a ion o OL in
MPA policies.
KEYWORDS
ma ine managemen , knowledge - a i ude - beha io , conse a ion, con ingen
alua ion (CV) me hod, human-ocean ela ionship, ou ism
F on ie s in Ma ine Science on ie sin.o g01
OPEN ACCESS
EDITED BY
Lyne Mo isse e,
M–Expe ise Ma ine, Canada
REVIEWED BY
Jose
´Lino Viei a De Oli ei a Cos a,
Uni e si y o Lisbon, Po ugal
Ma ia Gab iela Palomo,
Independen Resea che , Ciudad de Buenos
Ai es, A gen ina
*CORRESPONDENCE
Sı
´l ia Go
´mez
[email p o ec ed]
RECEIVED 05 Decembe 2024
ACCEPTED 12 Ma ch 2025
PUBLISHED 15 Ap il 2025
CITATION
Go
´mez S, Ga iga A, Bosch MT, Bosch M,
Villasan e S and Salaza J (2025) Ocean
li e acy in managing ma ine p o ec ed a eas:
b idging na u al and cul u al he i age.
F on . Ma . Sci. 12:1540163.
doi: 10.3389/ ma s.2025.1540163
COPYRIGHT
©2025Go
´mez,Ga iga,Bosch,Bosch,
Villasan e and Salaza . This is an open-access
a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he
C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License (CC BY).
The use, dis ibu ion o ep oduc ion in o he
o ums is pe mi ed, p o ided he o iginal
au ho (s) and he copy igh owne (s) a e
c edi ed and ha he o iginal publica ion in
his jou nal is ci ed, in acco dance wi h
accep ed academic p ac ice. No use,
dis ibu ion o ep oduc ion is pe mi ed
which does no comply wi h hese e ms.
TYPE O iginal Resea ch
PUBLISHED 15 Ap il 2025
DOI 10.3389/ ma s.2025.1540163
GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT
1 In oduc ion
Medi e anean coas s a e among Eu ope’s op ou is
des ina ions, a ac ing isi o s wo ldwide, wi h ma ine p o ec ed
a eas (MPAs) a he o e on o he mos isi ed places in he egion
(Randone e al., 2017). An MPA is “a clea ly defined geog aphical
space, ecognized, dedica ed, and managed h ough legal o o he
e ec i e means o achie e he long- e m conse a ion o na u e
wi h i s ecosys em se ices and cul u al alues”(Dudley, 2008).
Be ween 2012 and 2021, he su ace a ea o MPAs in he EU mo e
han doubled, o 12.1% (Eu opean En i onmen al Agency, 2023).
Whe eas in he Medi e anean Sea, hey ha e inc eased almos
h ee old o e he pas 20 yea sandco e mo e han1,000
designa ed a eas (8.33%) (Uni ed Na ions, 2024;MedPan, 2020).
Ne e heless, o mos si es, li le is known abou he managemen
measu es in place and whe he hey a e e ec i e a main aining o
es o ing he biodi e si y hey aim o p o ec (MedPAN and SPA/
RAC, 2023).
In he las 15 yea s, he e has been an exponen ial inc ease o
mass ou ism and un egula ed o sho e ec ea ional ac i i ies in he
Medi e anean Sea, such as ec ea ional boa ing (Ca eño and
Llo e , 2020). Se e al s udies poin ou ha sus ainable, non-
mo o ized ma ine ec ea ional ac i i ies p o ide cogni i e and
physical benefi s (Llo e e al., 2021). Howe e , schola s ha e also
obse ed ha na u e could become a new ec ea ional indus y
adap ed o “g een”and “blue”discou ses ha ollow consume
ma ke logic, dis ega ding he ways people ela e o he
en i onmen and whe he hey uly espec na u e (Ma gale ,
2022). MPAs a e inc easingly ecognized o hei alue and
a ac i eness, and his is eflec ed in he g owing numbe o
isi o s seeking ou doo ac i i ies. The si ua ion has escala ed
since he onse o he COVID-19 pandemic, o e loading he
ca ying capaci y o na u al pa ks beyond p e ious le els. This
has aised awa eness and conce ns abou he en i onmen al impac
o he equency o isi s a he local le el (Ma gale , 2022).
In o de o achie e ocean sus ainabili y Uni ed Na ions (UN)
Decade o Ocean Science o Sus ainable De elopmen highligh s
Ocean Li e acy (OL) wi hin an in e disciplina y and c osscu ing
na u e o ocean science o uel mo e esponsible and in o med
beha io change owa ds sus ainable oceans (UN, 2018). Ocean
Li e acy (OL) can empowe indi iduals o mee en i onmen al
p o ec ion goals by aiding he e ec i eness o en i onmen al
managemen (McRue e al., 2025). Knowledge is ecognized as a
powe ul ool o influence ocean ans o ma ion and he
Go
´mez e al. 10.3389/ ma s.2025.1540163
F on ie s in Ma ine Science on ie sin.o g02
en i onmen h ough ac ions aligned wi h he ision o he Ocean
We Wan (h ps://oceandecade.o g/). The e m Ocean Li e acy was
o iginally coined in 2004 by a g oup o ocean scien is s and
educa ion p o essionals in he USA who ecognized a lack o
ocean- ela ed subjec s in o mal educa ion and de eloped a
comp ehensi e amewo k o encou age inclusion o ocean
sciences in na ional and s a e s anda d educa ion (De San o o
e al., 2017;UNESCO, 2017). I was defined as “an unde s anding
o you influence on he ocean, and i s influence on you”
(UN, 2018).
A e wa d, i was inco po a ed in o UNESCO’s p io i ies since
i aligned wi h i s en i onmen al educa ion goals. Since hen,
“Ocean Li e acy as a concep and app oach is adically e ol ing
om being a ool o be applied in o mal educa ion and aining
con ex s o a ool and app oach o socie y as a whole, aimed a
igge ing ac ions owa ds ocean sus ainabili y”(Bu igieg, 2020).
Acco ding o McKinley e al. (2023) and adap ed om he ini ial
p inciples p oposed by B ennan e al. (2019), OL encompasses 10
dimensions: knowledge, awa eness, a i ude, beha io , ac i ism,
communica ion, emo ional connec ions, access, and expe ience,
adap i e capaci y, us , and anspa ency. These dimensions shi
he ocus beyond knowledge o a mo e comp ehensi e amewo k
cen al o ecen OL s udies.
Mo e ecen ly, OL has gained p ominence as a global
amewo k o in eg a ing na u al and social sciences, suppo ed
by he UN Decade o Ocean Science o Sus ainable De elopmen
(UN, 2018). The oadmap o his ini ia i e highligh s he
impo ance o inco po a ing social dimensions and coo dina ing
esea ch e o s ac oss disciplines, pa icula ly in he social sciences,
iden i ying i as a high-p io i y esea ch a ea o sus ainable
de elopmen (UN, 2018).
Despi e calls o p omo e a mo e in eg a ed app oach be ween
na u al and social sciences, ew s udies explo e how o achie e his
o which disciplines should be inco po a ed in o Ocean Li e acy a
he in e sec ion be ween na u al and social sciences (McReu e al.,
2025). Addi ionally, esea ch on econciling di e en scales o
knowledge emains sca ce (Fe ei a e al., 2021), e en hough
knowledge is p ima ily applied h ough local ac ions o add ess
global challenges, as highligh ed by Hylland E iksen (2016) and
Reyes-Ga cıa e al. (2016).
Fu he mo e, while pas OL e o s wi hin ma ine esea ch
ins i u ions ha e been significan , hey ha e o en been olun a y
o disconnec ed om ins i u ional s a egies. As such, much
emains o be done in building he capaci y o ma ine esea ch
cen e s and uni e si ies -whe e mos scien ific ma ine knowledge is
gene a ed- o e ec i ely align OL p og ams wi h ma ine
conse a ion goals (Salaza e al., 2022).
Unde s anding he human dimensions o he ocean - how hey
in e ac wi h he physical en i onmen al aspec s s udied in he
na u al sciences - is essen ial o ad ancing ocean sus ainabili y (Liu
e al., 2023). This s udy ollows he app oach o Liu e al. (2023) o
e alua e OL wi hin an in eg a ed na u al and social science
amewo k. I conside s he unique spa ial, ecological, and
cul u al ac o s shaping he human dimensions o MPAs (Gomez
and Llo e , 2017).
These human dimensions encompass he social, economic, and
ins i u ional conside a ions o MPAs, as highligh ed by Cha les and
Wilson (2008). Recognizing bo h na u al and cul u al elemen s as
in eg al o MPAs unde sco es hei ole in shaping seascapes and
ecosys ems. These elemen s define a place’s unique cha ac e and
alue, and hei p ese a ion suppo s b oade en i onmen al
conse a ion e o s.
MPAs p o ide an ideal se ing o applying an in eg a ed OL
amewo k ha combines na u al and social science app oaches.
While esea ch has explo ed inco po a ing di e se s akeholde
pe spec i es in o MPA decision-making, li le a en ion has been
gi en o OL’s ole as a b idge be ween socie y and en i onmen al
managemen , pa icula ly in achie ing p o ec ion goals ou lined in
he UN Sus ainable De elopmen Goals.
Few s udies ha e examined OL in eg a ion in MPA
managemen plans (Ca as e al., 2023;Fe ei a e al., 2021;Pe y
e al., 2014) and esea ch on OL among MPA isi o s is almos
inexis en (Ga cia and Ca e , 2022;Shellock e al., 2024). This gap
pe sis s despi e OL’s ecognized alue in shaping e ec i e policies,
conse a ion ini ia i es, and ools, including MPA designa ion
(McRue e al., 2025).
In eg a ed cul u al and na u al he i age plays a c ucial ole in
sus ainable de elopmen , pa icula ly in u al planning and
managemen . I s p ese a ion no only suppo s ecological
in eg i y bu also se es as an economic asse (Bonenbe g, 2019).
MPAs like Cap de C eus a e celeb a ed o hei excep ional
biodi e si y and ich cul u al he i age, making hem aluable bo h
ecologically and cul u ally (see Law 4/1998, Ma ch 12, on he
p o ec ion o Cap de C eus). Howe e , his he i age o en ecei es
li le a en ion in ma i ime conse a ion policies and egula ions,
such as he Eu opean Union Common Fishe ies Policy o
comp ehensi e MPA managemen plans (Gomez and Maynou,
2021;Ken e elidou and Gala sopoulou, 2021).
MPAs o e a unique oppo uni y o in eg a e he i age alues
in o conse a ion s a egies, posi ioning hem as essen ial
componen s o OL. While OL has been s udied in he con ex o
fishe ies in Cap de C eus (Biel-Cabanelas e al., 2023;Salaza e al.,
2024), i s ole in engaging o he socie al g oups, such as ou is s,
emains la gely unexplo ed.
Collabo a i e e o s be ween fishe s and biologis s, along wi h
an h opological s udies and ecommenda ions, ha e con ibu ed
significan ly o he conse a ion and es o a ion o ma ine ben hic
ecosys ems in Cap de C eus (Gomez e al., 2006;Gomez and Llo e ,
2017;Mon seny e al., 2021;San in e al, 2022). These expe iences
unde sco e he impo ance o coope a ion in MPA managemen
and he need o de elop s a egies ha ac i ely in ol e fishe s in
en i onmen al conse a ion (Salaza e al., 2024).
Recognizing he he i age alue o a isanal fishe ies has led o
p oposals o fishe s o ac as sea s ewa ds, p omo ing sus ainable
p ac ices wi hin MPA co-managemen amewo ks (Gomez and
Llo e , 2017;Gomez e al., 2006). Communi y-based managemen ,
which in eg a es cul u al he i age and local ecological knowledge, is
inhe en ly sus ainable, blu ing he adi ional di ide be ween
na u al and cul u al he i age (Bocca di and Du elle, 2013). The
significance o he i age in en i onmen al sus ainabili y is also
Go
´mez e al. 10.3389/ ma s.2025.1540163
F on ie s in Ma ine Science on ie sin.o g03
ein o ced in he 2030 Agenda o Sus ainable De elopmen , wi h
mul iple Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SDGs) highligh ing i s
oles (SDG 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 13).
Gi en his con ex , his s udy assesses isi o s’pe cep ions o
he o he Cap de C eus MPA, hei opinions on i s p o ec ion, and
hei pe cei ed knowledge
1
, ocusing on bo h na u al and cul u al
he i age. The unde lying hypo hesis is ha a g ea e app ecia ion o
he i age co ela es wi h s onge p o-en i onmen al a i udes. This
ela ionship is eflec ed in indica o s such as isi o s’willingness o
pay o he conse a ion o p o ec ed a eas, which in u n may
encou age en i onmen ally esponsible beha io .
This e alua ion is especially app op ia e in he con ex o he
Cap de C eus MPA, gi en he a ea’s cul u al and na u al weal h,
which has con ibu ed o he o ma ion o i s landscape and
seascape. This is eflec ed by nume ous sou ces, encompassing
li e a u e and a , among o he s. Gi en i s biodi e si y and he
p essu es o inc easing human ac i i y, he Cap de C eus a ea se es
as a ep esen a i e labo a o y o assessing OL among isi o s in he
Medi e anean. Howe e , i could also be ele an o o he egions
wi h simila pa e ns, such as MPAs in Cali o nia (USA), despi e
con ex ual di e ences.
The e o e, his s udy aims o: 1) Assess isi o ’s pe cei ed
knowledge, opinions, and alua ions o he MPA; 2) Iden i y key
ac o s o implemen ing OL p og ams in MPAs o p omo e p o-
en i onmen al beha io s and a i udes among isi o s.
2 Ma e ials and me hods
The Con ingen Valua ion Me hod (CVM) is an e ec i e
app oach o assessing willingness o pay (WTP) in na u al pa ks,
allowing o he alua ion o non-use benefi s and has been
alida ed o eliabili y. Xiao e al. (2021) confi med he exis ence
o non-use alues, highligh ing CVM’s e ec i eness in p io i izing
conse a ion unding. Addi ionally, Ramdas and Mohamed (2014),
emphasize ha en i onmen al li e acy -including knowledge and
a i udes- shapes p o-en i onmen al beha io s, such as willingness
o pay. This sugges s ha enhancing OL can posi i ely influence
ou is s’willingness o suppo financially conse a ion e o s.
This s udy employs CVM o analyze how s akeholde s alue
en i onmen al p o ec ion, hei knowledge and alua ion o he
cul u al and na u al he i age associa ed wi h he Cap de C eus
MPA, and hei pe cep ions o conse a ion needs. The goal is o
iden i y key aspec s o in eg a e in o OL p og ams as pa o MPA
managemen plans.
While WTP is commonly used o es ima e he economic alue
o ma ine ecosys em goods and se ices, esea ch on aluing
cul u al and na u al he i age as embedded dimensions o
conse a ion in MPAs emain sca ce. Apa om s udies ocusing
on ma i ime buildings, unde wa e a chaeology, and ec ea ional
ac i i ies (Baez and He e o, 2012;Du an e al., 2015;E ec, 2014;
Whi ehead and Finney, 2003), he alue o he i age, and ma i ime
he i age in pa icula , is la gely unexplo ed.
In gene al e ms, WTP o en i onmen al p o ec ion has been
used in s udies on na u e-based ou ism o assess axa ion easibili y
o unding MPA conse a ion (Laa man and G ege sen, 1996) o
und he conse a ion o MPAs (B a hwai e e al., 2021;G a es ock
e al., 2008;Gelcich e al., 2013;Thu , 2010;Uya a e al., 2010)o o
educe o e ou ism and imp o e en i onmen al ca ying capaci y
(Casey and Schuhmann, 2019;So ice e al., 2007). O he
applica ions include WTP assessmen s o measu e bo h non-use
alues (beques ) and use alues (communica ion media) associa ed
wi h conse a ion acco ding o he coun able alue s a ed by
s akeholde s (Tog idou e al., 2006). Fu he mo e, placing a alue
on na u e has been highligh ed as a po en ially e ec i e s a egy
(Laa man and G ege sen, 1996) o gaininge ficiency in
en i onmen al p o ec ion. Consequen ly, willingness o make
economic sac ifices o en i onmen al p o ec ion has been
iden ified as an indica o o p o-en i onmen al beha io and
media ing indi iduals’mo al obliga ion owa d he en i onmen .
Acco dingly, in his s udy, we use WTP as an indica o o p o-
en i onmen al a i udes linked o ecosys em se ices.
The ques ionnai e is composed o ques ions ha aim o
measu e he pe cei ed knowledge and opinions isi o s ha e o
MPA biodi e si y and cul u al he i age (ma i ime and fishing
he i age) and i s p o ec ion, as well as hei alua ion o he
en i onmen al p o ec ion, assessed by he le el o WTP o cu b
o e - equen a ion (which has en i onmen al impac s). Finally, i
also includes ques ions on he na u al and cul u al he i age
alua ion o MPAs. He i age alua ions a e no only ca alys s o
aluing educa ional oppo uni ies and ec ea ional ac i i ies, bu
also o enhancing coas al economic de elopmen and os e ing
communi y pa icipa ion in managemen (Claesson, 2011).
2.1 S udy a ea
I is es ima ed ha he Medi e anean Sea con ains be ween 4%
and 18% o he wo ld’s ma ine species a he mac oscopic le el,
al hough i ep esen s only abou 0.3% o he o al olume o he
wo ld’s oceans (Bianchi and Mo i, 2000). MPAs ha e been
ecognized as playing a cen al ole in add essing en i onmen al
deg ada ion and challenges. Ye , only 8.9% o he Medi e anean is
cu en ly unde some o m o p o ec ion s a us (UNEP/MAP and
Plan Bleu, 2020), alling well sho o he 30% p o ec ion a ge se
o 2030 a he 2022 UN Biodi e si y Summi (COP15). I
ep esen s app oxima ely 1,215 ha o MPAs and OECMs (o he
e ec i e a ea-based conse a ion measu es) co e ing a o al o
171,362 km2. Ne e heless, he e is a g ea a ie y o conse a ion
designa ions o g ea complexi y. O e 72% o he p o ec ed su ace
is in he wes e n Medi e anean, wi h 90% o he o al su ace
p o ec ed by MPAs and OECMs ound in Eu opean wa e s.
We ocused on he Na u al Pa k o Cap de C eus (NPCC)
(Figu e 1a), a ep esen a i e MPA in he Medi e anean, as i is an
impo an biodi e si y ho spo . I is loca ed in no heas Ca alonia,
flanked by pic u esque fishing illages such as Roses, Cadaques, Po
de la Sel a and Llancà. These illages a e enowned ou is
1 Acco ding o Pe y e al. (2014),“sel -assessed o pe cei ed knowledge is
whe e a pe son belie es ha he o she is knowledgeable and p o iding he
co ec answe ”(2024: 108).
Go
´mez e al. 10.3389/ ma s.2025.1540163
F on ie s in Ma ine Science on ie sin.o g04
a ac ions, popula o being he bi hplace o amous in e na ional
a is s and w i e s, well-known o hei beaches and na u al beau y,
as well as hei long his o y o fishing. The Cap de C eus a ea (42°19′
12″N, 03°19′34″E) is in he no hwes e n egion o he
Medi e anean Sea, and he Cap de C eus subma ine canyon
sys em cu s in o he con inen al shel o he cape. This is one o
he mos p oduc i e places in he Medi e anean as a esul o he
i e s, cu en s and wind e ec s. The gene al wa e ci cula ion in he
a ea is om he no heas o he sou hwes , d i en by he no he n
cu en (DeGees e al., 2008). The dominan winds a e T amon ana
and Mis al, no he n winds ha a e con inuous, cold, and d y,
causing an inc ease in he densi y o coas al wa e s ha hen
ansla es in o coas al downwelling in he Cap de C eus a ea (Ulses
e al., 2008). The Rhone Ri e p o ides 80–90% o he con inen al
shel sedimen s (Cou p and Monaco, 1990), i being he p ima y
sou ce o hemipelagic sedimen s in he a ea (DeGees e al., 2008;
Ulses e al., 2008). Consequen ly, i is one o he la ges and mos
impo an biodi e si y ho spo s in he Medi e anean. In ha egion
(bo h in he con inen al shel and in he subma ine canyon sys em),
nea ly all o he Medi e anean ben hic communi ies a e ep esen ed
(Madu ell e al., 2012;Sa dà and Company, 2012), including
cold-wa e co als, oc oco al ga dens, sponge g ounds, and
echinode m agg ega ions. The a ea has op imum ecological
condi ions o being domina ed by suspension and fil e - eeding
species (Dominguez-Ca io e al., 2022).
A he same ime, i is one o he si es wi h he highes
an h opogenic p essu es. This is pa ly a widesp ead p oblem o
he Medi e anean ha is one o he wo ld’s op ou is des ina ions
(AAVV, 2018). This has boos ed inc easing coas al u baniza ion
p ocesses ha , oge he wi h ag icul u al changes and land-based
ac i i ies, has u ned he Medi e anean in o one o he wo ld’s
mos highly a ec ed basins by ma ine li e (UNEP/MAP and Plan
Bleu, 2020), pa icula ly by mic oplas ics (UNEP/MAP & Plan Bleu,
2020). These p essu es on ma ine ben hic ecosys ems lead o se e al
FIGURE 1
(a) Cap de C eus Na u al Pa k (CCNP), No heas Ca alonia (Spain); (b) CCNP zoning. Only p o essional small-scale fishing and ec ea ional fishing
(spea fishing and angling) a e allowed in he ligh blue zone. In he pa ial na u al ese e (da k blue zone), only small-scale p o essional fishing and
angling a e pe mi ed. All ac i i ies a e p ohibi ed In he In eg al ese e (o ange zone); (c) Afishe in Cap de C eus hauling ammel ne s; (d) Roses
and Llancà (in o ange) a e owns bo de ing Cap de C eus. Empu iab a a a he adjacen a ea o Cap de C eus (in blue) is 30 minu es om Roses.
The illages wi hin he Cap de C eus Na u al Pa k a e indica ed in ed: Cadaques, and Po de la Sel a, and he Mon joi Inle (which belongs o he
Roses municipali y); (e) Leisu e boa ing in a Cap de C eus inle (Augus 2023); ( ) Ca s pa ked in Cap de C eus in summe season.
Go
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al e a ions including deple ion o key species, an inc ease in he
numbe o in asi e species and o he changes in he s uc u e o
ben hic communi ies. This leads o biodi e si y loss and o he
dis up ions in hei no mal unc ioning (Halpe n e al., 2008;
Wo m e al., 2006) and a need o ma ine ben hic es o a ion
ac ions (G inyoe al., 2022).
Despi e Cap de C eus ha ing been ecognized be ween 1976 and
1985 by a ious land managemen and na u e conse a ion ins i u ions
o he Spanish Go e nmen and expe commi ees in Ca alonia as a
biodi e si y ho spo , i was no decla ed a Na u al Pa k un il a e
app oxima ely 10 yea s o g ass oo s e o s (1995–1998) [Law 4/1998
(O ficial S a e Gaze e, 1998)] (AAVV, 2018). The demands o social
mo emen s denounced he g owing u baniza ion p ocess ha
h ea ened he landscape, he i epa able damage o he seabed om
awling in he coas al a ea, and ec ea ional fishing compe i ions
ha ing impac s on ulne able species and agile ecosys ems in he
a ea (AAVV, 2018;Salaza e al., 2024).
Today, he NPCC co e s a o al a ea o 13,886 ha, o which 3,073
a e ma i ime, and i is he fi s e es ial-ma i ime Na u al Pa k in he
Medi e anean. The decla a ion in 1998 led o he c ea ion o he
zoning sys em o he Ma ine P o ec ed A ea, di iding i in o h ee
p o ec ion zones ha es ic fishing ac i i ies. Wi hin he Na u al Pa k,
which comp ises mos o he hec a es, ec ea ional and a isanal fishing
is allowed, while in he h ee pa ial ese es only a isanal fishing is
allowed (Figu e 1c), and in he in eg al ese e (s’Encallado a) all
ac i i ies a e o bidden, wi h only scien ific ac i i ies allowed wi h p io
au ho iza ion (See zoning Figu e 1b).
Fu he , in 2014, he Cap de C eus a ea was also decla ed a
Special P o ec ion A ea (SPA) (A ea ES5120007 o he Na u a 2000
Ne wo k [O de AAA/1299/2014 (O ficial S a e Gaze e, 2014)],
Si e o Communi y Impo ance (SCI) and “Sis ema de cañones
subma inos occiden ales del Gol o de Leon”(subma ine canyons
sys em o he Gul o Lions), which belongs o he Eu opean Union
Na u a 2000 Ne wo k [A ea ESZZ16001 (O ficial S a e Gaze e,
2014)] (See Salaza e al., 2024). Despi e an ini ial a emp in 2005,
and a second one in 2023, a Mas e Plan o Uses and Managemen is
s ill lacking bu pending app o al expec ed by summe 2025. On
bo h occasions, 2005 and 2023, he e was opposi ion om ce ain
socio-economic sec o s, pa icula ly he leisu e boa ing sec o .
Fo o e 20 yea s, g ea e o s o mee conse a ion goals ha e
been made in collabo a ion wi h small-scale fishe s, scien is s,
NGOs, and local manage s om he NPCC. Recen ly, gi en he
accele a ed g ow h in isi s, in 2021, he NPCC in oduced new
measu es o cu b o e c owding, es ic ing ehicle access be ween
June and Sep embe
2
, a he peak o season when i ecei es he
mos isi s (Figu e 1 ). In addi ion, being a e y windy a ea (a ec ed
by he T amon ana wind), access o he NPCC inle s and beaches is
occasionally comple ely o bidden o a oid o es fi es, which a ec s
he no mally ee ci cula ion o isi o s by land o he NPCC du ing
he summe . While es ic ions on land a e easie o en o ce,
es ic ing access by sea emains a challenge, especially due o he
lack o a Mas e Plan o Uses and Managemen egula ing ee
ci cula ion by sea (leisu e boa ing, je skis, e c.) (Figu e 1e), which
causes significan en i onmen al impac s (e.g., ancho ing).
2.2 Da a collec ion and analysis
A s uc u ed ace- o- ace ques ionnai e was adminis e ed o a
simple andom sample o 197 isi o s o Cap de C eus, in he owns
bo de ing he Na u al Pa k (Llancà and Roses) and wi hin Cap de
C eus: Cadaques a he en ance o he Pla de Tudela si e, he
Mon joi inle in he municipali y o Roses, and El Po de la Sel a.
We also collec ed da a on isi o s o Empu iab a a, a municipali y
30 minu es om Cap de C eus wi h a significan numbe o
isi o s (Figu e 1d).
The da a was collec ed du ing he summe pe iod, be ween June
and Augus 2021, when ou ism in his a ea is highes wi h isi o s
ou numbe ing esiden s. Th oughou 2019, a o al o 51,974 isi o s
we e eco ded a he ou in o ma ion poin s o he pa k, 12,840 o
whom isi ed he Cap de C eus a ea
3
. I is impo an o no e ha in
he summe o 2021, he ou ism sec o was s ill hea ily a ec ed by
mobili y es ic ions due o he pandemic, which also explains he
small sample size. Howe e , he s uc u e o he sample co esponds
o he ac ual popula ion dis ibu ion o he a ea whe e mos
su eyed ou is s a e F ench (Eu opa c, 2024). The e o e, he
sample analyzed is significan and ep esen a i e o he ypical
p ofile o ou is s isi ing he Na u al Pa k. We employed a
con enience sampling s a egy, app oaching isi o s a s a egic
en y poin s o he pa k. A su eyo s a egically placed a hose
da a collec ion poin s ga he ed da a om all isi o s who ag eed o
be su eyed. They we e asked o hei consen o be in e iewed.
A con ingen alua ion me hod ocusing on “wha i ”ques ions
was used o collec indi iduals’con ingen esponses in hypo he ical
scena ios, clea ly s a ed and desc ibed by he in e iewe .
Pa icipan s we e also asked closed-ended ques ions abou hei
knowledge and alua ion o na u al and cul u al ecosys em se ices,
wi h esponse op ions based on a fi e-poin Like scale analysis (see
Supplemen a y Ma e ials).
Ne e heless, while CVM p o ides aluable insigh s, i is
impo an o no e ha esponden s we e asked o exp ess hei
willingness o pay in a hypo he ical scena io, which could in oduce
bias i no ac ual ees we e e e implemen ed o access o he MPA.
Addi ionally, he s udy’s sample size and ime ame p esen
po en ial limi a ions. Fo example, he ela i ely small sample
may es ic he gene alizabili y o ou findings o o he MPAs o
isi o popula ions. Ne e heless, he e ficacy o he sample s ems
2 To gi e an example, in he final s e ch o he peninsula o Cap de C eus
wi h a capaci y o only 85 ehicles, up o 1,200 ehicles we e coun ed who
sough access o he si e a he peak o he summe season in 2019.
O e c owding causes a significan en i onmen al impac and has always
been a p oblem o he Na u al Pa k. We hank P. Feliu, di ec o o he
Na u al Pa k o Cap de C eus, (pe sonal communica ion, No embe 2024) o
p o iding his da a.
3 We would like o hank P. Feliu, di ec o o he Cap de C eus Na u al Pa k,
andM.Pascual, echnicianonen i onmen whop o ideduswi h his
unpublished da a om he Na u al Pa k's eco ds (pe sonal communica ion,
Feb ua y 2025).
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F on ie s in Ma ine Science on ie sin.o g06
om he ac ha esponden s e alua e he case in si u, expe iencing
he eal si ua ion wi hin he eal en i onmen .
We also ecognize conce ns aised by economis s and
ecologis s, who a gue ha he economic alua ion o na u e isks
equa ing en i onmen al alue wi h ma ke -based alue (Na u e
Edi o ial, 2019). This issue is pa icula ly ele an when
conside ing he i eplaceable na u e o cul u al a i ac s and
ecosys em se ices ha canno be adequa ely measu ed in
economic e ms (Chiesu a and De G oo , 2003). In con as , in-
dep h in e iews and longi udinal s udies ha ack changes in OL
o e ime could o e quali a i e insigh s, cap u ing a b oade ange
o isi o pe cep ions and mo i a ions, as shown by Mye s e al.
(2013) in global wa ming s udies and Sobkow e al. (2017) in flood
esea ch. In he field o OL esea ch, such s udies emain sca ce and
limi ed, highligh ing he need o u he in es iga ion (see Ashley
e al., 2019, and S oll-Kleemann, 2019). Howe e , hese app oaches
we e beyond he scope o his s udy.
The s uc u ed ace- o- ace ques ionnai e was ailo ed o his
s udy in o de o mee he specific esea ch goals. The di e en
ques ions we e in ended o cap u e he di e en dimensions o OL
sugges ed by McKinley e al. (2023), which ha e been adap ed o he
con ex . Fo ha pu pose, in some ins ances, hese dimensions we e
combined in o a se o ques ions making up a block (see schema o
OL dimensions in Figu e 2). This combina ion is he esul o he
ac ha , in con ex ual adap a ion, se e al dimensions a e con ained
in a single block because hey a e in e ela ed, and o he s a he
in e sec ion be ween blocks. The blocks we e o ganized in o fi e
sec ions, as desc ibed below:
Block 1. Assessmen o en i onmen al p o ec ion knowledge. The
knowledge sec ion included ques ions ela ed o pe cei ed isi o s’
knowledge o he NPCC (whe he hey knew ha i had been decla ed
a Na u al Pa k, he bounda ies o he pa k, he ype o ac i i ies
pe mi ed and p ohibi ed, and i s na u al and cul u al alues). The
“awa eness”dimension was pa ly included he e inasmuch as i
e e ed o he egula ions o he p ese a ion and conse a ion o
he MPA. Also, he “communica ion”dimension be ween knowledge
and awa eness was d awn upon, as i assessed he ex en o which
ci izens we e awa e ha hey we e in a Na u al Pa k.
FIGURE 2
Dimensions o he OL in he Cap de C eus MPA. The knowledge (co esponding o Block 1 o he su ey, which e e s o he pe cei ed knowledge
o isi o s abou he PNCC), he alues (Block 2 on he alua ion o he na u al and cul u al he i age), awa eness (Block 1 on he pe cei ed
knowledge o isi o s abou he egula ions, and Block 4 on he willingness o pay o epai he h ea s. Tha is o say, he en i onmen al impac s
p oduced by o e c owding) and a i ude (block 3 which e e s o opinions and pe cep ions abou conse a ion and p o ec ion). Communica ion,
beha io and adap i e capaci y we e eflec ed in he in e sec ion be ween he blocks. Ac i ism is eflec ed in ques ions a Block 3 and 4. Design by
Sıl ia Gomez.
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F on ie s in Ma ine Science on ie sin.o g07
Block 2. Na u al and cul u al he i age alua ion. This block
made i possible o gauge he le el o app ecia ion o na u al and
cul u al he i age, and unde lying emo ions ha could be exp essed
h oughsensessuchassoundandsmell.The“emo ional
connec ions”dimension was eflec ed h oughou his block.
Block 3. Opinions and pe cep ions on conse a ion and
p o ec ion. The ques ions in his block eflec ed he “a i ude”
dimension, as isi o s had o exp ess he le el o ag eemen o
conce n in ela ion o conse a ion issues.
Block 4. Economic alua ion. This sec ion deal wi h isi o s’
willingness o pay in o de o enjoy na u e wi hou o e c owding.
Blocks 3 and 4 showed he “awa eness”dimension, highligh ing
o wha ex en isi o s we e willing o ed ess a si ua ion ha needs
imp o emen , as well as he alue hey placed on he en i onmen ,
eflec ing po en ial d i e s o socie al change. In addi ion, i eflec s
he “beha io ”and “adap i e capaci y”dimensions, con ex ually
unde s ood as he willingness o isi o s o adjus hei beha io o
po en ial cons ain s in o de o mee conse a ion goals. This e e s
o choices acco ding o indi iduals’decisions ega ding hei
beha io . Ques ions in Block 3 and 4 also inqui ed abou he
po en ial o he “ac i ism”dimension and isi o s’willingness o
ake ac ion and engage in ac ions o he p o ec ion and
conse a ion o he NPCC.
Block 5. Visi o s’income. In his sec ion, isi o s we e asked
abou hei le el o income.
The dimensions “Access and expe ience”and “T us and
anspa ency”we e no assessed since isi o s we e no asked abou
aspec s conce ning he isi ( equency, anspo a ion, e c.) no abou
sou ces o in o ma ion and quali y. We conside ed ha his ype o
e alua ion would in ol e a mo e specific and in-dep h ques ionnai e,
which did no fi wi h he explo a o y na u e o he s udy.
The da a was s a is ically analyzed using eg ession analysis,
examining he ela ionships be ween he a iables: (1) deg ee o
knowledge in ela ion o sociodemog aphic indica o s (sex, age,
educa ion, and income); (2) a ing o na u al and cul u al alues in
ela ion o sociodemog aphic indica o s; (3) opinion o opics
ela ed o he p o ec ion o he NPCC in ela ion o
sociodemog aphic indica o s; (4) willingness o pay, o no pay,
acco ding o Blocks 1 (knowledge), 2 ( alua ion), and 3 (opinion),
and sociodemog aphic indica o s (sex, age, educa ion, and income);
(5) amoun in o man s a e willing o pay acco ding o Blocks 1
(knowledge), 2 ( alua ion), 3 (opinion), and sociodemog aphic
indica o s (see Supplemen a y Ma e ial).
To analyze he ela ionship be ween knowledge and
sociodemog aphic ac o s, we used a linea eg ession model wi h
knowledge as he dependen a iable and age, gende , educa ion le el,
and income as independen a iables. A p ima y desc ip i e analysis
led us o conside he o mula ion o mul iple eg ession models o
e alua e he significance o he di e en explana o y a iables.
Co ela ion analyses we e also pe o med o explo e he
ela ionships be ween key a iables, including age, educa ion
le el, income, and alua ion o na u al and cul u al he i age.
These analyses help de e mine whe he associa ions exis be ween
sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ics and isi o s’pe cep ions,
opinions, and knowledge. The esul s p o ide addi ional insigh s
in o he unde lying ac o s ha may influence p o-en i onmen al
a i udes and beha io s.
Fo he fi s eg ession model (1) he answe YES in he
ques ionnai e was gi en he alue 1, and NO he alue 0 (see
Supplemen a y Ma e ial). The a iable knowledge was ob ained by
adding up he answe s o he ques ions in he fi s sec ion o he
ques ionnai e o each indi idual. The minimum alue is he e o e
0 and he highes alue is 5. In he second eg ession (2), he
a iable sco e (poin ) in he anking o na u al and cul u al alues
was ob ained by adding up he sco es gi en o he 23 ques ions
making up he second sec ion o he ques ionnai e. The esul s o
he sum o each indi idual ga e he highes possible sco e o 115
poin s, and he lowes possible sco e o 23 poin s. In he hi d
eg ession (3), he ollowing numbe s we e assigned o possible
answe s: 2=ag ee, 1=pa ly ag ee, 0=disag ee. Only ques ions 3.3,
3.5, and 3.8 we e conside ed (see Supplemen a y Ma e ial). The
opinion a iable (3_opinion) was ob ained by adding he answe s
gi en by each indi idual o he ques ions. The a iable willingness
o pay (“WTP”), eg ession (4), was ob ained om ques ion 5.1 o
he ques ionnai e, gi ing a 1 o YES and a 0 o NO. The a iable
amoun isi o s we e willing o pay (quan ) (5) was ob ained om
ques ion 5.2 o he ques ionnai e, wi h a 1 o yes and a 0 o no (see
Supplemen a y Ma e ial).
The a iabili y o he answe s o hese ques ions was analyzed o
he sociodemog aphic indica o s men ioned abo e (sex, educa ion,
income, and age). In his eg ession, we also added indi iduals’
e alua ions o he NPCC as a eg esso . This a iable was ob ained
om sec ions 1, 2, and 3 o he ques ionnai es and comp ises he sum
o he alues ob ained in he ollowing sec ions: Block 1 (ques ions 1
o 5), Block 2 (ques ions 1 o 23), Block 3 (ques ions 3, 5 and 8).
Model 1 aims o measu e he influence o socioeconomic
a iables on he le el o knowledge (Knowledge). The
socioeconomic a iables a e defined as ollows: Sex (bina y: 0,1),
Age (con inuous a iable), Educa ion le el ( ou ca ego ies: no
educa ion, basic educa ion, seconda y educa ion, uni e si y
deg ee), Income (nine ca ego ies, anging om less han €600/
mon h o mo e han €5000/mon h). Gi en he na u e o he
dependen a iables, some dicho omous (sex, o example) and
o he s con inuous [Knowledge+Valua ion+(Opinion+Pe cep ion)],
we employed linea and logis ic eg essions.
The choice be ween logis ic and linea eg ession is based on
whe he he dependen a iables a e con inuous o bina y/
ca ego ical. Linea eg ession applies o con inuous dependen
a iables, while logis ic eg ession applies whe e he dependen
a iables a e bina y o ca ego ical. Applica ion o his me hod
ensu es ha he analysis is well ailo ed o cap u e a ia ions in
knowledge le els and alua ion among isi o s. Logis ic eg ession
also enables be e modeling o ela ionships wi h bina y esponses
such as willingness o pay.
Go
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F on ie s in Ma ine Science on ie sin.o g08
3 Resul s
The ques ionnai e ga he ed he opinions o 197 isi o s, o
which 73% we e F ench
4
, 17% we e Spanish (wi h only fi e being
esiden s o he NPCC), and 10% om o he na ionali ies.
The fi s sec ion o he su ey begins wi h he ques ion: Did you
know ha Cap de C eus is a Na u al Pa k? A o al o 64% o
esponden s answe ed no. E en mo e s iking is he ac ha ,
among hose su eyed in Cadaques— igh in he hea o he
pa k—89.6% we e unawa e o his designa ion. This clea ly
indica es ha he ou ism ma ke does no inco po a e he
en i onmen al, cul u al, and he i age alue o he a ea. The
a ious ques ions in he su ey u he confi m his high deg ee
o unawa eness ega ding he Na u al Pa k. Specifically, 75.5% o
esponden s s a ed ha hey we e un amilia wi h he egula ions,
87.2% did no know he bounda ies o he Na u al Pa k, and 80.6%
we e unawa e o i s flo a and auna. In summa y, hese
excep ionally high pe cen ages e eal a significan lack o
knowledge among ou is s ega ding he Pa k’s exis ence. This
simple desc ip i e analysis sugges s ha he a iable knowledge is
unlikely o be s a is ically significan , necessi a ing he o mula ion
o mul iple eg ession models o e alua e he significance o he
di e en explana o y a iables. When asked: Would you be willing
o pay o enjoy he en i onmen wi hou conges ion? 82% o
esponden s answe ed yes. Among he 18% who s a ed hey
would no be willing o pay, he majo i y epo ed ha ing no
income (such as s uden s) o e y low income. This finding is
pa icula ly ele an because hose who esponded nega i ely all
wi hin he ypical ca ego ies eligible o public se ice ee
exemp ions. The e o e, excluding his popula ion, all o he s
should be expec ed o pay o he oppo uni y o enjoy he
na u al en i onmen ee om conges ion.
In he fi s eg ession model, we es ed he deg ee o knowledge
in ela ion o sociodemog aphic indica o s. We can see he
coe ficien s in Table 1. The adjus ed R-squa ed is equal o
0.05251. This ells us ha sociodemog aphic da a explain 5.2% o
he a iabili y in he deg ee o knowledge. The P- alue o he o e all
significance es is 0.01728. The e o e, a he 5% and 10%
significance le els, we ejec he null hypo hesis ha all bcan be
equal o 0. Thus, we can conclude ha he e is no significan
a iable ha explains he a iabili y in he deg ee o knowledge
wi hin he es ed popula ion.
Despi e low co ela ions and eg ession coe ficien s no being
s a is ically meaning ul, hey indica e meaning ul ends in isi o s’
pe cep ions and willingness o pay. Fo ins ance, while he adjus ed
R-squa ed alues sugges ha socioeconomic a iables explain only
a small po ion o he a iabili y in knowledge le els, he obse ed
ends s ill p o ide use ul in o ma ion on how di e en isi o
g oups pe cei e he Cap de C eus MPA.
In he indi idual significance es , we find ha he only null
hypo hesis we can ejec is ha he bcoe ficien o he a iable age
equals 0. This is he case a all s anda d significance le els.
When es ing he second and hi d models (see Table 1), he
esul s do no di e significan ly. Howe e , he ou h model
p o ides mo e in e es ing insigh s. Ac oss all ou models, he
a iable age is s a is ically significan , which, as expec ed, eflec s
i s ela ionship wi h income and educa ion le el, leading o he
ypical mul icollinea i y issue ound in socioeconomic a iables. In
all eg ession models, he income a iable is no significan , a esul
ha was al eady an icipa ed in he p e ious desc ip i e analysis.
No ably, wo significan co ela ions we e ound (Table 2). Fi s ,
he co ela ion be ween knowledge and age is nega i e, wi h a alue
o -0.186, and is significan a a 95% confidence le el. This means
ha younge membe s o he popula ion possess knowledge abou
he p o ec ion o he na u al pa k and i s exis ence. This endency is
obse ed mo e equen ly in indi iduals aged 47–50 and younge .
The o he a iable showing significan co ela ion is income. In
his case, he co ela ion is posi i e, which implies ha esponden s
wi h a highe income ha e a highe le el o knowledge abou he
exis ence and p o ec ion o he NPCC. This esul ep esen s a 90%
confidence le el. No e ha 75.5% o hose su eyed said hey we e
unawa e o he egula ions, and 87.2% lacked knowledge abou he
delimi a ion o he NPCC.
The o he wo sociodemog aphic a iables (educa ion and
gende ) a e posi i ely co ela ed wi h he deg ee o knowledge,
bu his is no significan a any s anda d le el.
Fu he mo e, we ound a posi i e co ela ion be ween he age
a iable and he sco e o cul u al and na u al he i age alua ion
( a ing) wi h a alue o 0.54, significan a all s anda d confidence
le els. This means ha olde esponden s gi e highe sco es o
he i age. Ne e heless, he eg ession o he second model shows an
adjus ed R-squa ed alue o 0.2453. The sociodemog aphic da a
explain 24.53% o he a iabili y o he sco e gi en o he cul u al
and na u al he i age o he NPCC.
Ra ings in Table 2 show a nega i e co ela ion be ween he i age
and gende , wi h a significan confidence le el o 90%. This implies
ha emale esponden s gi e he cul u al and na u al he i age o he
NPCC lowe sco es. Mo eo e , he co ela ion be ween educa ion
and a ing is nega i e, wi h a significan confidence le el o 95%.
Rega ding opinions on MPA p o ec ion and conse a ion measu es,
findings indica e ha he co ela ion be ween age and opinion is
posi i e and significan a all s anda d significance le els. Howe e ,
he co ela ion be ween opinion and educa ion is nega i e, and
significan a a 90% confidence le el.
The co ela ion be ween age and opinion on p ese a ion and
p o ec ion (See Block 3, Supplemen a y Ma e ial) is posi i e and
significan a all s anda d significance le els. In con as , he
co ela ions be ween opinion and income, and opinion and
gende a e nega i e and no significan a any s anda d le el
o significance.
Ne e heless, when we ocused on he co ela ion be ween WTP
and alua ion, we obse ed ha his is posi i e a 0.445 and
significan a all s anda d confidence le els. Wi h his da a, we
conclude ha , on a e age, indi iduals who alue he pa k mo e
4 F ench people ep esen mo e han hal o daily ou is isi o s in he a ea
(See Eu opa c (2024) Diagnosi de la ca a eu opea de u isme sos enible al
cap de c eus, 2020–2024. Repo . CETS-Cap de C eus)
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