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social sciences
A icle
Spo s In luence s on Twi e . Analysis and
Compa a i e S udy o T ack Cycling Wo ld Cups
2016 and 2018
JoséMa ía Lami án-Paloma es , Tomás Ba ie a and Ampa o Ba ie a-Puig *
Depa men o Economics and Social Sciences, Building 3B, Uni e si a Poli ècnica de València,
Camino de Ve a s/n, 46022 Valencia, Spain; jolapa@doc o .up .es (J.M.L.-P.); obapui@up .es (T.B.)
*Co espondence: ambapui@up .es
Recei ed: 27 July 2020; Accep ed: 22 Sep embe 2020; Published: 25 Sep embe 2020
Abs ac :
Social media has d i en a sea change in he way use s iew and pa icipa e in spo ing
e en s h ough he media. In he digi al medium, iden i ying he p o iles wi h he g ea es in luen ial
capaci y is a key issue. Using he analy ical hie a chy p ocess (AHP), he aim o ou esea ch was o
iden i y he mos in luen ial Twi e accoun s in a majo spo ing e en : The T ack Cycling Wo ld
Cups. The compe i ions om he yea s 2016 and 2018 we e analysed, downloading all he wee s
ha included he o icial hash ag o each e en and d awing up he g aph o men ions and e wee s.
A e e iewing he li e a u e, ac i i y, au ho i y and popula i y we e de ined as dimensions o assess
in luence, and wo subc i e ia we e chosen as measu es o each o hem. Ac i i y was measu ed by
numbe o wee s and ou deg ee, au ho i y by e wee s and PageRank, and popula i y by numbe
o ollowe s and indeg ee. By consul ing expe s ollowing he AHP app oach, a ious weigh s
we e assigned o hese measu es, esul ing in au ho i y as he mos in luen ial. Wi h his weigh ing,
he accoun s wi h he g ea es in luence on Twi e u ned ou o be hose ela ed o o ganisa ion o
he e en and hose o he a hle es aking pa .
Keywo ds:
in luence; in luence s; Twi e ; social ne wo k analysis (SNA); analy ical hie a chy
p ocess (AHP)
1. In oduc ion
The online medium has signi ican ly changed he way in which media audiences consume
spo ing e en s. Social ne wo ks ha e allowed ans, iewe s and di e en s akeholde s o achie e
a high le el o in e connec ion and in e ac i i y ocused on hese spo ing e en s and he news
gene a ed. This in e connec ion has sp ead ega dless o na ional o cul u al bo de s, u ning his
digi al communica ion en i onmen in o a global exchange o sha ed expe iences, discussion and
pa icipa ion be ween people o di e en places and s a us. S udies such as hose by Gila and Molina
(2016) on he You h Olympic Games a e a e lec ion o his e olu ion o social ne wo ks in he ield o
spo ing e en s. This s udy de ails how, h ough he in e ne , he media and la ge companies a e losing
he leading ole hey p e iously had in a ou o use s, and he ole ha he In e na ional Olympic
Commi ee plays as a p ecu so o social ne wo ks in he ield o spo . All his wi h a de ail o he
e olu ion p esen ed by he di e en edi ions o he Olympic Games and hei p esence on in e ne .
P e ious wo ks ha e demons a ed how he digi al medium has come o play a c ucial ole in he
consump ion o spo s h ough he media. Se e al s udies ha e shown ha ans engage in a a ie y o
beha iou s a ound and du ing spo ing e en s in he online wo ld, including ela ionships wi h a hle es
(Cla io e al. 2013), he exchange o in o ma ion (Blaszka e al. 2016) o he in e ac i i y in his exchange
o in o ma ion (Cla io and Walsh 2014). O he esea ch has also shown he pa icipa ion in he digi al
Soc. Sci. 2020,9, 169; doi:10.3390/socsci9100169 www.mdpi.com/jou nal/socsci
Soc. Sci. 2020,9, 169 2 o 23
medium o he di e en spo ing o ganisa ions (
Lebel and Danylchuk 2016;F ede ick e al. 2014
),
how a hle es use his medium o he de elopmen o hei pe sonal b and (F ede ick e al. 2015),
o how o ganisa ions engage wi h ans (Thompson e al. 2017).
Spo ing e en s a e p ime examples o in e connec ed en i onmen s ha p o ide he public
wi h a sha ed con ex in which o enjoy a spo s compe i ion and global elec onic communica ion.
A he same ime, hey illus a e he changing ace o spo s-consuming audiences, he po en ial scope
ha hese e en s ha e wi hin he online en i onmen and, he e o e, how hey ha e e ol ed as a
esul o his mo e global and accessible digi al communica ion. All hese aspec s we e p esen ed
by
Wang (2015
), while also a emp ing o p edic he a i udes o use s pa icipa ing in social media
du ing hese spo ing e en s.
Howe e , he dynamics and measu emen o his digi al communica ion in ol e di e en
pa ame e s han hose o con en ional media, whe e he audience is he main indica o . In he online
medium, he logic o ne wo k communica ion equi es measu es o assess which use s ha e he
g ea es abili y o in luence he gene al con e sa ion. This is no a simple ques ion, mainly due o
he complexi y o he in e ac ions. Fo example Meenaghan e al. (2013) analysed how he g ow h o
social media cons i u es a g ea oppo uni y o spo s en i ies and o he companies i hey can gauge
he e ec i eness and impac o campaigns on social ne wo ks like Twi e . Jus as he e is a lack o
de ini ion o clea pa ame e s o de ine he in luence on online media, i was no possible o de ec any
s udy on in luen ial use s in niche spo ing e en s. Al hough he s udy by Yan e al. (2019) ea u es
use s wi h in luence on a la ge-scale e en , such as he 2017 UEFA Champions League Final, ha s udy
did no p esen he combina ion o di e en a iables o a i e a a single anking o in luence.
Ou a icle con ibu es o co e ing his gap. As he aim is o add ess such a complex phenomenon
as in luence on social ne wo ks, wo echniques we e used, he combina ion o which is also no el.
The social ne wo k analysis (SNA) echnique, which a emp s o cha ac e ise he in e ac ion o nume ous
agen s, has p o ided a i s basis o ac i i y on Twi e . Subsequen ly, he analy ic hie a chy p ocess
(AHP) was applied. This me hodology is especially app op ia e o his p oblem, as i allows us o
quan i y he a ibu es o a ce ain phenomenon based on a se ies o assessmen s p o ided by expe s.
One ad an age o AHP is ha i ensu es he consis ency o hese judgemen s, he eby inc easing he
eliabili y o he esul s.
Gi en he con ex , his esea ch akes a wo-p onged app oach. On one hand, iden i ying he
weigh o he c i e ia ha measu e in luence in he Twi e social ne wo k and, on he o he , disco e ing
which p o iles ha e he g ea es weigh in said c i e ia in he con ex o a majo spo ing e en . Fo he
analysis, wo edi ions o he la ges ack cycling e en in he wo ld we e conside ed: The Wo ld
Championships. The analysis ocused on he e en held in London in 2016 and he one in Apeldoo n
(Ne he lands) in 2018. Fo he analysis o bo h, he o icial hash ags c ea ed by hei o ganise s we e
used; in he case o London 2016, #TWC2016, and in he second e en , #Apeldoo n2018. The wo
edi ions we e chosen o compa e and con as he use o Twi e , and hus analyse possible simila i ies
and di e ences in he use s who pa icipa ed in he con e sa ion o he wo e en s. The aim is o be e
unde s and he in luencing p ocess on Twi e .
2. Li e a u e Re iew and Theo e ical F amewo k
2.1. In luence and Social Ne wo ks
Jou nalism in gene al and he wo k o jou nalis s ha e unde gone a g ea ans o ma ion in ecen
yea s. Immediacy and he e o e expi y o in o ma ion, he capaci y o p oduce con en by di e en
use s and in e ac i e ma e ials a e some o he changes de i ed mainly om he in oduc ion o he
in e ne and wi h i om he digi isa ion o he wo k p ocesses h ough he implemen a ion o ools and
se ices ha did no p e iously exis . Veglis and Maniou (2018) p o ided an explana ion o he changes
aking place, s a ing om he wo-s ep heo y and i s e olu ion owa ds a model o communica ion
lows wi h a solid base in Big Da a and mac o da a.
Soc. Sci. 2020,9, 169 3 o 23
Social media pla o ms ha e a g ea esponsibili y and play an impo an pa in his ans o ma ion
o jou nalism and jou nalis ic wo k. (Campos-F ei e e al. 2016). The i s social ne wo k pla o ms,
such as MySpace o Facebook, which eme ged as o 2004, a e he ones ha led o g ea changes in he
beha iou o people in gene al (Fuen es e al. 2007;Gil and Ma
í
a 2012;Ayala 2012) and o many jobs
and o ganisa ions in gene al, and in jou nalism in pa icula (Cu iel 2012;Figa o e al. 2015). This is
due o he ac ha , al hough p e iously jou nalis s we e p ac ically he only ones wi h he capaci y o
he p oduc ion and “sp ead” o news, he a i al o he ne wo ks means ha anyone has he capaci y
o c ea e con en and achie e i s dissemina ion ia hese pla o ms, wi hou he need o he suppo o
endo semen ha jou nalism in ol es o a communica ion medium.
In ecen yea s, social ne wo ks applied o spo in gene al—and Twi e in pa icula —ha e
been he subjec o di e en analyses wi h hei consequen conclusions, such as Dasil a e al. (2015)
o Galla do-Camacho e al. (2016). The e a e also o he s udies ha co e a wide a ie y o opics,
such as Pego a o (2016), which examined p o essional a hle es who used Twi e and he objec o i s
use,
o Sande son and Hamb ick (2016)
, who s udied he ac i i y on Twi e o di e en jou nalis s in
he ield o spo . Likewise, di e en spo s ha e been he subjec o s udy, and among hem cycling,
he spo he objec o ou esea ch. Fo example Kassing and Sande son (2016) analysed he wee s
sen by he cyclis s aking pa in an edi ion o he Gi o d’I alia. All o hese a icles hinge a ound he
use o Twi e among di e en use s, and he main esea ch ocuses on he s udy o ac i i y in his
social ne wo k.
Se e al spo ing o ganisa ions ha e also used Twi e o sha e in o ma ion, communica ing and
in e ac ing wi h hei s akeholde s (Hamb ick e al. 2010), and he s udy by Wi kempe e al. (2012)
showed how Twi e p esen s an oppo uni y o o ganisa ions o engage in imely and di ec con ac
wi h hei audiences. In ac , o he communica ion and ma ke ing s udies ha e examined he use
o social media as a spo s ma ke ing ool. Fo example, A ms ong e al. (2016) explo ed The Los
Angeles Kings’ social media ma ke ing s a egies and concluded ha social media p o ided he eam
wi h an oppo uni y o os e he de elopmen o ela ionships and he b and communi y.
Finally, and in e e ence o ou opic o analysis, in luence and use s, di e en s udies ha e al eady
discussed hese use s on Twi e , bo h in di e en spo s and in o he se ings wi h di e en objec i es.
Fo example Cla io e al. (2016) analysed he in e ac ion o a socce eam’s communi y on Twi e .
Hamb ick (2016) examined how bicycle ace o ganise s and Twi e use s dissemina ed in o ma ion
h ough he ne wo k o p omo e hei e en s. Likewise, Hamb ick and Pego a o (2014) examined
he social media communi ies ha o med du ing he 2014 Olympics, Na aine e al. (2016) compa ed
na ional and in e na ional mul i-spo e en s, and Blaszka e al. (2016) looked in o he use o he
hash ag on Twi e du ing he 2011 Wo ld Se ies. These s udies iden i y hose use s wi h he highes
use o Twi e o analyse he in e ac ion ha is gene a ed be ween he di e en use s o an e en o
a ound a ce ain hash ag, bu hey ail o iden i y o de ine he pa ame e s o in luence.
We could de ine social in luence as he abili y o a use o in en ionally o unin en ionally,
and based on hei opinions, p oduce changes in he belie s, a i udes, mo i a ion o beha iou o
o he s (Day 2020). Speci ically, in he social media en i onmen , his in luence can be unde s ood as
he abili y o con ol he low o in o ma ion (Toole e al. 2012) and in luence he in e ac ions aking
place among use s ha o m a ne wo k (Lea i e al. 2009). The di e en use s who pa icipa e in
social ne wo ks, including he communica ion media, adap hei abili y o in luence o he s in an
en i onmen o change. Al hough social ne wo ks allow access o all use s, no all use s a e he same,
and hey di e om each o he by hei abili y o in luence o he s, as his will de e mine he impac
and scope o he global con e sa ion (Fuchs 2014). In luence he e o e becomes an ex emely impo an
alue in his con ex o massi e in o ma ion lows.
2.2. How o Measu e Digi al In luence
To ex ac da a om social ne wo ks and hus be able o de e mine he di e en a iables o
pa ame e s ha can be pa o he measu emen c i e ia, i is possible o use di e en me hodologies.
Soc. Sci. 2020,9, 169 4 o 23
Use -gene a ed con en (UGC) is he e o e he objec o s udy, on he basis o which se e al me hods
a e applied o ex ac in o ma ion. The s udies by Sau a e al. (2019a)o Sau a e al. (2019b) p o ide
a ision o he way in which his da a ga he ing is possible and he compa ison be ween di e en
me hodologies. The impo ance o hese wo s udies also lies in he ac ha hey bo h use he so wa e
applied in ou analysis, Gephi. The o me analyses he educa ion sec o , and he la e examines he
digi al ma ke ing sec o , in a compa ison be ween app oaches. They a e he e o e indica i e s udies o
he impo ance and possibili ies o he la ge amoun o use -gene a ed con en (UGC), and, mo eo e ,
in a social ne wo k such as Twi e ( he same as used in ou analysis). O he a icles ca ying ou s udies
on social ne wo ks and which also used his same so wa e a e desc ibed below:
Akh a e al. (2013)
wi h an analysis abou Facebook; Thi umalai e al. (2017), in a cos analysis o Facebook web click
da a; o B uns (2012), wi h a s udy o con e sa ions on Twi e .
The e a e also s udies on he wo ld o spo s ha use Gephi so wa e, e en in some cases se ing
ou om he SNA, and wi hou he s udy o any speci ic social ne wo k, analysing spo s pe o mance,
such as he s udy by Hu s e al. (2016) ocused on women’s olleyball. In his s udy, he social ne wo k
analysis app oach is used and wi h i , his so wa e. I we ocus mo e speci ically on spo s e en s and
Twi e , we ind he analysis by Gou eia e al. (2018), which s udied he con e sa ion gene a ed in his
social ne wo k o e a socce ma ch in Po ugal, a ma ch o maximum i al y be ween wo clubs in
Lisbon, Ben ica and Spo ing. Tha s udy analysed wo speci ic hash ags (one o each club) and he
use g oups ha in e ac a ound each o hem. This s udy, simila o ou s, analysed he p o iles wi h
majo in luence on he e en , bu wi h a g ea di e ence; his iden i ica ion was ca ied ou a e he
con e sa ion analysis and wi hou iden i ying he a iables belonging o a ce ain g oup ha migh
explain his supposed in luence.
Ano he s udy using Gephi and which could be p esen ed wi h simila i ies o ou s is ha o
Yan e al. (2019). In i , hey s udy a speci ic e en , he 2017 UEFA Champions League inal and he
con e sa ion gene a ed on Twi e wi h he hash ag #UCL. They p esen he use s wi h a g ea e
in luence on he con e sa ion unde h ee pa ame e s o social ne wo k analysis, and e en ca y ou
hei anking and ca ego isa ion. This s udy p esen s he analysis a h ee speci ic imes o he e en ,
be o e, du ing and a e i , and he e olu ion o he in e es ha was gene a ed a ound he hash ag
a hese poin s o he analysis, and hus akes in o accoun he dynamism o social ne wo ks, bu i
does no analyse he eason o he inclusion in hose ankings. Wi h he analysis ca ied ou and as a
summa y, we p esen a able o di e en s udies ha use he same so wa e as ha used in ou a icle
(Table 1).
Wi h all he da a gene a ed on social pla o ms, digi al in luence is a complica ed concep o
measu e due o i s mul idimensionali y and he la ge numbe o a iables ha appea in digi al
ne wo ks. Se e al o mulas a e used o measu e i . Riquelme and Gonz
á
lez-Can e giani (2015) de ailed
and classi ied he di e en measu es used in he scien i ic li e a u e on he in luence on Twi e , and he
impo ance o he need o know a iables o be able o de ine he mos in luen ial use s. As de ailed
in hei s udy, he a iables ha can be pa o he di e en c i e ia a e e y a ied and come om
di e en sou ces, such as he Twi e ool pe se, complex ma hema ical models o ankings used in
web analy ics. The e o e, he o ali y o his e iew leads us o he adop ion o h ee widely used and
speci ic dimensions o Twi e : ac i i y, popula i y and au ho i y (Riquelme and Gonz
á
lez-Can e giani
2015;Lami án-Paloma es e al. 2019):
1.
Ac i i y: A use is conside ed ac i e when hei pa icipa ion in Twi e is cons an and equen ,
ega dless o he a en ion hey ecei e om o he use s. When alking abou pa icipa ion,
e e ence is made o all ac i i y ha is measu able in a b oad sense. In his sense, some o he
a iables analysed a e he gene a ion o o iginal wee s and e wee s, men ions o esponses.
The mos ac i e use s may gene a e a la ge olume o in o ma ion o be sp ead h oughou hei
ne wo k o con ac s.
2.
Au ho i y: A use has au ho i y when hey pos messages ha a ouse he in e es o o he
use s, ha is, hey ecei e many e wee s, quo es o likes, which would be some o he a iables
Soc. Sci. 2020,9, 169 5 o 23
conside ed. So, a use has g ea au ho i y when hey ha e links wi h o he highly connec ed
use s in he ne wo k ha enhance hei ange. Au ho i y is linked wi h he in e ac ion among he
ac o s in a ne wo k. The key o p o iding a use wi h digi al au ho i y is hus hei abili y o
ac i ely o passi ely connec o he digi al deba e.
3.
Popula i y: A use is deemed popula when hey a e acknowledged by many o he use s o he
ne wo k. One example could be a celeb i y, who need no necessa ily be conside ed as ac i e.
A p io i, he numbe o ollowe s is one o he main a iables o his indica o . The g ea e he
numbe o ollowe s, he g ea e he popula i y o a use o and hei po en ial o ci cula e he
in o ma ion. Howe e , some esea ch wo ks ha e al eady no ed ha use s wi h a high deg ee o
popula i y a e no necessa ily in luen ial on Twi e (Cha e al. 2017).
Table 1. S udies ha use Gephi as so wa e o social ne wo k analysis. Sou ce: own c ea ion.
Au ho s Yea Topics S udied Social Ne wo k Analysed
B uns 2011 Hash ags, eplies,
communica ion s udies Twi e
Hu s 2016 Voleyball, spo
pe o mance, ——–
Thi umalai,
S ee and Gannu 2017
Social Ne wo k Analysis,
Cos es ima ion unc ion,
web click da a
Facebook
Gou eia, Lapa and
Di Fa ima 2018 Foo ball, use s clus e s,
spo ing e en s Twi e
Yan, Wa anabe e al. 2019
Foo ball, Ue a
Champions League,
in luence, powe
dynamics
Twi e
Sau a, Reyes-Menendez
and Benne 2019 Educa ion, sen imen
analysis, Twi e
Sau a, Reyes-Menendez
and Filippe 2019
Digi al ma ke ing,
da a-d i en me hods,
bussines knowledge
Twi e
2.3. Resea ch Ques ions
Wi hin hese dimensions, we see how many and di e en a iables can be iden i ied as pa o
hem: gene a ion o wee s, e wee s, numbe o ollowe s, connec ions wi h o he use s, esponses o
wee s, e c. So, once he dimensions and he possible a iables we e iden i ied, we would ask ou sel es
h ee ques ions on which o base ou esea ch:
RQ1:
Wha would be he mos app op ia e weigh o each o hese h ee dimensions (ac i i y,
au ho i y and popula i y) ha would allow us o quan i a i ely assess he in luence o a
spo ing e en ?
To his end, we shall measu e he dimensions al eady iden i ied (ac i i y, au ho i y and popula i y)
by di e en a iables. Th ough his ques ion, we y o asce ain he weigh o he dimensions and he
key a iables o a use o be conside ed in luen ial. Thanks o his in o ma ion, use s can be classi ied
based on gene al in e ac ion o e he cou se o e en s, be o e posing he second esea ch ques ion.
RQ2:
Which use p o ile (based on i s assignmen o di e en g oups) holds he highes
posi ions acco ding o he dimensions and a iables analysed?
A p io i, i could be conside ed ha some speci ic oles would occupy he posi ions o
“g ea e in luence” as s a ed in he s udies by Hamb ick e al. (2010), o Na aine e al. (2016),
Soc. Sci. 2020,9, 169 6 o 23
whe e a ele ance in he con e sa ion is indica ed by he ac o occupying a ce ain ole (o ganise o
jou nalis ). In ou e en , we shall obse e he use s anked bes based on he abo e dimensions and
assign hem o ce ain ca ego ies and oles.
RQ3: Whe e do he use s wi h a g ea e in luen ial capaci y come om?
Once he use s a e ca ego ised based on hei occupa ion and ole, i is in e es ing o analyse he
geog aphical o igin. S udies such as hose by Toole e al. (2012), dis inguish he geog aphical o igin
o in luence s, and he e o e conside ha in a spo ing e en he mos in luen ial p o iles may be
condi ioned by he coun y o a ea o o igin, which may be an in e es ing obse a ion. The coun y
o ganising he e en o hose eams wi h he highes numbe o medals a e pa ame e s o conside
in his analysis, and s udying whe he hese o o he a iables ac as condi ioning ac o s o Twi e
in luence will be o in e es and hus he objec o esea ch.
Finally, he g ea con ibu ions o ou s udy, which ha e no been made a any p e ious ime,
a e he e o e: (i) he analysis o social ne wo ks in niche spo ing e en s compa ed o he analysis o
la ge e en s; (ii) he iden i ica ion and es ablishing o a c i e ion ha combines di e en dimensions o
measu e in luence; (iii) he use o a new me hodology in ou sec o , combining a highly con as ed
so wa e in he analysis o social ne wo ks, wi h ano he mul ic i e ia me hodological p ocess,
as de ailed below.
3. Me hodology
3.1. Social Ne wo k Analysis (SNA)
Social media can play an in eg al ole in he expe ience o spo ing e en s o a ying deg ees
and wi h di e en e ec s, ei he o highligh posi i e e ec s such as suppo ing a hle es o o expose
nega i e issues and p oblems. Resea che s can explo e hese ac i i ies on social media h ough social
media analysis (Social Ne wo k Analysis, SNA), which sugges s ha indi iduals and g oups o m
ela ionships, and he combina ion o indi iduals, g oups, and hei accompanying ela ionships o m
ne wo ks used o exchange in o ma ion and o he esou ces. Social ne wo ks can be de eloped wi hou
any connec ion o spo s acili ies (Maclean e al. 2011) and eams (Wa ne e al. 2012). They can
also occu in online en i onmen s, as he SNA acili a es he c ea ion o hese ne wo ks (B uns e al.
2014). SNA can help e en o ganise s unde s and how di e en communi ies eme ging on social
ne wo ks de elop and expand hei knowledge, and how hese communi ies can play a c i ical ole in
he con e sa ions ha ake place a ound hei e en s, whe he h ough posi i e o nega i e wo d o
mou h (WOM) (Sahelices-Pin o and Rod íguez-San os 2014).
Two me hodologies we e used o ca y ou ou esea ch. Ini ially, he SNA se ed o iden i y a
pa o he a iables ela ed o in luence on Twi e . SNA a ose om he Lewin (1939), who o mula ed
he heo y wi h a g aphic analysis. La e , o he esea che s such as F eeman (1978)o Loza es (1996)
de eloped and applied he ma hema ical basis o he heo y. SNA s udies he pa e ns o he si ua ional
ela ionship be ween he di e en ac o s o gauge he social beha iou o a popula ion and e alua e
he in e dependen ac ions among he di e en use s, e en hough no all use s a e di ec ly ela ed
(Sco 2017).
SNA can help achie e a be e unde s anding o how he di e en use s aking pa in he
con e sa ion use a social ne wo k such as Twi e . Wasse man and Faus (1994) de ined social
ne wo ks such as collec ions o indi iduals, o ganisa ions and e en s, plus he sha ed ela ionships
be ween all o hem. Social ne wo k analysis examines hem by obse ing hei membe s in hei
na u al en i onmen s, de ining hei oles wi hin he social ne wo k and analysing hei ne wo k o
ela ionships (Wasse man and Faus 1994).
Resea che s use social media analy ics o explo e di e en g oups and e en s using sociog ams
ha isually ep esen membe s o social media and hei ela ionships. Each membe o he ne wo k
is ep esen ed by a single poin (node), and a line joining wo nodes indica es ha he membe s o
Soc. Sci. 2020,9, 169 7 o 23
he ne wo k sha e a ela ionship. The collec ion o nodes and lines becomes a sociog am, and he
esul ing diag am shows he membe s o he ne wo k, hei sha ed ela ionships and he collec i e
social ne wo k (De Nooy e al. 2005). Sociog ams desc ibe he social ne wo k, helping o iden i y he
in luen ial ne wo k membe s who sp ead in o ma ion o o he s in he ne wo k. The mos in luen ial
membe s a e gene ally loca ed nea he cen e o he ne wo k and ha e a g ea e numbe o lines o
ela ionships linking hem wi h o he membe s. Less in luen ial membe s ha e ewe ela ionships
and posi ion hemsel es in emo e loca ions along he pe iphe y o he ne wo k (De Nooy e al. 2005).
Al hough SNA is now a common me hodological app oach in many a eas, mo e ecen ly i has
become he ocus o esea ch in he ield o spo s. In his sense, Wäsche e al. (2017) p o ided a gene al
assessmen o he u ili y o he heo y, showing a ange o di e en applica ions o in es iga e spo s
managemen . Qua man and Chelladu ai (2008) wen u he , explo ing pa e ns o social in e ac ion
be ween di e en academics in he ield o spo s managemen , using a social ne wo k pe spec i e.
Cla io e al. (2016), Hamb ick (2016), Sande son and Hamb ick (2016), Hamb ick and Pego a o
(2014) and Na aine e al. (2016) ha e al eady used his me hodological app oach o iden i y popula
use s on di e en social ne wo ks. SNA can help e en o ganise s unde s and how social media
communi ies a e s uc u ed, he eby expanding he knowledge necessa y o manage and adminis e
he con e sa ions ha communi ies de elop a ound hese e en s, which is clea ly exempli ied in
ou esea ch.
3.2. Analy ic Hie a chy P ocess (AHP)
A e SNA, he second me hodology applied was he Analy ical Hie a chy P ocess, also known as
AHP, de eloped by Saa y (1980) and designed o sol ing complex p oblems wi h mul iple possibili ies.
The AHP me hod is based on he e alua ion o di e en c i e ia o a ange a p ocess in o a hie a chy
in o de o op imise decision-making. This me hodology is used o p oblem sol ing whe e i is
necessa y o p io i ise be ween di e en op ions and decide he mos con enien one. These decisions
can ange om simple pe sonal and quali a i e decisions o highly complex quan i a i e conclusions.
The hie a chical analysis p ocess hus becomes a lexible and obus mul ic i e ia decision-making ool,
and i is used in p oblems whe e bo h quan i a i e and quali a i e aspec s mus be aken in o accoun .
The AHP echnique o ganises he c i ical aspec s o a p oblem in o a hie a chical s uc u e and
educes complex decisions o a se ies o compa isons, hus allowing hie a chisa ion o he di e en
c i e ia assessed. AHP has been applied o esol e a wide a ie y o p oblems and is based on
he p inciple ha he expe ience and knowledge o he ac o s a e as impo an as he da a used in
he p ocess. When ackling a p oblem, his p ocess calls o subjec i e assessmen by means o a
ques ionnai e om a g oup o expe s ega ding he impo ance o he di e en c i e ia o i s esolu ion,
speci ying he ela i e impo ance o each o hem. To his end, he di e en c i e ia a e compa ed
in pai s, i s among he di e en c i e ia, and subsequen ly be ween each o he subc i e ia, using a
scale om 1 o 9, whe e 1 assumes he same impo ance o he wo a iables compa ed, and 9 assumes
an ex eme impo ance o one agains he o he . Rankings o 3, 5 and 7 show di e en deg ees o
impo ance o one compa ed o he o he .
A e each expe e alua es he c i e ia h ough he a o emen ioned scale (1, 3, 5, 7, 9), an indi idual
ma ix is c ea ed ha con ains he pai wise compa isons o judgemen s. In his ma ix, all he elemen s
a e posi i e and e i y he p ope ies o ecip oci y and consis ency. Consis ency is checked using
a a io ha e lec s how consis en he judgemen s made by expe s a e in ela ion o la ge samples
o pu ely andom judgemen s. This consis ency a io is a alue ha is calcula ed and compa ed
wi h a e e ence alue ha a ies acco ding o he size o he ma ix (Saa y 2008;Cheng and li 2001).
In ou case, he consis ency a io conside ed as a e e ence was 10% (Saa y 2008). I he alue o he
consis ency a io ob ained is equal o o less han 10%, i means ha he e alua ion wi hin he ma ix is
accep able and ha he e is a good le el o consis ency in he pai wise compa isons. In con as , i he
consis ency a io is g ea e han 10%, i is because he e is an inconsis ency in he pai wise compa isons
and, he e o e, he e alua ion p ocess o ha expe should be e iewed o disca ded. An accep able
Soc. Sci. 2020,9, 169 8 o 23
consis ency a io (less han o equal o 10%) helps ensu e eliabili y in he decision-making p ocess.
In o de o me ge he indi idual judgemen s om each expe in o a single a ing ep esen a i e o he
en i e g oup, he geome ic mean is used. (Saa y 2008) ecommends his me hod, as i main ains he
p ope y o ecip oci y o pai wise compa isons.
One o he ad an ages o AHP is he possibili y o adding di e en ypes o in o ma ion,
which acili a es pa icipa ion in he p ocess, bo h o use s wi h a ma ked echnical endency and
o he s wi hou ha p o ile. Likewise, i allows o he de elopmen o e y di e en ypes o
analysis, wi h pu ely quan i a i e si ua ions, o o he s wi h quali a i e si ua ions. The hie a chical
analysis p ocess is ideal in he mul ic i e ia decision-making p oblem, gi en i s ela i e simplici y in
applica ion, as demons a ed by he a ious applica ions eco ded in he li e a u e. Fo all hese easons,
AHP cons i u es a e y adequa e me hodology o ace ou p oblem, gi en he complex dimensions o
which he social phenomenon o in luence on Twi e is composed.
3.3. Da a Va iables
F om he iden i ica ion o he h ee undamen al dimensions o in luence, a pai o a iables
associa ed wi h each dimension was de e mined. Acco ding o AHP nomencla u e, he dimensions
would wo k as c i e ia and he a iables as subc i e ia. In each dimension, one o he a iables
o subc i e ia would co espond o a measu e o cen ali y o he SNA (ou deg ee, PageRank and
indeg ee) and he o he would be p o ided by he ac i i y on Twi e . In his sense, he ac i i y would
be measu ed by he numbe o wee s, and by he wee s wi h men ions o o he use s (ou deg ee);
au ho i y would be measu ed by he numbe o e wee s and PageRank, and popula i y by he numbe
o ollowe s and men ions ecei ed om o he use s (indeg ee) (Lami án-Paloma es e al. 2019).
In SNA, each node has a deg ee o cen ali y, cha ac e ised by i s ela i e posi ion wi hin he
ne wo k acco ding o he use s connec ed o i . The in e ac ions o each use (node) a e di e en ia ed
be ween indeg ee (in e ac ion ini ia ed by he node) and ou deg ee ( he in e ac ion is di ec ed a he
node) (Newman 2010). In addi ion, we use PageRank, a measu e ha assumes ha a use is impo an
when men ioned by o he impo an use s. PageRank was de eloped by Google o p o ide he o ganic
posi ioning o web pages in sea ch esul s. PageRank assesses he likelihood ha a use who andomly
clicks on links will each a pa icula page (Page and B in 1998). Table 2shows he de ail o he
a iables wi h hei explana ion.
Table 2. Va iables ha make up each dimension o in luence on Twi e .
Dimension Va iables (O igin) Desc ip ion
Ac i i y Numbe o wee s (Twi e ) Twee s published by a use du ing he da a
cap u e pe iod
Ac i i y Ou deg ee (SNA) Twee s published by a use du ing he da a
cap u e pe iod
Au ho i y Numbe o e wee s (Twi e )
Twee s published by a use du ing he pe iod and
e wee ed by o he use s
Au ho i y PageRank (SNA)
Value ha measu es he impo ance o he use
acco ding o he Google algo i hm applied o he
in e ac ions ecei ed du ing he cap u e pe iod
( e wee s and men ions)
Popula i y Numbe o ollowe s (Twi e ) Use s ollowing an accoun
Popula i y Indeg ee (SNA) Numbe o men ions o a use ecei ed du ing
he cap u e pe iod
3.4. Resea ch P ocess
Figu e 1shows he phases o he cu en esea ch. A e each e en was held, he wee s we e
downloaded. Th ough he Audiense pla o m, he wee s ha included each hash ag we e cap u ed.
Soc. Sci. 2020,9, 169 9 o 23
I is impo an o no e ha he hash ags analysed (TWC2016 and Apeldoo n2018) we e no used
simul aneously o any o he opic apa om he e en s udied. In ac , he hash ag #Apeldoo n2018
e e s solely and exclusi ely o he e en ha we analysed, and he hash ag #TWC2016 was subsequen ly
used a he end o ha yea o wo e en s ha had no hing o do wi h ou s, and a no coinciding poin
in ime, so i was no possible o include any o hese in ou co pus. Audiense is a pla o m ha allows
access o he Twi e API (Applica ion P og amming In e ace). We asked o all he wee s whe e he
hash ag o each e en was included.
Soc. Sci. 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o 24
Figu e 1. De ail o he s eps ca ied ou o he esea ch in he wo e en s.
Nex , he a iables associa ed wi h in luence we e e alua ed, acco ding o hei h ee
dimensions. Using Gephi so wa e (Bas ian e al. 2009), g aphs o he in e ac ion be ween use s
(including men ions and e wee s) we e cons uc ed and a iables om he SNA we e calcula ed.
Subsequen ly, he expe s we e consul ed o es ablish he weigh o he a ious c i e ia (ac i i y,
au ho i y and popula i y) and subc i e ia (Lami án-Paloma es e al. 2019), using AHP me hodology.
The ques ionnai es we e ans e ed o i een he e ogeneous expe s om bo h he p o essional
and academic sphe es, who, in addi ion o wo king on aspec s ela ed o digi al communica ion, had
o be ac i e use s on Twi e and, he e o e, be accus omed o he use o his social ne wo k. In o de
o p o ide an objec i e iew o he di e en a iables ha make up in luence, hese expe s wo ked
o had wo ked in agencies whe e hey managed di e en social media accoun s, and so could
p o ide a ision beyond he subjec i i y o simple social media use s. As a common ac o among
hese expe s was ha hey we e all loca ed in he same coun y, and o ein o ce and a oid possible
e o s due o bias and subjec i i y, once he ques ionnai es had been comple ed, hey we e subjec ed
o an analysis o he deg ee o inconsis ency, acco ding o he AHP me hodology pe se.
Ques ionnai es we e conduc ed wi h he expe s in o de o assign a balanced weigh o each
a iable, so ha he deg ee o in luence o he use s could be quan i ied. The ques ionnai es we e
comple ed ollowing he AHP me hodology, ha is, wi h pai wise compa isons o he di e en
c i e ia and subc i e ia. O he i een ques ionnai es comple ed by he expe s, h ee we e
elimina ed, as hey p esen ed a consis ency a io g ea e han 10%, he e e ence alue acco ding o
AHP me hodology. Wi h he esul s o all he expe s, he geome ic mean was calcula ed, as
ecommended by Saa y (2008), o ob ain a single judgemen ep esen a i e o he en i e g oup. Then,
he inal weigh o each subc i e ion was calcula ed om he geome ic means.
Nex , he 25 highes a ed use accoun s om each o he six subc i e ia assessed in he esea ch
we e iden i ied and o de ed. Gi en ha some o hese accoun s appea ed in mo e han one
subc i e ion, i was no malised by he sum o he alue o each o hem and he weigh s ob ained
we e applied, iden i ying he 25 mos in luen ial use accoun s. Finally, he use s we e ca ego ised
in o se en g oups acco ding o hei p o ile. One o he au ho s made an ini ial classi ica ion and
Figu e 1. De ail o he s eps ca ied ou o he esea ch in he wo e en s.
Nex , he a iables associa ed wi h in luence we e e alua ed, acco ding o hei h ee dimensions.
Using Gephi so wa e (Bas ian e al. 2009), g aphs o he in e ac ion be ween use s (including men ions
and e wee s) we e cons uc ed and a iables om he SNA we e calcula ed. Subsequen ly, he expe s
we e consul ed o es ablish he weigh o he a ious c i e ia (ac i i y, au ho i y and popula i y) and
subc i e ia (Lami án-Paloma es e al. 2019), using AHP me hodology.
The ques ionnai es we e ans e ed o i een he e ogeneous expe s om bo h he p o essional
and academic sphe es, who, in addi ion o wo king on aspec s ela ed o digi al communica ion, had o
be ac i e use s on Twi e and, he e o e, be accus omed o he use o his social ne wo k. In o de o
p o ide an objec i e iew o he di e en a iables ha make up in luence, hese expe s wo ked o
had wo ked in agencies whe e hey managed di e en social media accoun s, and so could p o ide a
ision beyond he subjec i i y o simple social media use s. As a common ac o among hese expe s
was ha hey we e all loca ed in he same coun y, and o ein o ce and a oid possible e o s due o
bias and subjec i i y, once he ques ionnai es had been comple ed, hey we e subjec ed o an analysis
o he deg ee o inconsis ency, acco ding o he AHP me hodology pe se.
Ques ionnai es we e conduc ed wi h he expe s in o de o assign a balanced weigh o each
a iable, so ha he deg ee o in luence o he use s could be quan i ied. The ques ionnai es we e
comple ed ollowing he AHP me hodology, ha is, wi h pai wise compa isons o he di e en c i e ia
and subc i e ia. O he i een ques ionnai es comple ed by he expe s, h ee we e elimina ed, as hey
p esen ed a consis ency a io g ea e han 10%, he e e ence alue acco ding o AHP me hodology.
Soc. Sci. 2020,9, 169 16 o 23
Table 9. Dis ibu ion o in luen ial use s by coun y and ca ego y. 2018 E en .
In luen ial Use s Ca ego y
Coun y Medals In luen ial
Use s 123456 7
Ge many 6 1 1
Aus alia 6 0
Colombia 1 6 1 1 1 1 3
Spain 1 3 2 1
F ance 2 1 1
B i ain 6 3 1 2
I aly 6 5 1 1 3
Japan 1 2 2
The Ne he lands 12 1 1
USA 4 2 1 1
O he s 15 1 1
The use ca ego ies a e as ollows: 1—A hle es; 2—Media; 3—Fans; 4—Specialis media; 5—Jou nalis s, blogge s;
6—O ganisa ions and/o ins i u ions ela ed o he e en o cycling; 7—O he di e en p o iles.
5. Discussion
The aim o ou esea ch was o iden i y in luen ial Twi e use s du ing an e en , he T ack Cycling
Wo ld Cup. Two edi ions o he championship we e conside ed: London 2016 and Apeldoo n 2018.
The in luence was e alua ed acco ding o he c i e ia o ac i i y, au ho i y and popula i y. Thanks o he
hie a chical analysis me hodology, we we e able o assign weigh s o di e en a iables ha measu ed
each dimension o in luence. This way, we iden i ied he mos in luen ial Twi e accoun s o each
e en and he ypology o hese accoun s/use s acco ding o he se en majo g oups es ablished.
Wi h he esul s ob ained, and in esponse o RQ1, i was e i ied ha he au ho i y c i e ion was
a ed wi h 62% weigh ing acco ding o in luence, ollowed by popula i y wi h 29.6% and inally ac i i y
wi h 8.4%, as he o de and deg ee o he c i e ia o be conside ed wi hin in luence. This highligh s he
impo ance o he con en s o a wee , as when he con en is ele an i will ha e a high numbe o
e wee s, a subc i e ion belonging o au ho i y, which ep esen s 37.28% o he o al in luence.
Usually, he mos impo an a iables used in o he spo s- ela ed esea ch o assess in luence
ha e been he numbe o ollowe s (Hamb ick 2016;Hamb ick and Sande son 2013;Hamb ick and
Pego a o 2014), he numbe o wee s (Hamb ick and Pego a o 2014) and he di e en measu es o
cen ali y (Wäsche e al. 2017;Na aine and Pa en 2016;Na aine e al. 2016). The ou come o his
esea ch may indica e ha he numbe o ollowe s may no be he only sui able c i e ion o gauge he
in luence o he use on Twi e , and ha o he s should be conside ed when choosing in luence s a a
spo ing e en .
In ac , he numbe o e wee s ecei ed has a weigh o mo e han 37% wi hin he o al o in luence
acco ding o he expe s consul ed, wi h he emaining 25% being he PageRank a iable. Con inuing
wi h he o de ing o he subc i e ia, he men ions ecei ed (20%) would be he nex a iable o conside ,
along wi h he numbe o ollowe s (9%), he ou deg ee (5%) and he numbe o wee s (3%).
Focusing he discussion on RQ2, i s ly, he p esence o ca ego y six use accoun s, which a e
cycling- ela ed ins i u ions, such as na ional ede a ions o he e en o ganisa ion, should be highligh ed.
Be ween he wo edi ions o he e en he e we e 21 accoun s in his ca ego y. They a e “specialised”
accoun s ha p esen weigh s in all he subc i e ia, so ha he “cons uc ion” o in luence is ca ied
ou om all possible aspec s. Secondly, he accoun s o he a hle es aking pa (ca ego y one) s and
ou , o which he e we e 14.
The e o e, wi h he quan i a i e esul s and he quali a i e ca ego isa ion de ined, he second
esea ch ques ion would be answe ed. The highes anked accoun s a e hose belonging o cyclis s
and ins i u ions ela ed o he e en , in addi ion o he accoun s o he di e en na ional eams.
This esul could be unde s ood as logical, gi en ha hese use s a e he main “ac o s” o he
Soc. Sci. 2020,9, 169 17 o 23
spo ing e en . This logical assump ion ha a hle es a e he mos impo an ac o s in a spo ing
e en can also be ex apola ed o he case o social ne wo ks and he possibili ies o e ed bo h o
ollowe s
(S a os e al. 2014)
and o clubs and associa ions
(Sande son 2014)
o he o ganise s o a
spo ing e en
(Sjöblom e al. 2018)
. In hese h ee s udies, he mo i a ions o club ans o a endees o
a spo ing e en o in e ac ing wi h clubs and a e en s a e al eady e i ied. The e o e, i a hle es a e
an impo an use s o ne wo ks ha gene a e mo e in e es bo h in he p ac ice o spo and h ough
hei ac i i y in social media o e en in o he media, he limi a ion o he use o hei social ne wo ks,
which occu s on some occasions as indica ed below, can g ea ly limi he scope o he con e sa ions
ha a e gene a ed in hem.
Mo eo e , he g ea impo ance o e en o ganise s and ela ed accoun s ( ede a ions, eams,
e c.) in p o iding he e en wi h g ea media co e age is no able. I hese accoun s p omo e ha
pa icipa ion, he messages o he es o he ac o s in ol ed could be g ea ly ampli ied, wi h all he
implica ions ha could be de i ed. Simila ly, i could be seen how p omo ing he e en is no he
esponsibili y o he cyclis s, as hey a e aking pa in he aces, bu i he pa icipa ion o any o
hem is achie ed, he possibili ies o he “in ol ed” being conside ed as an in luence g ea ly inc ease.
This poin is hus a line o discussion ha can be ag eed be ween he o ganise s o an e en and hose
esponsible o he a hle es, incen i ising he use o pa icipa ion o a hle es in he digi al con e sa ion,
as in mino i y spo s i his can help g ea ly o ex end he scope and signi icance o media co e age,
o e en he cons uc ion o an expe ience wi h he use , which is much mo e complica ed o achie e
in spo s o e en s o he g ea es global signi icance, such as he Socce o Baske ball Wo ld Cups,
o club compe i ions in hese spo s a he highes le el.
A e his poin , we conside i in e es ing o ca y ou he analysis o he geog aphical o igin
o he accoun s ha appea in he classi ica ion, o y o analyse causes and/o possible connec ion
poin s and espond o he las o he RQs. One o he pa ame e s ha we unde s and may be ele an
is he o igin o he a hle es who we e awa ded a medal in he cou se o he e en (Ce ezuela 2003;
Rojas-To ijos 2012). Ca ying ou he geog aphical analysis o he o igin o he medal winne s and he
in luen ial use s as shown in Tables 8and 9, i is impo an o dis inguish be ween bo h edi ions and
obse e ha he g ea e o lesse in luence o hese accoun s will no always be ela ed o he numbe
o medals achie ed in he di e en ials.
In he 2016 e en , G ea B i ain appea ed o lead bo h ankings. I was he coun y wi h he
highes numbe o medals and he one wi h he mos in luen ial use s. The ac ha i was he o ganise
coun y ha yea may explain he la ge numbe o in luen ial use s in ha edi ion. This con as s wi h
he esul s o 2018, whe e he Ne he lands, despi e being he o ganise and he coun y wi h he mos
medals, only had one use among he 25 mos in luen ial. Equally no able in he same sense we e o he
coun ies such as Ge many and Aus alia, which despi e winning a la ge numbe o me als in bo h
edi ions, had ba ely one o wo use s among he mos in luen ial accoun s. In 2016, Ge many won eigh
medals and had ze o in luen ial use s and in 2018 Aus alia go six medals and had no ou s anding
use s. In he opposi e sense, Colombia appea s, wi h wo medals, one in each edi ion, and a g ea
ollowing among i s p o iles in he wo yea s, i e in 2016 and six in 2018.
These da a on geog aphic o igin could be unde s ood a p io i, by ying o link hem wi h he
impo ance ha each coun y a aches o his spo , so in Colombia cycling in all i s o ms is one o he
spo s wi h he g ea es media impac , as also occu s in England. On he opposi e side we would ha e
Ge many and Aus alia, coun ies wi h a g ea numbe o successes in his discipline, bu wi h li le
impac on hei digi al en i onmen . As we ha e e i ied, he pa icipa ing cyclis s (ca ego y one) a e
one o he g oups wi h he g ea es p esence in he lis o in luen ial accoun s de e mined. Thei ole
as p omo e s o he e en can he e o e be conside ed c ucial. Fo his eason, he analysis o he
connec ion be ween medals achie ed and p esence in he anking o in luen ial accoun s is in e es ing.
When analysing his pa ame e , we see ha all he a hle es who appea ed on he lis o in luence s
did achie e a medal, bu ne e heless he e a e many a hle es who despi e winning a medal did no
Soc. Sci. 2020,9, 169 18 o 23
appea among he in luen ial accoun s. Analysing whe he he eason is ha hey did no ake his
social ne wo k in o accoun , o did no use i , we obse e ha :
•In he 2016 edi ion, he e we e 76 a hle es who won a medal.
•F om ha o al, 53 had a Twi e accoun , so only 23 did no ha e one.
•
Eigh a hle es appea in he lis o he 25 mos in luen ial, and o hese eigh (se en men and one
woman) all won a medal.
•In he 2018 edi ion, 80 a hle es achie ed a leas one medal.
•F om ha o al, 54 had a Twi e accoun and 26 did no .
•
The e we e six a hle es among he 25 mos in luen ial accoun s, and all o hem ( i e men and a
woman) won a medal.
Among he a hle es who did ha e an accoun , i was analysed whe he hey used i du ing
he cou se o he e en , unde s anding “use” as use o send a wee . Whe eas some a hle es did
make conside able use o i , o he s sen ou only he odd wee and o he s ne e used i a any ime.
So, again i
appea s ha ac i i y is no he mos p ominen c i e ion, and in ac i u ns ou ha ,
among he mos in luen ial a hle es, he e a e some who did no send any wee s. In con as , his use
g oup did sco e e y high ankings in he o he c i e ia and subc i e ia.
In he ligh o hese da a, we could ex apola e ha , i he a hle es who ob ained he medal had
had ou s anding sco es in all he subc i e ia, hei appea ance among he mos in luen ial accoun s
could be acili a ed. I canno be concluded ha hei appea ance among he in luen ial accoun s is a
consequence o he esul ob ained, bu o he sum o all he c i e ia, jus as happens o he es o he
use s. Summa ising, and esponding o RQ3, in he 2016 edi ion he mos in luen ial use s came om
he o ganising coun y, G ea B i ain, which had 12 accoun s in his classi ica ion. Howe e , his was
no he case in he 2018 edi ion, whe e only he e en o ganise accoun appea s among he 25 mos
in luen ial, speci ically anked 25 h.
6. Conclusions
In conclusion, his cu en s udy complemen s he s udies ca ied ou indi idually o he e en s
o 2016 and 2018, and whe e ini ially he iden i ica ion o he c i e ia ha in luence an e en on
Twi e was he mos impo an esea ch ques ion. Fu he mo e, his s udy conside s wo edi ions
o an e en , which con e s an impo an added alue o o e coming he limi a ions de i ed om
he conside a ion o only one. In addi ion, ou esea ch p o ides an impo an ac by adding he
geog aphical conside a ion o use s who appea o be in luen ial in an e en and looking o he ac o s
ha may de ine hei appea ance in his classi ica ion. Ou analysis and esul s, no wi hs anding he
ac ha in luence on social ne wo ks in gene al and on Twi e in pa icula is a complex phenomenon
o measu e, may be use ul o u u e s udies o in luence on Twi e and po en ially on o he social
media pla o ms, in addi ion o se ing as a pa ame e and s anda ds o ac ion o o ganise s seeking
media co e age o an e en and i s ampli ica ion h ough social ne wo ks, especially Twi e .
Finally, ano he impo an conclusion o be added would be ha e en aking in o accoun he
complexi y o iden i ying in luen ial use s, conside ing he c i e ion o au ho i y wi h he numbe o
e wee s as he main a iable and he cha ac e is ics (ca ego ies and o igin) o he use s in luen ial
a p io i, would allow us o conside hese conclusions no only o lea n mo e abou he beha iou
o social ne wo k use s, bu also o p o ide in o ma ion o he media ha use Twi e as a ool o
dis ibu e hei con en and o he b ands ha seek a p esence a an e en and/o need o know he
possible e u n on an ac ion ca ied ou on social ne wo ks du ing a spo s e en . A his ime in which
adi ional media o ganisa ions inc easingly u n o social ne wo ks o eco e audiences los due o
he inc ease in in e ac i i y, p o ide eedback guidelines and de elop a ela ionship wi h ollowe s,
unde s anding he complex phenomenon o in luence on social ne wo ks becomes a s a egic ac o o
all s akeholde s in ol ed in he o ganisa ion o a spo s e en .
Soc. Sci. 2020,9, 169 19 o 23
7. Theo e ical and P ac ical Implica ions
This s udy p o ides o he implica ions ega ding he managemen o spo ing e en s, as his
esea ch is use ul o all hose in e es ed in iden i ying he mos in luen ial accoun s in an e en .
Thus, he accoun s o he mos men ioned and mos au ho i a i e na ional cyclis s and eams could be
pa icula ly ele an o hose companies in e es ed in sponso ing e en s. The e o e, na ional eams
and cyclis s should pay a en ion o hei Twi e accoun s as pa o hei s a egy, due o hei impac
on he con e sa ion. Simila ly, e en o ganise s mus be awa e ha p omo ing he e en canno be
he esponsibili y o cyclis s, as hey a e compe ing in aces. Ra he , his esponsibili y mus all on
hemsel es, in addi ion o “ aking ad an age” o specialis media and hose ans wi h in luen ial
accoun s acco ding o some o he dimensions analysed. The in o ma ion hey p o ide can help
o ganisa ions be e unde s and he cus ome expe ience and a ge he mos in luen ial o building
ela ionships and s imula ing in e ac ion.
Likewise, and placing his s udy as a p elude o o he subsequen esea ch, once he c i e ia ha
measu e in luence ha e been iden i ied and he mos in luen ial use s a e iden i ied, he nex s ep
could be o analyse he possible impac s ega ding e u n bo h in media co e age o an e en and
when e alua ing possible sponso ships, ei he o an e en i sel o o a pa icula a hle e.
The analysis o he ac i i y on he Twi e social ne wo k o a hle es aking pa in an e en could
be ano he o he implica ions o his s udy. Some imes, he ac i i y o hese a hle es is limi ed by
he indica ions and “o de s” o hose esponsible o hem, ei he coaches o he e en o ganise s
hemsel es. Thus, o example, du ing he 2014 Wo ld Cup in B azil, he e we e se e al coaches
who did no allow o es ic ed he ac i i y o hei a hle es on social ne wo ks, so he possibili ies
o hem o ake pa in he con e sa ion and/o ul il hei sponso ship con ac s wi h some b ands
may be limi ed, wi h he implica ions ha his would en ail. O he In e na ional Olympic Commi ee
(IOC) ha limi s he use ha can be made o social ne wo ks by a hle es du ing hei pa icipa ion
in he Olympics, as dic a ed by Rule 40 o he IOC Olympic Cha e . O e en he p ac ical wo k by
Loayza and Ma ía(2015)
ha analysed possible ela ionship be ween he use o social ne wo ks and
spo ing pe o mance. Gi en all o he abo e, i would be in e es ing o know he easons ha caused,
o example, he a hle es o he Ne he lands eam o ha e li le ac i i y in he edi ion o he e en
analysed in his esea ch.
Gende analysis migh be ano he in e es ing implica ion. S udies such as hose by
(Lebel and Danylchuk 2016) o by (Bu ch e al. 2015)
al eady es ablished di e ences be ween he ways
in which a hle es o one sex o ano he use Twi e , and implica ions could he e o e be es ablished ha
explain he ac ha ewe women appea in he anking o in luence s, one woman only in each o
he edi ions among in luen ial a hle es, namely B i ain’s Lau a T o in 2016 and he Ame ican Chloe
Dyge in 2018 in P uszkow.
8. Limi a ions and Fu u e Resea ch
The mos impo an limi a ions o his analysis a e de i ed, i s o all, om he ac ha he s udy
was ca ied ou on a single spo and one o a mo e o less mino i y na u e. T ack cycling is conside ed
a niche spo compa ed o oad cycling, so a compa ison wi h some o he ial o a simila scope o hose
de eloped in oad cycling would be ideal: oad cycling wo ld championships, o e en one o he g ea
eam e en s, Vuel a a España, Gi o d’I alia o Tou de F ance. I would be in e es ing wi h his compa ison
o de e mine whe he he esul s ob ained ollow he same pa e n o in luence. The compa ison could
e en be d awn bo h inside and ou side he wo ld o cycling. Thus, u u e esea ch ques ions o answe
could be whe he he ne wo k wo ks simila ly o o he cycling e en s ( o example, he Gi o d’I alia
ci ed in ano he esea ch wo k) o o o he spo s.
Ano he limi a ion is ha he esul s a e speci ic o one social ne wo k: Twi e . In ou case,
he analysis has been ca ied ou on his social ne wo k, bu i could be compa ed wi h o he social
ne wo k pla o ms such as Facebook o Ins ag am, which a e also ele an (Pa k e al. 2009). In addi ion,
he g ow h in he numbe o use s o he la e , mo e han 1 billion in he wo ld (da a as o Feb ua y 2020)
Soc. Sci. 2020,9, 169 20 o 23
could ad ise an assessmen o a ne wo k whe e he hash ag is also one o he axes o communica ion,
as on Twi e .
The dynamic na u e o social media is ano he limi a ion. In hese ne wo ks, changes a e cons an ly
aking place. A he s a o he ials, he deba ing ne wo ks a e some ha may be di e en du ing he
cou se o he ials and o he s di e en a he end. Abeza e al. (2014) and Yu and Wang (2015) epo ed
di e en esul s depending on he pe iod o ime s udied. Abeza e al. (2014) compa ed he use o
Twi e o sponso ship ac i a ion by Olympic P og amme sponso s du ing he Sochi 2014 Win e
Olympics h ough he Olympic ime pe iod (i.e., be o e, du ing and a e ). In ou s udy, he analysis
ocuses on he whole image o he en i e in e ac ion. The ime dimension should also be included o
compa e he ne wo k a di e en ime pe iods (i.e., be o e, du ing and a e ). The e o e, he analysis
could ocus on how he ne wo k e ol es h oughou he du a ion o he e en .
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A.B.-P. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This esea ch ecei ed no ex e nal unding.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es .
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