ETC HE Repo 2025/5
Ai quali y maps o EEA
membe and coope a ing coun ies o 2023
Au ho s:
Jan Ho álek (CHMI), Leona Vlasáko á (CHMI), Ma ké a Sch eibe o á (CHMI),
Nina Benešo á (CHMI), Philipp Schneide (NILU), Pa el Ku ü s (CHMI),
F édé ic Togne (INERIS), Ondřej Vlček (CHMI), Lucie Školoudo á (CHMI)
PM10, PM2.5, O3, NO2, NOx and BaP spa ial es ima es and hei unce ain ies
ETC HE Repo 2025/5
Co e design: EEA
Co e pic u e: Concen a ion map o O3 indica o 93.2 pe cen ile o maximum daily 8-hou means, 3-yea mean 2021-2023. Uni s:
µg/m3. (Map 3.1 igh , his epo .)
Layou : EEA / ETC HE (CHMI)
Publica ion Da e: 21.11.2025
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17427294
Ve sion: 1
EEA ac i i y: Human heal h and he en i onmen
Legal no ice
P epa a ion o his epo has been co- unded by he Eu opean En i onmen Agency as pa o a g an wi h he Eu opean Topic
Cen e on Human Heal h and he En i onmen (ETC HE) and exp esses he iews o he au ho s. The con en s o his publica ion
does no necessa ily e lec he posi ion o opinion o he Eu opean Commission o o he ins i u ions o he Eu opean Union.
Nei he he Eu opean En i onmen Agency no he Eu opean Topic Cen e on Human Heal h and he En i onmen is liable o any
consequences s emming om he euse o he in o ma ion con ained in his publica ion.
How o ci e his epo :
Ho álek, J., Vlasáko á, L., Sch eibe o á, M., Benešo á, N., Schneide , P., Ku ü s , P., Togne , F., Vlček, O., Školoudo á, L. (2025).
Ai quali y maps o EEA membe and coope a ing coun ies o 2023. PM10, PM2.5, O3, NO2, NOx and BaP spa ial es ima es and hei
unce ain ies (Eione Repo – ETC HE 2025/5). Eu opean Topic Cen e on Human Heal h and he En i onmen .
(h ps://doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.17427294)
The epo is a ailable om h ps://www.eione .eu opa.eu/e cs/all-e c- epo s and h ps://zenodo.o g/communi ies/eea-
e c/?page=1&size=20.
ETC HE coo dina o : S i elsen NILU, Kjelle , No way (h ps://www.nilu.com/)
ETC HE conso ium pa ne s: Fede al En i onmen Agency/Umwel bundesam (UBA), Ae he Limi ed,
Czech Hyd ome eo ological Ins i u e (CHMI), Ins i u Na ional de l’En i onnemen Indus iel e des Risques (INERIS),
Swiss T opical and Public Heal h Ins i u e (Swiss TPH), Uni e si a Au ònoma de Ba celona (UAB),
Vlaamse Ins elling oo Technologisch Onde zoek (VITO), 4s e a Inno a S.L.U., kla FAKTe.U
Copy igh no ice
© Eu opean Topic Cen e on Human Heal h and he En i onmen , 2025
Rep oduc ion is au ho ized p o ided he sou ce is acknowledged. [C ea i e Commons A ibu ion 4.0 (In e na ional)]
Mo e in o ma ion on he Eu opean Union is a ailable on he In e ne (h p://eu opa.eu).
Eu opean Topic Cen e on
Human Heal h and he En i onmen (ETC HE)
h ps://www.eione .eu opa.eu/e cs/e c-he
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 3
Con en s
Con en s ........................................................................................................................................ 3
Acknowledgemen s ....................................................................................................................... 5
Da a a ailabili y ............................................................................................................................. 6
Summa y ....................................................................................................................................... 7
1 In oduc ion ......................................................................................................................... 10
2 Pa icula e ma e ................................................................................................................ 12
2.1 PM10 annual a e age .................................................................................................... 13
2.1.1 Concen a ion map ......................................................................................... 13
2.1.2 Popula ion exposu e ....................................................................................... 14
2.2 PM10 – 90.4 pe cen ile o daily means ......................................................................... 18
2.2.1 Concen a ion map ......................................................................................... 18
2.2.2 Popula ion exposu e ....................................................................................... 19
2.3 PM2.5 annual a e age ................................................................................................... 23
2.3.1 Concen a ion map ......................................................................................... 23
2.3.2 Popula ion exposu e ....................................................................................... 24
3 Ozone ................................................................................................................................... 28
3.1 Ozone – 93.2 pe cen ile o maximum daily 8-hou means .......................................... 28
3.1.1 Concen a ion map ......................................................................................... 28
3.1.2 Popula ion exposu e ....................................................................................... 30
3.2 Ozone – peak season a e age o maximum daily 8-hou means ................................ 35
3.2.1 Concen a ion map ......................................................................................... 36
3.2.2 Popula ion exposu e ....................................................................................... 37
3.3 Ozone – SOMO35 and SOMO10 .................................................................................. 40
3.3.1 Concen a ion maps ........................................................................................ 40
3.3.2 Popula ion exposu e ....................................................................................... 42
3.4 Ozone – AOT40 ege a ion and AOT40 o es s ........................................................... 48
3.4.1 Concen a ion maps ........................................................................................ 48
3.4.2 Vege a ion exposu e ....................................................................................... 51
3.5 Ozone – Phy o oxic Ozone Dose (PODY) o c ops and o es ees ............................ 55
3.5.1 Phy o oxic Ozone Dose maps ......................................................................... 57
4 NO2 and NOx ........................................................................................................................ 62
4.1 NO2 – Annual mean ...................................................................................................... 62
4.1.1 Concen a ion map ......................................................................................... 63
4.1.2 Popula ion exposu e ....................................................................................... 64
4.2 NOx – Annual mean ...................................................................................................... 67
4.2.1 Concen a ion map ......................................................................................... 67
5 Benzo(a)py ene.................................................................................................................... 70
5.1 Benzo(a)py ene – Annual mean ................................................................................... 70
5.1.1 Concen a ion map ......................................................................................... 70
5.1.2 Popula ion exposu e ....................................................................................... 72
6 Accumula ed isks ................................................................................................................ 73
7 Exposu e end es ima es .................................................................................................... 74
7.1 Human heal h PM10 and PM2.5 indica o s .................................................................... 75
7.2 Human heal h and ege a ion ela ed ozone indica o s ............................................. 77
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 4
7.3 Human heal h NO2 indica o ........................................................................................ 80
7.4 Human heal h BaP indica o ........................................................................................ 81
Lis o abb e ia ions .................................................................................................................... 82
Re e ences ................................................................................................................................... 84
Annex 1 Me hodology ................................................................................................................. 90
A1.1 Mapping me hodology ................................................................................................. 90
A1.2 Calcula ion o popula ion and ege a ion exposu e .................................................... 92
A1.3 Phy o oxic Ozone Dose abo e a h eshold lux Y (PODy) calcula ion .......................... 94
A1.4 Me hods o unce ain y analysis .............................................................................. 104
Annex 2 Inpu da a .................................................................................................................... 106
A2.1 Ai quali y moni o ing da a ....................................................................................... 106
A2.2 Chemical anspo modelling ou pu s ..................................................................... 108
A2.3 O he supplemen a y da a ........................................................................................ 109
Annex 3 Technical de ails and mapping unce ain ies ............................................................. 113
A3.1 PM10 ........................................................................................................................... 113
A3.2 PM2.5 .......................................................................................................................... 117
A3.3 Ozone ........................................................................................................................ 120
A3.4 NO2 and NOx .............................................................................................................. 127
A3.5 BaP ............................................................................................................................. 129
Annex 4 Concen a ion maps including s a ions ....................................................................... 131
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 5
Acknowledgemen s
The ETC HE ask manage was Jan Ho álek (CHMI, Czechia). The EEA p ojec manage was Albe o
González O iz. The ex e nal ask ETC HE e iewe was Luca Pozzoli (NILU, No way).
The ai quali y moni o ing da a o 2023 we e ex ac ed om he AQ e- epo ing da abase by Ma ía
Colina and Jaume Ta ga (4s e a, Spain).
The EMEP modelling da a o benzo(a)py ene o 2023 as p epa ed unde he Me eo ological
Syn hesizing Cen e - Eas (MCS-E) we e p o ided by Oleg T a niko (EMEP, MCS-E, Slo enia).
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 6
Da a a ailabili y
The ai quali y maps p esen ed in his epo a e a ailable in he GeoTIFF o ma on he EEA geospa ial
da a ca alogue, see below.
PM10 maps (annual a e age and 90.4 pe cen ile o daily means), 2023:
h ps://sdi.eea.eu opa.eu/ca alogue/s /eng/ca alog.sea ch#/me ada a/177d85ca-1664-4357-ad5e-
7e7d598c5774 (accessed 19 No embe 2025).
PM2.5 map (annual a e age), 2023:
h ps://sdi.eea.eu opa.eu/ca alogue/s /eng/ca alog.sea ch#/me ada a/57807 24-25dc-4d 3-9468-
dc 8cee5468 (accessed 19 No embe 2025).
O3 maps (93.2 pe cen ile o maximum daily 8-hou means, peak season a e age o maximum daily 8-
hou means, SOMO35, SOMO10, AOT40 o ege a ion, AOT40 o o es s), 2023:
h ps://sdi.eea.eu opa.eu/ca alogue/s /eng/ca alog.sea ch#/me ada a/0 d47 22-c899-4 76-979e-
53386b67068e (accessed 19 No embe 2025).
NO2 map (annual a e age), 2023:
h ps://sdi.eea.eu opa.eu/ca alogue/s /eng/ca alog.sea ch#/me ada a/317c 5a5-9909-46b2-bc17-
0d40 3138eb (accessed 19 No embe 2025).
NOx map (annual a e age), 2023:
h ps://sdi.eea.eu opa.eu/ca alogue/s /eng/ca alog.sea ch#/me ada a/a2c980b7-5632-4 3-b 0c-
b75e627339cd (accessed 19 No embe 2025).
The en i e ime se ies o he maps o all pollu an s:
h ps://sdi.eea.eu opa.eu/ca alogue/s /eng/ca alog.sea ch#/me ada a/82700 bd-2953-467b-be0a-
78a520c3a7e (accessed 19 No embe 2025).
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 7
Summa y
Ai quali y concen a ions maps o he membe and coope a ing coun ies o he Eu opean
En i onmen al Agency (EEA)(
1
) ha e been p epa ed o he yea 2023. The maps a e p ima ily based
on ai quali y da a as epo ed unde he Ambien Ai Quali y Di ec i es (EC, 2004, 2008). The mapping
me hod ('Reg ession – In e pola ion – Me ging Mapping') ollows a me hodology de eloped ea lie
(Ho álek e al., 2024, and e e ences ci ed he ein); i combines he moni o ing da a wi h ou pu s om
a chemical anspo model and o he supplemen a y da a such as land co e and sa elli e da a.
Popula ion exposu e
Rega ding PM10 (i.e. pa icula e ma e wi h a diame e o 10 µm o less), concen a ions and
popula ion exposu e emained abo e he Eu opean Union (EU) and Wo ld Heal h O ganisa ion (WHO)
s anda ds in la ge pa s o Eu ope in 2023. App oxima ely 7% o he conside ed Eu opean popula ion
was exposed o concen a ions abo e he EU PM10 annual limi alue o 40 µg/m3 and 63% o he
popula ion was exposed o concen a ions exceeding he WHO Ai Quali y Guideline (AQG) le el o 15
µg/m3 in 2023. Fu he mo e, 16% o he popula ion was es ima ed o li e in a eas whe e he 90.4
pe cen ile o he PM10 daily means was abo e he EU limi alue o 50 µg/m3. When i comes o PM2.5,
app oxima ely 0.2% o he conside ed Eu opean popula ion (excluding Tü kiye in his case o PM2.5)
was exposed o concen a ions abo e he EU PM2.5 limi alue o 25 µg/m3 and 2.4% abo e he EU
PM2.5 indica i e limi alue o 20 µg/m3, espec i ely. Mo eo e , 96% o he popula ion was exposed
o concen a ions abo e he WHO AQG le el o 5 µg/m3. The coun ies wi h he highes alues o
annual a e ages PM2.5 a e loca ed in sou h-eas e n Eu ope. The popula ion-weigh ed concen a ion o
he PM10 indica o s annual a e age and 90.4 pe cen ile o daily means o he conside ed Eu opean
popula ion is es ima ed o be 20.4 µg/m3 and 34.5 µg/m3, espec i ely, in 2023. The popula ion-
weigh ed concen a ion o he PM2.5 annual a e age o he conside ed Eu opean popula ion (wi hou
Tü kiye) is es ima ed o be 10.4 µg/m3 in 2023.
Fo ozone, i was es ima ed ha 12% o he conside ed Eu opean popula ion li ed in a eas whe e
concen a ions exceeded he ozone a ge alue h eshold ( ha is, he a ge alue o jus one yea )
based on 2023 da a, and 10% based on he 3-yea a ge alue o 2021-2023. Coun ies wi h he
highes alues o he ozone indica o 93.2 pe cen ile o maximum daily 8-hou means a e si ua ed in
sou he n and cen al Eu ope. Addi ionally, 98% o he conside ed Eu opean popula ion li ed in a eas
whe e he ozone concen a ion was abo e he WHO AQG le el o 60 µg/m3 ( he peak season a e age
o maximum daily 8-hou means). The popula ion-weigh ed concen a ion o he O3 indica o 93.2
pe cen ile o maximum daily 8-hou means o he conside ed Eu opean popula ion is es ima ed o be
108.1 µg/m3 in 2023.
App oxima ely 3% o he conside ed Eu opean popula ion was exposed o NO2 concen a ions abo e
he EU annual limi alue o 40 µg/m3 in 2023. Excep o Tü kiye, he majo i y o popula ion li ed well
below he limi alue in 2023. Howe e , abou 67% o he conside ed Eu opean popula ion including
Tü kiye was exposed o annual a e age concen a ions abo e he WHO AQG le el o 10 µg/m3. The
popula ion-weigh ed concen a ion o he NO2 annual a e age o he conside ed Eu opean
popula ion is es ima ed o be 15.5 µg/m3 in 2023.
Based on he expe imen al map o benzo(a)py ene (BaP), i is es ima ed ha 8.5% o he conside ed
Eu opean popula ion li e in a eas whe e BaP concen a ions a e abo e he h eshold 1.0 ng/m3. The
highes BaP concen a ions a e shown in Poland, no h-eas e n Czechia, wes Balkan, eas e n Po Valley
(
1
) The EEA membe coun ies a e he 27 Membe S a es o he Eu opean Union (EU-27), plus Iceland, Lich ens ein, No way,
Swi ze land, and Tü kiye. The EEA coope a ing coun ies a e Albania, Bosnia and He zego ina, Koso o unde he UN Secu i y
Council Resolu ion 1244/99, Mon eneg o, No h Macedonia, and Se bia. In addi ion, h ee mic os a es (Ando a, a coun y
which olun a y epo s ai quali y da a, Monaco and San Ma ino) a e also p esen ed in his epo .
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 8
in no he n I aly and some popula ed loca ions in cen al and sou h-eas e n Eu ope, La ia and Finland.
The popula ion-weigh ed concen a ion o he BaP annual a e age o he conside ed Eu opean
popula ion (wi hou Tü kiye) is es ima ed o be abou 0.4 ng/m3 in 2023.
Figu e S.1 illus a es he popula ion exposu e o di e en ai pollu an s, o he whole conside ed
Eu opean popula ion (excluding Tü kiye in he cases o PM2.5 and BaP).
Figu e S.1 Pe cen age o he popula ion (%) exposed o di e en alues o PM10 (annual a e age
and 90.4 pe cen ile o daily means), PM2.5 (annual a e age), O3 (93.2 pe cen ile o
maximum daily 8-hou means, SOMO35 and peak season a e age o maximum daily 8-
hou means), NO2 (annual a e age) and BaP (annual a e age) in 2023
Accumula ed isks
Ou o he o al popula ion o 560 million in he mapped a ea (including Tü kiye), 5% (30.1 million)
people li e in a eas whe e wo o h ee o he mos equen ly exceeded ai quali y s anda ds (PM10
daily limi alue, O3 a ge alue and NO2 annual limi alue) as speci ied in EC (2008) a e exceeded;
0.1% (0.5 million) people li e in a eas whe e all hese h ee s anda ds a e exceeded. The wo s
si ua ion in 2023 was obse ed in Cyp us, G eece, Tü kiye, whe e less han 0.05%, 4% and 0.2% li ed
in a eas whe e all h ee s anda ds a e exceeded, espec i ely.
Vege a ion exposu e
Based on 2023 da a, ozone concen a ions (AOT40 o ege a ion) a e abo e he EU a ge alue
h eshold ( he TV o jus one yea ) o he p o ec ion o ege a ion (EU, 2008) in abou 12% o he
ag icul u al a eas and abo e he EU long- e m objec i e in 91% o he ag icul u al a eas. Ozone
concen a ions (AOT40 o o es s) a e abo e he c i ical le el o he p o ec ion o o es s in abou
73% o he o es ed a eas. Rela ing o 5-yea mean 2019-2023, 16% o all Eu opean ag icul u al land
including Tü kiye has been exposed o ozone concen a ions abo e he a ge alue o 18 000 µg/m3·h.
Conside ing he long- e m objec i e o 6 000 µg/m3·h, he o al Eu opean a ea (including Tü kiye) in
excess was 90%.
In 2023, POD6 alues o whea abo e he highes CL (i.e. o p o ein yield) we e obse ed ac oss a
la ge con inuous a ea o Eu ope, co e ing wes e n, cen al and sou h-wes e n egions. Fo po a oes,
POD6 alues exceeded he CL o ube yield in la ge pa s o wes e n and cen al Eu ope. In con as ,
exceedances o oma oes we e limi ed o a ew coas al a eas, consis en wi h p e ious yea s.
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 9
The CL o POD1 o beech was exceeded in almos he en i e Eu opean mapped a ea, wi h he excep ion
o la ge a eas o he Ibe ian Peninsula and Tü kiye and many smalle a eas h oughou he mapped
a ea. The CL o POD1 o sp uce was exceeded almos h oughou he en i e mapped Eu opean a ea,
wi h he excep ion o la ge a eas in no he n Eu ope and a la ge a ea in Romania.
In a limi ed numbe o cases, concen a ions o NOx a e abo e he EU c i ical le el. Howe e , since
mos o hese cases happen in u ban a eas, his is only ele an i he e is ege a ion in hose a eas.
Changes o e ime
Since 2005, maps o mos o he pollu an s ha e been p epa ed in an o e all consis en way (al hough
he mapping me hodology has been subjec o con inuous imp o emen ). This enables an analysis o
changes in exposu e o e ime. Apa om mino me hodological changes, a majo change was
in oduced o PM10 and PM2.5 since he 2017 maps, aking in o accoun ai quali y in u ban a ic
a eas. Fo some pollu an s, maps o se e al yea s a e no a ailable.
The e olu ion o he popula ion-weigh ed concen a ions (as a measu e o popula ion exposu e),
exp essed as ela i e change om 2005, is shown in Figu e S.2. Fo absolu e numbe s, see Chap e 7.
I can be seen ha he popula ion-weigh ed concen a ions o PM10, PM2.5 and NO2 show in 2023 he
lowes alues in he nine een-yea ime se ies.
Figu e S.2 Popula ion-weigh ed concen a ion o PM10, PM2.5 and NO2 (annual mean), and ozone
(SOMO35) in 2005-2023, and ag icul u al-weigh ed concen a ion o ozone indica o
AOT40 o ege a ion in 2005-2023, exp essed as ela i e change (index, 2005 = 100)
The PM popula ion-weigh ed concen a ions show a s eady dec ease o abou 0.6 µg/m3 pe yea o
PM10 annual a e age and 0.5 µg/m3 pe yea o PM2.5 annual a e age. Fo he ozone popula ion-
weigh ed concen a ion (exp essed as SOMO35) no end is obse ed o he pe iod 2005-2023, due
o he yea - o-yea a iabili y. Also, no end is obse ed o he ag icul u al-weigh ed concen a ion,
in e ms o AOT40 o ege a ion. The NO2 popula ion-weigh ed concen a ion (in e ms o annual
a e age) shows a dec ease o abou 0.7 µg/m3 pe yea o e he pe iod 2005-2023.
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 16
Figu e 2.1 Pe cen age o he popula ion (%) exposed o di e en PM10 annual a e ages (µg/m3) a
coun y le el, 2023
I is es ima ed ha 63% and 36% o popula ion o he conside ed mapped a ea has been exposed o
annual a e age concen a ions abo e he WHO Ai Quali y Guideline le els o 15 µg/m3 (WHO, 2021a)
and he new 2030 EU limi alue o 20 µg/m3 (EU, 2024), espec i ely. The same is ue o 56% and
25% o he EU-27 popula ion.
App oxima ely 7% o popula ion o he conside ed mapped a ea has been exposed o concen a ions
abo e he EU annual limi alue (ALV) o 40 µg/m3; he same is he case o 0.02% o he EU-27
popula ion.
No popula ion has been exposed o concen a ions abo e he ALV in 36 ou o 41 mapped coun ies.
A limi ed ac ion o he popula ion (up o 7%) has been exposed o concen a ions abo e he ALV in
G eece, No h Macedonia, Bosnia and He zego ina and Cyp us (in ascending o de ). 46% o he
popula ion has been exposed o concen a ions abo e he ALV in Tü kiye. Howe e , as he cu en
mapping me hodology ends o unde es ima e high alues (see Annex 3, Sec ion A3.1), he pe cen age
o popula ion exposed o concen a ions abo e he ALV will mos likely be unde es ima ed. Addi ional
popula ion exposu e abo e he ALV could he e o e be expec ed in coun ies like Albania, Bosnia and
He zego ina, Cyp us, G eece, No h Macedonia, Se bia and Tü kiye whe e a ela i ely la ge ac ion
(ca. 20-40%) o he popula ion li es in a eas wi h concen a ion le els 30-40 µg/m3.
The popula ion-weigh ed concen a ion o he annual a e age o 2023 o he conside ed Eu opean
popula ion (including Tü kiye) is es ima ed o be 20.4 µg/m3 and 16.8 µg/m3 o he EU-27 only. Values
dec eased by 1.8 and 2.4 µg/m3 compa ed o he p e ious 5-yea mean 2018-2022, espec i ely. When
assessing he absolu e change in indi idual coun ies, he s eepes dec ease was ound in Mon eneg o
(6.8 µg/m3), he highes inc ease was es ima ed in Cyp us (1 µg/m3).
Figu e 2.2 shows, o he whole mapped a ea, he popula ion equency dis ibu ion o exposu e
classes o 1 µg/m3. The highes popula ion equency can be seen o classes be ween 9 and 25 µg/m3.
One can see a qui e con inuous s ong decline o popula ion equency o classes be ween 25 and 30
µg/m3 and a mild decline o classes beyond 40 µg/m3.
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 17
Figu e 2.2 Popula ion exposu e equency dis ibu ion, PM10 annual a e age, 2023. The WHO AQG
le el (15 µg/m3) is ma ked by he g een line, he 2030 EU limi alue (20 µg/m3) is
ma ked by he yellow line, he cu en EU LV (40 µg/m3) is ma ked by he ed line
No e: Apa om he popula ion dis ibu ion shown in he g aph, i was es ima ed ha 0.14% o popula ion li ed in a eas
wi h PM10 annual a e age concen a ions be ween 75 and 230 µg/m3.
Figu e 2.3 shows o indi idual coun ies he PM10 annual a e age concen a ion o which he
popula ion in ha coun y was exposed in 2023. I can be seen ha , as al eady poin ed ou , he
coun ies wi h he highes mean exposu es o PM10 annual a e age a e loca ed in he cen al and
sou h-eas e n pa s o Eu ope.
Figu e 2.3 PM10 annual a e age concen a ions o which he popula ion pe coun y was exposed
in 2023. The WHO AQG le el (15 µg/m3) is ma ked by he g een line, he 2030 EU limi
alue (20 µg/m3) is ma ked by he yellow line, he cu en EU limi alue (40 µg/m3) is
ma ked by he ed line.
No e: Fo each coun y, he box plo shows he concen a ion o which a pe cen age o he popula ion was exposed: 50% in
he case o he black ma ke , 25% and 75% in he cases o he box’s edges, 2% and 98% in he cases o he whiske s’ edges.
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 18
2.2 PM10 – 90.4 pe cen ile o daily means
The Ambien Ai Quali y Di ec i e (EC, 2008) desc ibes he PM10 daily limi alue (DLV) as “a daily
a e age o 50 µg/m3 no o be exceeded mo e han 35 imes a calenda yea ”. This equi emen can
be e alua ed by he indica o 36 h highes daily mean, which is in p inciple equi alen o he indica o
90.4 pe cen ile o daily mean. Howe e , o measu emen da a hese wo indica o s a e equi alen
only i no da a is missing, which is in gene al no he case. As shown in de Leeuw (2012), he addi ional
unce ain y ela ed o incomple e ime se ies is subs an ially smalle when using pe cen ile alues
ins ead o he x- h highes alue. Fu he mo e, he Ai Quali y Di ec i e equi es he use o he 90.4
pe cen ile when andom measu emen s a e used o assess he equi emen s o he PM10 DLV. As in
he p e ious epo s since he maps o 2014 (Ho álek e al., 2017a), he PM10 daily means a e
exp essed as he 90.4 pe cen ile ins ead o he o me ly used 36 h highes daily mean. The analysis
does no include compa isons agains he WHO AQG le els and he e ised LV2030 o daily means, due
o he di e en pollu an agg ega ions (i.e. co esponding 99 and 95.1 pe cen ile o daily means,
espec i ely).
2.2.1 Concen a ion map
Map 2.3 p esen s he inal combined map, whe e ed and pu ple ma ked a eas indica e alues o he
90.4 pe cen ile o daily means abo e 50 µg/m3 (i.e. concen a ions abo e he DLV o 50 µg/m3 on mo e
han 35 measu emen days). The simila mapping p ocedu e as in he case o he annual a e age is
used. The mapping de ails and he unce ain y analysis a e p esen ed in Annex 3. La ge a eas wi h
concen a ions abo e he DLV a e obse ed in no he n I aly (i.e. he Po Valley) and in sou he n, sou h-
eas e n and eas e n pa s o Tü kiye. U ban and su ounding a eas wi h concen a ions abo e he DLV
a e obse ed in Balkan coun ies and Cyp us.
In gene al, he sou h-eas e n, he sou h and he cen al pa s o Eu ope appea wi h highe
concen a ions and popula ion-weigh ed concen a ions han he wes e n and he no he n pa s.
Map 2.3 Concen a ion map o PM10 indica o 90.4 pe cen ile o daily means, 2023
The ela i e mean unce ain y ( ela i e RMSE o RRMSE) o he inal combined map o he 90.4
pe cen ile o PM10 daily means is 26% o u al and 30% o u ban backg ound a eas including Tu kish
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 19
s a ions. The mean unce ain y o he map wi hou Tü kiye is 20% o bo h u al a eas and 22% o
u ban backg ound a eas (Annex 3, Sec ion A3.1). Thus, he mapping unce ain y o his is a he simila
le el as in he case o he PM10 annual a e age.
Map 2.4 p esen s he di e ence be ween 2023 and he 5-yea mean 2018-2022 o he 90.4 pe cen ile
o daily means o PM10. O ange o ed a eas show an inc ease o PM10 concen a ion in 2023, while
blue a eas show a dec ease.
Map 2.4 Di e ence in concen a ions be ween 2023 and he 5-yea mean 2018-2022 o PM10
90.4 pe cen ile
The si ua ion is simila o ha o he annual a e age alue o PM10. The highes inc eases a e obse ed
in Tü kiye, pa s o sou he n and sou h-eas e n Eu ope wi h he highes inc eases in Cyp us, G eece
and pa s o I aly (Sa dinia, Sicilia and sou h o I aly). On he o he hand, he e a e dec eases in he
mos o emaining coun ies, mainly cen al Eu ope wi h he mos no able dec ease in Poland, pa s
o some Balkan coun ies wi h he mos no able dec ease in wes e n Romania, and in Po Valley in I aly.
2.2.2 Popula ion exposu e
Table 2.2 and Figu e 2.4 gi e he popula ion equency dis ibu ion o a limi ed numbe o exposu e
classes o PM10 indica o 90.4 pe cen ile o daily means o indi idual coun ies, o i e Eu opean
egions, o EU-27, and o he o al conside ed a ea. Mo e de ailed Table 2.2 also p esen s he 2023
popula ion-weigh ed concen a ion and he di e ence in he popula ion-weigh ed concen a ions
be ween 2023 and he 5-yea mean 2018-2022 acco ding o Equa ion A1.7.
In 2023 abou 16% o he conside ed Eu opean popula ion (including Tü kiye) and 3% o he EU-27
popula ion a e es ima ed o li e in a eas wi h PM10 concen a ions abo e he EU daily LV o 50 µg/m3.
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 20
Table 2.2 Popula ion exposu e and popula ion-weigh ed concen a ions, PM10 indica o 90.4
pe cen ile o daily means, 2023
Coun y
ISO
Popula ion
(inhbs·1000)
PM10 - pe c90.4, exposed popula ion (%)
Popula ion-weigh ed concen a ion
< 20
20-30
30-40
40-50
50-75
> 75
2023
5-yea mean
Di .
Albania
AL
2 762
0.2
11.6
12.4
18.4
57.5
48.7
48.2
0.6
Ando a
AD
80
14.5
85.4
0.1
26.0
31.3
-5.4
Aus ia
AT
9 105
20.8
74.8
4.4
23.2
27.6
-4.4
Belgium
BE
11 743
2.2
88.5
9.3
27.3
32.4
-5.2
Bosnia and He zego ina
BA
3 194
0.0
12.4
20.9
16.6
36.4
13.6
51.3
64.0
-12.7
Bulga ia
BG
6 448
0.7
17.8
42.2
36.4
2.9
37.2
45.3
-8.2
C oa ia
HR
3 851
1.3
38.6
34.3
24.2
1.6
33.1
40.9
-7.8
Cyp us
CY
1 419
2.4
14.0
80.2
3.5
55.6
52.8
2.8
Czechia
CZ
10 828
8.2
80.6
11.2
25.8
34.8
-9.0
Denma k (incl. Fa oe Islands)
DK
5 987
79.4
20.6
19.3
25.0
-5.7
Es onia
EE
1 366
59.0
38.6
2.5
18.4
20.5
-2.1
Finland
FI
5 564
87.9
10.9
1.2
15.3
17.0
-1.7
F ance (me opoli an)
FR
66 017
13.6
79.8
6.5
0.0
24.4
26.9
-2.5
Ge many
DE
83 119
39.8
60.2
20.7
25.6
-5.0
G eece
GR
10 414
0.0
6.0
29.5
41.1
23.3
43.7
43.1
0.6
Hunga y
HU
9 600
0.0
39.6
59.8
0.7
31.1
39.7
-8.6
Iceland
IS
388
72.7
27.3
18.0
16.7
1.3
I eland
IE
5 271
81.4
18.6
18.0
20.6
-2.6
I aly
IT
58 997
0.8
11.7
47.0
27.8
12.7
39.6
42.1
-2.5
La ia
LV
1 883
27.8
45.0
27.2
24.6
30.2
-5.6
Liech ens ein
LI
40
66.9
33.1
20.0
21.7
-1.6
Li huania
LT
2 857
22.1
55.1
22.8
26.1
32.1
-6.0
Luxembou g
LU
661
18.0
82.0
21.4
25.4
-4.0
Mal a
MT
542
2.6
97.4
42.5
42.9
-0.4
Monaco
MC
39
80.5
19.5
27.4
30.7
-3.4
Mon eneg o
ME
617
0.6
28.0
37.4
32.3
1.7
36.0
50.7
-14.8
Ne he lands
NL
17 811
1.9
98.1
0.0
23.6
28.8
-5.1
No h Macedonia
MK
1 830
0.2
5.0
7.6
22.9
59.4
4.9
55.9
66.0
-10.1
No way
NO
5 489
66.2
30.8
2.9
0.1
17.2
18.6
-1.4
Poland
PL
36 754
0.4
34.5
53.9
11.2
32.7
45.3
-12.6
Po ugal (excl. Azo es, Madei a)
PT
10 022
9.3
58.8
30.7
1.2
27.6
29.3
-1.7
Romania
RO
19 055
4.0
41.6
41.8
12.5
0.0
31.6
38.5
-6.9
San Ma ino
SM
34
15.8
84.2
32.6
37.1
-4.5
Se bia (incl. Koso o)
RS
8 350
0.2
10.0
33.7
26.1
30.0
0.0
43.1
57.3
-14.2
Slo akia
SK
5 429
1.6
69.1
29.3
28.7
37.7
-9.0
Slo enia
SI
2 117
3.0
56.7
39.4
0.9
28.8
33.8
-5.0
Spain (excl. Cana ias)
ES
45 872
4.8
40.2
53.5
1.5
29.9
31.8
-1.8
Sweden
SE
10 522
83.3
14.4
2.2
0.1
0.0
16.6
19.2
-2.6
Swi ze land
CH
8 815
27.6
70.2
1.9
0.3
21.8
24.2
-2.3
Tü kiye
TR
85 280
0.0
0.9
4.8
7.9
60.0
26.4
68.6
69.1
-0.5
To al
560 170
14.3
40.7
21.1
7.9
12.1
4.0
34.5
38.4
-3.9
55.0
16.1
EU-27
443 198
16.6
48.8
24.5
7.5
2.6
0.0
28.1
32.9
-4.7
65.4
2.6
No he n Eu ope
34 055
71.1
23.9
5.0
0.0
0.0
18.3
21.7
-3.4
Wes e n Eu ope
86 334
13.6
82.8
3.6
24.0
27.8
-3.8
Cen al Eu ope
165 805
23.0
55.9
18.4
2.7
24.9
32.2
-7.3
Sou he n Eu ope
142 589
3.9
29.6
42.8
16.0
7.8
0.0
34.7
36.4
-1.7
Sou h-Eas e n Eu ope
131 386
0.7
10.4
16.1
12.7
43.1
17.0
57.2
60.2
-3.0
Koso o
XK
1 709
0.1
5.3
56.2
34.6
3.7
0.0
39.0
54.8
-15.8
Se bia (excl. Koso o)
RS
6 641
0.2
11.2
27.9
23.9
36.7
44.2
57.9
-13.7
No e: The pe cen age alue "0.0" indica es ha an exposed popula ion exis s, bu i is small and es ima ed o be less han 0.05%. Emp y cells mean no popula ion
in exposu e. 5-yea mean, i.e. 5-yea mean 2018-2022. Di ., i.e. di e ence concen a ions be ween 2023 and 5-yea mean 2018-2022.
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 21
No popula ion has been exposed o concen a ions abo e he DLV in 27 ou o 41 mapped coun ies.
A limi ed ac ion o he popula ion (up o 4%) was exposed o concen a ions abo e he DLV in
Sweden, Romania, C oa ia, Mon eneg o, Bulga ia and Koso o (in ascending o de ). Mo e han 10% bu
less han 50% o he popula ion has been exposed o concen a ions abo e he DLV in I aly, G eece
and Se bia. Mo e han hal o he popula ion has been es ima ed o be exposed o concen a ions
abo e he DLV in Bosnia and He zego ina (50%), Albania (58%), No h Macedonia (64%), Cyp us (83%)
and Tü kiye (86%).
Figu e 2.4 Pe cen age o he popula ion (%) exposed o di e en alues o PM10 indica o 90.4
pe cen ile o daily means, 2023
The Eu opean-wide popula ion-weigh ed concen a ion o he 90.4 pe cen ile o PM10 daily means is
es ima ed o 2023 a 34.5 µg/m3 o he o al mapped a ea and 28.1 µg/m3 o he EU-27. The
popula ion-weigh ed concen a ion o his PM10 indica o dec eased by 3.9 µg/m3 o he conside ed
Eu opean popula ion and by 4.7 µg/m3 o EU-27 compa ed o he p e ious 5-yea mean 2018-2022.
When assessing he absolu e change in indi idual coun ies, he s eepes dec ease was ound in
Koso o (15.8 µg/m3), he highes inc ease was es ima ed in Cyp us (2.8 µg/m3).
Figu e 2.5 shows, o he whole mapped a ea, he popula ion equency dis ibu ion o exposu e
classes o 2 µg/m3. One can see he highes popula ion equency o classes be ween 18 and 50 µg/m3,
hen a con inuous mild decline o popula ion equency o classes abo e 50 µg/m3.
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 22
Figu e 2.5 Popula ion exposu e equency dis ibu ion, PM10 indica o 90.4 pe cen ile o daily
means, 2023. The EU daily limi alue (50 µg/m3) is ma ked by he ed line.
No e: Apa om he popula ion dis ibu ion shown in he g aph, i was es ima ed ha 0.13% o popula ion li ed in a eas
wi h alues o PM10 indica o 90.4 pe cen ile o daily means be ween 135 and 690 µg/m3.
Figu e 2.6 shows o indi idual coun ies he P90.4 o he PM10 daily concen a ions o which he
popula ion was exposed in 2023. I can be seen ha he coun ies wi h he highes alues o PM10
indica o 90.4 pe cen ile o daily means a e loca ed mainly in sou h-eas e n pa s o Eu ope.
Figu e 2.6 PM10 exp essed as indica o 90.4 pe cen ile o daily means o which he popula ion was
exposed in 2023, pe coun y. The EU daily limi alue (50 µg/m3) is ma ked by ed line
No e: Fo each coun y, he box plo shows he concen a ion o which a pe cen age o he popula ion was exposed: 50% in
he case o he black ma ke , 25% and 75% in he cases o he box’s edges, 2% and 98% in he cases o he whiske s’ edges.
As in p e ious yea s, he daily LV was mo e widely exceeded han he annual LV in 2023.
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 23
2.3 PM2.5 annual a e age
2.3.1 Concen a ion map
Map 2.5 p esen s he inal combined map o he 2023 PM2.5 annual a e age. Ligh g een a eas show
concen a ions abo e WHO AQG o 5 µg/m3, while yellow a eas show concen a ions abo e he LV2030
o 10 µg/m3. Red a eas show concen a ions abo e he indica i e LV o 20 µg/m3 de ined as S age 2
(ILV). The da k ed a eas show concen a ions abo e he annual limi alue (ALV) o 25 µg/m3.
Due o he lack o enough u al PM2.5 s a ions in Tü kiye, no p ope in e pola ion esul s could be
es ima ed o his coun y in a u al map. The e o e, he es ima ed PM2.5 alues o Tü kiye a e no
p esen ed in he inal map.
Acco ding o Map 2.5, he a eas wi h he highes PM2.5 concen a ions appea o be he Po Valley in
no he n I aly, in he K akow – Ka owice (Poland) – Os a a (Czechia) indus ial egion and a eas o
Bosnia and He zego ina, Se bia, No h Macedonia, Albania, Romania, Bulga ia and G eece.
Concen a ions abo e he ALV appea in u ban a eas in Bosnia and He zego ina and in No h
Macedonia. Se e al o he ci ies and a eas in sou h-eas e n and cen al Eu ope also show ele a ed
PM2.5 annual a e age concen a ions. Like in he case o PM10, he cen al and he sou h and sou h-
eas e n pa s o Eu ope show highe concen a ions han he wes e n and he no he n pa s.
Simila ly o he PM10, he inal map in 1 km esolu ion is ep esen a i e o he u al and he u ban
backg ound a eas, bu no o he u ban a ic a eas (which a e smoo hed in he 1 km esolu ion).
In o de o p o ide mo e comple e in o ma ion o he ai quali y ac oss Eu ope, he inal combined
map including he measu emen da a a s a ions is p esen ed in Map A4.3 o Annex 4.
Map 2.5 Concen a ion map o PM2.5 annual a e age, 2023
The ela i e mean unce ain y o he 2023 map o PM2.5 annual a e age is 27% o u al and 26% o
u ban backg ound a eas and i is de e mined exclusi ely on he ac ual PM2.5 measu emen da a poin s,
i.e. no on he pseudo s a ions (Annex 3, Sec ion A3.2). Simila ly as in he case o PM10, his unce ain y
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 24
is sa is ac o y, compa ed o he da a quali y objec i e o models o PM2.5 annual a e age (i.e. 50%) as
se in he Ai Quali y Di ec i e (EC, 2008).
Map 2.6 p esen s he di e ence be ween 2023 and he 5-yea mean 2018-2022 o annual a e age o
PM2.5. O ange o ed a eas show an inc ease o PM2.5 concen a ion in 2023, while blue a eas show a
dec ease.
A he annual a e age PM2.5 di e ence map he highes inc eases a e in pa s o sou he n Eu ope wi h
he highes inc eases in G eece, Bulga ia and pa s o Bosnia and He zego ina, as well as in he no h
o I aly and pa s o no he n Eu ope (No way and Sweden). Mode a e inc eases a e also obse ed in
sou he n I aly and pa s o sou he n Spain. On he o he hand, he e a e dec eases in mos o he
emaining coun ies, mainly in cen al Eu ope (especially in Poland, Hunga y, Slo akia), ex ending in o
Czechia, Ge many, he Benelux coun ies and Aus ia, and in pa s o some coun ies in sou h-eas e n
and sou he n Eu ope (no he n Spain, no he n I aly, Se bia and Romania).
Map 2.6 Di e ence in concen a ions be ween 2023 and he 5-yea mean 2018-2022 o PM2.5
annual a e age
2.3.2 Popula ion exposu e
Table 2.3 and Figu e 2.7 gi e he popula ion equency dis ibu ion o a limi ed numbe o exposu e
classes o PM2.5 concen a ions calcula ed on a g id o 1 km esolu ion. Table 2.3 also p esen s he
popula ion-weigh ed concen a ion o indi idual coun ies, la ge egions, EU-27 and o he o al
mapping a ea.
Abou 96% and 42% o he conside ed Eu opean popula ion (excluding Tü kiye), has been exposed o
annual a e age concen a ions abo e he WHO Ai Quali y Guideline le el o 5 µg/m3 (WHO, 2021a)
and he new 2030 EU limi alue o 10 µg/m3 (EU, 2024), espec i ely. The same is ue o 97% and
41% o he EU-27 popula ion.
The o al conside ed and he EU-27 popula ion exposed o concen a ions abo e he EU ALV o
25 µg/m3 has been 0.2% and none, espec i ely.
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 25
Table 2.3 Popula ion exposu e and popula ion-weigh ed concen a ion, PM2.5 annual a e age
2023
Coun y
ISO
Popula ion
(inhbs·1000)
PM2.5 – annual a e age, exposed popula ion (%)
Popula ion-weigh ed concen a ion
< 5
5-10
10-15
15-20
20-25
> 25
2023
5-yea mean
Di .
Albania
AL
2 762
0.0
4.1
27.7
45.5
22.7
16.8
17.4
-0.6
Ando a
AD
80
23.9
76.1
5.8
8.7
-2.9
Aus ia
AT
9 105
1.3
78.9
19.8
9.1
10.9
-1.8
Belgium
BE
11 743
0.3
85.8
13.9
8.8
10.8
-2.0
Bosnia and He zego ina
BA
3 194
4.6
21.2
25.3
33.4
15.5
19.3
23.6
-4.3
Bulga ia
BG
6 448
0.0
3.9
54.1
41.7
0.3
14.6
17.2
-2.7
C oa ia
HR
3 851
0.0
22.2
39.5
36.6
1.7
13.2
15.4
-2.2
Cyp us
CY
1 419
2.4
48.0
47.1
2.5
14.7
14.4
0.3
Czechia
CZ
10 828
0.0
31.4
63.2
5.4
10.9
14.3
-3.3
Denma k (incl. Fa oe Islands)
DK
5 987
2.4
97.6
6.6
8.6
-2.0
Es onia
EE
1 366
42.9
57.1
5.2
5.9
-0.6
Finland
FI
5 564
80.0
20.0
4.3
5.0
-0.7
F ance (me opoli an)
FR
66 017
0.7
89.5
9.8
8.5
9.5
-1.1
Ge many
DE
83 119
0.1
98.9
1.0
7.9
10.0
-2.1
G eece
GR
10 414
2.5
33.0
52.9
11.5
16.5
16.0
0.5
Hunga y
HU
9 600
2.4
94.6
3.0
12.4
15.1
-2.7
Iceland
IS
388
100.0
4.1
4.1
-0.1
I eland
IE
5 271
20.5
79.5
6.2
7.3
-1.1
I aly
IT
58 997
0.2
15.4
49.7
26.2
8.5
14.0
14.7
-0.8
La ia
LV
1 883
1.7
82.0
16.3
8.0
10.2
-2.1
Liech ens ein
LI
40
0.6
99.4
7.8
8.3
-0.5
Li huania
LT
2 857
91.1
8.9
8.3
11.2
-2.9
Luxembou g
LU
661
0.5
99.5
7.2
8.0
-0.9
Mal a
MT
542
3.5
96.5
10.9
11.4
-0.5
Monaco
MC
39
100.0
8.7
11.1
-2.4
Mon eneg o
ME
617
0.0
9.7
60.3
30.0
13.4
17.9
-4.5
Ne he lands
NL
17 811
99.9
0.1
8.2
10.2
-1.9
No h Macedonia
MK
1 830
2.2
12.9
41.9
26.3
16.7
19.5
23.2
-3.7
No way
NO
5 489
46.8
53.2
5.0
5.5
-0.5
Poland
PL
36 754
6.8
59.5
33.3
0.4
14.0
17.9
-3.9
Po ugal (excl. Azo es, Madei a)
PT
10 022
7.2
79.8
13.0
7.7
8.3
-0.6
Romania
RO
19 055
0.0
8.2
68.5
23.2
0.0
13.2
15.3
-2.1
San Ma ino
SM
34
12.1
87.9
12.5
12.9
-0.5
Se bia (incl. Koso o)
RS
8 350
0.8
28.3
42.8
28.0
0.0
17.5
21.5
-4.1
Slo akia
SK
5 429
0.0
6.5
86.7
6.8
12.3
15.3
-2.9
Slo enia
SI
2 117
0.0
20.5
63.9
15.6
12.1
13.4
-1.4
Spain (excl. Cana ias)
ES
45 872
2.6
54.5
42.9
9.5
10.2
-0.7
Sweden
SE
10 522
60.3
39.7
4.7
5.5
-0.7
Swi ze land
CH
8 815
3.3
93.9
2.3
0.5
7.7
8.7
-1.0
To al (wi hou Tü kiye)
474 890
3.8
54.1
28.4
11.1
2.4
0.2
10.4
12.2
-1.7
57.9
2.6
EU-27
443 198
3.4
55.5
29.4
10.3
1.5
10.3
12.0
-1.7
58.9
1.5
No he n Eu ope
34 055
42.8
55.5
1.7
5.5
6.8
-1.2
Wes e n Eu ope
86 334
1.5
90.5
8.0
8.3
9.8
-1.4
Cen al Eu ope
165 805
0.3
62.4
28.6
8.6
0.1
10.0
12.7
-2.6
Sou he n Eu ope
142 589
1.5
38.8
39.6
15.5
4.5
11.7
12.3
-0.6
Sou h-Eas e n Eu ope wi hou Tü kiye
46 106
0.0
6.7
48.4
32.9
10.1
1.8
15.1
17.8
-2.7
Koso o
XK
1 709
0.7
27.3
68.6
3.3
0.1
16.4
20.1
-3.8
Se bia (excl. Koso o)
RS
6 641
0.9
28.6
36.2
34.4
17.8
21.9
-4.1
No e: The pe cen age alue "0.0" indica es ha an exposed popula ion exis s, bu i is small and es ima ed o be less han 0.05%. Emp y cells mean no popula ion
in exposu e. 5-yea mean, i.e. 5-yea mean 2018-2022. Di ., i.e. di e ence concen a ions be ween 2023 and 5-yea mean 2018-2022.
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 32
Table 3.2 Popula ion exposu e and popula ion-weigh ed concen a ions, ozone indica o
93.2 pe cen ile o maximum daily 8-hou means, 2021-2023 (3-yea mean)
Coun y
ISO
Popula ion
(inhbs·1000)
Ozone — pe c93.2, exposed popula ion (%)
Popula ion-weigh ed
concen a ion
< 90
90-100
100-110
110-120
120-140
> 140
2021-2023
Albania
AL
2 762
4.4
26.9
67.5
1.2
111.8
Ando a
AD
80
72.3
12.2
13.6
1.9
98.5
Aus ia
AT
9 105
0.0
10.5
88.4
1.1
114.4
Belgium
BE
11 743
6.2
89.2
4.6
105.3
Bosnia and He zego ina
BA
3 194
1.6
75.0
23.4
117.6
Bulga ia
BG
6 448
36.2
47.1
13.1
3.6
0.0
93.9
C oa ia
HR
3 851
10.4
75.0
14.6
114.6
Cyp us
CY
1 419
4.4
45.3
40.5
9.8
109.9
Czechia
CZ
10 828
18.9
81.0
0.0
112.9
Denma k (incl. Fa oe Islands)
DK
5 987
16.6
79.1
4.2
94.1
Es onia
EE
1 366
28.4
71.6
0.0
92.1
Finland
FI
5 564
39.1
60.9
90.6
F ance (me opoli an)
FR
66 017
0.1
5.3
65.6
21.4
7.7
108.7
Ge many
DE
83 119
3.0
46.0
50.4
0.6
110.2
G eece
GR
10 414
0.2
5.2
22.6
28.5
43.5
0.0
116.7
Hunga y
HU
9 600
21.9
56.3
21.8
114.3
Iceland
IS
388
74.8
25.0
0.2
89.0
I eland
IE
5 271
51.4
48.6
0.0
89.5
I aly
IT
58 997
0.6
2.2
26.6
26.6
26.4
17.6
121.4
La ia
LV
1 883
2.2
97.6
0.2
93.4
Liech ens ein
LI
40
99.9
0.1
116.5
Li huania
LT
2 857
94.2
5.8
98.2
Luxembou g
LU
661
87.6
12.4
107.0
Mal a
MT
542
72.1
27.2
0.7
109.2
Monaco
MC
39
100.0
121.9
Mon eneg o
ME
617
3.6
63.6
32.8
0.0
108.4
Ne he lands
NL
17 811
37.4
61.0
1.6
102.0
No h Macedonia
MK
1 830
4.0
15.9
55.0
24.8
0.3
104.2
No way
NO
5 489
26.0
73.6
0.4
0.0
91.2
Poland
PL
36 754
4.9
59.1
35.8
0.2
107.9
Po ugal (excl. Azo es, Madei a)
PT
10 022
1.8
27.0
60.2
10.6
0.4
102.6
Romania
RO
19 055
2.4
40.0
53.8
3.8
100.6
San Ma ino
SM
34
100.0
114.9
Se bia (incl. Koso o)
RS
8 350
0.1
5.9
37.7
56.1
0.2
110.5
Slo akia
SK
5 429
54.7
45.3
109.3
Slo enia
SI
2 117
3.3
81.8
14.9
116.2
Spain (excl. Cana ias)
ES
45 872
1.5
14.9
40.0
37.8
5.8
108.2
Sweden
SE
10 522
24.0
75.2
0.8
92.4
Swi ze land
CH
8 815
0.5
71.3
27.5
0.7
118.6
Tü kiye
TR
85 280
37.6
13.6
15.0
22.6
11.0
0.2
99.0
To al
560 167
8.1
13.8
37.1
31.1
8.0
2.0
107.5
21.9
10
EU-27
443 198
2.9
13.7
42.5
31.2
7.3
2.4
109.0
16.6
9.7
No he n Eu ope
34 055
23.0
75.5
1.5
0.0
92.7
Wes e n Eu ope
86 334
3.0
14.9
68.0
13.7
0.4
105.0
Cen al Eu ope
165 805
2.6
41.4
52.7
3.3
0.0
110.8
Sou he n Eu ope
142 589
0.9
8.2
34.9
28.8
19.7
7.5
114.6
Sou h-Eas e n Eu ope
131 386
26.0
17.8
22.9
25.1
8.0
0.1
101.1
Koso o
XK
1 709
5.1
76.3
17.9
0.7
106.4
Se bia (excl. Koso o)
RS
6 641
0.1
6.2
27.8
65.8
0.1
111.5
No e: The pe cen age alue "0.0" indica es ha an exposed popula ion exis s, bu i is small and es ima ed o be less han 0.05%. Emp y cells mean no popula ion
in exposu e.
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 33
No popula ion has been exposed o concen a ions abo e he TV h eshold in 15 coun ies. In Slo akia,
Bulga ia, Koso o, Mon eneg o, Liech ens ein, Mal a, No h Macedonia, Poland, Czechia, Albania,
Cyp us, Ando a, Slo enia, Tü kiye, Ge many (in ascending o de ) up o 10% o popula ion has been
exposed o concen a ions abo e he TV h eshold. In Aus ia, F ance, Spain, Hunga y, C oa ia, I aly,
his was he case o be ween 11% and 50% o he popula ion. Mo e han hal o popula ion has been
exposed o concen a ions abo e he TV h eshold in G eece, Bosnia and He zego ina, Swi ze land and
Monaco.
Figu e 3.1 Pe cen age o he popula ion (%) exposed o di e en alues o he ozone indica o 93.2
pe cen ile o maximum daily 8-hou means (µg/m3), 2023
Figu e 3.2 Pe cen age o he popula ion (%) exposed o di e en alues o he ozone indica o 93.2
pe cen ile o maximum daily 8-hou means (µg/m3), 3-yea mean (2021-2023)
Based on he 3-yea mean (2021-2023), i is es ima ed ha 10% o he conside ed Eu opean popula ion
(including Tü kiye) and 9.7% o he EU-27 popula ion li ed in a eas whe e ozone concen a ions
exceeded he heal h- ela ed a ge alue o 120 µg/m3.
No popula ion has been exposed o concen a ions abo e he TV in 2021-2023 in 15 coun ies. In
Mon eneg o, Bulga ia, Czechia, Liech ens ein, Poland, Se bia, No h Macedonia, Po ugal, Ge many,
Mal a, Koso o, Aus ia, Albania, Ando a, Spain, F ance and Cyp us up o 10% o popula ion has been
exposed o concen a ions abo e he TV. In Tü kiye, C oa ia, Slo enia, Hunga y, Bosnia and
He zego ina, Swi ze land, G eece and I aly, his was he case o be ween 11% and 50% o he
popula ion. Mo e han hal o popula ion has been exposed o concen a ions abo e he TV in Monaco.
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 34
As he cu en mapping me hodology ends o unde es ima e high alues due o in e pola ion
smoo hing (Annex 3, Sec ion A3.3), he pe cen age o popula ion exposed o alues abo e he TV
h eshold is mos likely somewha unde es ima ed; addi ional popula ion exposu e abo e he TV
h eshold in 2023 migh be expec ed in some o he coun ies: Albania, Aus ia, C oa ia, Czechia,
Ge many, Luxembou g, Liech ens ein, Mon eneg o, Slo enia and San Ma ino, and abo e he TV in
Albania, Aus ia, Bosnia, C oa ia, Czechia, Ge many, Hunga y, Liech ens ein, San Ma ino, Se bia,
Slo enia and Swi ze land (in he case o 3-yea mean). The eason is ha in hese coun ies he
es ima ed pe cen age popula ion exposed o he concen a ions be ween 110 µg/m3 and 120 µg/m3
is conside able (mo e han 50%).
The o e all popula ion-weigh ed ozone concen a ions in 2023 in e ms o he 93.2 pe cen ile o
maximum daily 8-hou means has been es ima ed o be 108.1 µg/m3 and 110.0 µg/m3 o he
conside ed Eu opean a ea and o he EU-27, espec i ely, i.e. o abou 1.9 µg/m3 and 1.1 µg/m3 lowe
han he 5-yea 2018-2022 mean concen a ion, espec i ely. When assessing he change in indi idual
coun ies, he s eepes absolu e dec ease was ound in Tü kiye (7 µg/m3), he highes inc ease was
es ima ed in Bosnia and He zego ina (9 µg/m3).
Based on he 3-yea mean (2021-2023), he o e all popula ion-weigh ed ozone concen a ions in
e ms o he 93.2 pe cen ile o maximum daily 8-hou means has been es ima ed o be 107.5 µg/m3
and 109.0 µg/m3 o he conside ed Eu opean a ea and o he EU-27.
One can see ha mo e popula ion was exposed o concen a ions abo e he 120 µg/m3 in 2023
compa ed o he 3-yea mean 2021-2023, indica ing ha 2023 was a yea wi h highe O3 le els han
he p e ious wo.
Figu e 3.3 (le ) shows, o he whole mapped a ea, he popula ion equency dis ibu ion o exposu e
classes o 2 µg/m3. The highes popula ion equency is ound o classes be ween 100 and
120 µg/m3. Fo classes abo e 120 µg/m3, a sha p decline o popula ion equency can be seen. Figu e
3.3 ( igh ), based on 3-yea mean (2021-2023), shows ha he highes equency is concen a ed in
he ange o app oxima ely 104 o 114 µg/m³. Fo classes abo e 114 µg/m3, a sha p decline in
popula ion equency is obse ed.
Figu e 3.3 Popula ion exposu e equency dis ibu ion, O3 indica o 93.2 pe cen ile o maximum
daily 8-hou means, 2023 (le ) and 3-yea mean 2021-2023 ( igh ). The EU a ge alue
h eshold (120 µg/m3) is ma ked by he ed line
The boxplo showing o indi idual coun ies he ozone concen a ions exp essed as he indica o 93.2
pe cen ile o maximum daily 8-hou means o yea 2023 and 3-yea mean (2021-2023) o which he
popula ion pe coun y was exposed is p esen ed in Figu e 3.4.
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 35
Figu e 3.4 Concen a ions o O3 indica o 93.2 pe cen ile o maximum daily 8-hou means o which
he popula ion pe coun y was exposed in 2023 ( op) and 3-yea mean 2021-2023
(bo om)
No e: Fo each coun y, he box plo shows he concen a ion o which a pe cen age o he popula ion was exposed: 50% in
he case o he black ma ke , 25% and 75% in he cases o he box’s edges, 2% and 98% in he cases o he whiske s’ edges.
3.2 Ozone – peak season a e age o maximum daily 8-hou means
In Sep embe 2021, he WHO in oduced new AQG o O3. The new long- e m Ai Quali y Guideline
(AQG) le el (
5
) o O₃ is se o 60 µg/m³ and i is ela ed o he a e age o daily maximum 8-hou mean
(
5
) Besides he sho - e m AQG o 100 µg/m3 de ined as 99 h pe cen ile o he annual dis ibu ion o daily maximum 8-hou
mean O3 concen a ion (WHO, 2021a).
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 36
O₃ concen a ion o he so-called peak season. The peak season is de ined as he six consecu i e
mon hs o he yea wi h he highes six-mon h unning-a e age ozone concen a ion (WHO, 2021a).
Fo de ails o he calcula ions o his indica o , see Annex 2 Sec ion A2.1.
The new long- e m WHO AQG le el o O₃ (i.e. 60 µg/ m³, no o be exceeded by he a e age o he
daily maximum 8-hou mean O₃ concen a ion du ing he peak season) was de e mined based on
a e age concen a ions obse ed in s udies ha examined he heal h e ec s o long- e m O3 exposu e.
By se ing his guideline, WHO aims o minimize he heal h isks associa ed wi h long- e m ozone
exposu e and non-acciden al mo ali y (WHO, 2021a). This peak season indica o is no egula ed in
any o he EU ai quali y di ec i es, and he e a e no associa ed limi o a ge alues de ined.
3.2.1 Concen a ion map
Map 3.3 p esen s he inal combined map o ozone peak season a e age o maximum daily 8-hou
means. In he map, all colou ed a ea excep he da k g een ones show alues o peak season a e age
o maximum daily 8-hou means abo e 60 µg/m3.
The map shows ha in 2023, a eas wi h peak season a e age o maximum daily 8-hou means
exceeding 60 µg/m3 co e he en i e mapped egion wi h he excep ion o a ew u ban a eas in Tü kiye
and Bulga ia. Simila o o he O3 cha ac e is ics, lowe alues (< 80 µg/m3) we e obse ed in no he n
and wes e n Eu ope (Finland, no he n Sweden and I eland), while highe alues (> 100 µg/m3) a e
obse ed in cen al Eu ope (Swi ze land, Slo enia, pa s o Aus ia), as well as in sou he n and sou h-
eas e n Eu ope (pa s o I aly, pa s o Spain and Po ugal, sou he n F ance, pa s o Balkan coun ies,
Cyp us, and la ge a eas o Tü kiye).
In o de o p o ide mo e comple e in o ma ion o he ai quali y ac oss Eu ope, he inal combined
map including he measu emen da a a s a ions is p esen ed in Map A4.5 o Annex 4.
Map 3.3 Ozone indica o peak season a e age o maximum daily 8-hou means, 2023
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 37
Since he concen a ion map o ozone peak season a e age o maximum daily 8-hou means was
p esen ed o he i s ime o 2022, i was no possible o calcula e a 5-yea mean (2018-2022) and
subsequen ly c ea e a di e ences map, as done o o he pollu an s and indica o s.
The ela i e mean unce ain y o he 2023 map o he peak season a e age o maximum daily 8-hou
means is abou 8% o u al and 10% o u ban a eas (Annex 3, Sec ion A3.2). The low unce ain y
alues a e in luenced by he cha ac e o his ozone indica o . No e ha he Ai Quali y Di ec i e (EC,
2008) se s no modelling unce ain y o ozone long- e m indica o s.
3.2.2 Popula ion exposu e
Figu e 3.5 and Table 3.3 gi e, o he peak season a e age o maximum daily 8-hou means, he
popula ion equency dis ibu ion o a limi ed numbe o exposu e classes o indi idual coun ies,
la ge egions, EU-27 and o he o al mapped a ea. Table 3.3 also p esen s he popula ion-weigh ed
concen a ion.
In 2023, i has been es ima ed ha 98% o he conside ed Eu opean popula ion (including Tü kiye) and
almos 100% o he EU-27 popula ion li ed in a eas whe e he ozone concen a ion was abo e he
peak season a e age o maximum daily 8-hou means o 60 µg/m3.
Figu e 3.5 Pe cen age o he popula ion (%) exposed o di e en alues o ozone peak season
a e age o maximum daily 8-hou means, 2023
The o e all popula ion-weigh ed ozone concen a ions in e ms o peak season a e age o maximum
daily 8-hou means has been es ima ed o be 87.7 µg/m3 in 2023 o he conside ed Eu opean a ea
(including Tü kiye) and 89.8 µg/m3 o he EU-27. When conside ing indi idual coun ies, he highes
o e all popula ion-weigh ed ozone concen a ions in e ms o peak season a e age has been
es ima ed o be 102.3 µg/m3 in Monaco and 99.9 µg/m3 in Bosnia and He zego ina, espec i ely, while
he lowes was es ima ed o be 74.4 µg/m3 in I eland.
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 38
Table 3.3 Popula ion exposu e and popula ion-weigh ed concen a ions, ozone peak season
a e age o maximum daily 8-hou means, 2023
Coun y
ISO
Popula ion
(inhbs·1000)
Ozone — peak season a e age o maximum daily 8-hou means (%)
Popula ion-weigh ed
concen a ion
< 60
60 - 80
80 - 90
90 - 100
100 - 120
> 120
2023
Albania
AL
2 762
20.5
78.6
0.9
92.1
Ando a
AD
80
73.9
14.9
11.2
87.9
Aus ia
AT
9 105
21.0
78.4
0.6
93.0
Belgium
BE
11 743
2.7
97.0
0.4
84.5
Bosnia and He zego ina
BA
3 194
1.0
52.8
45.3
0.9
99.9
Bulga ia
BG
6 448
0.7
65.0
28.7
5.7
0.0
78.8
C oa ia
HR
3 851
30.4
45.8
23.7
0.0
95.7
Cyp us
CY
1 419
47.6
37.8
12.7
1.9
81.5
Czechia
CZ
10 828
9.1
90.9
0.0
93.0
Denma k (incl. Fa oe Islands)
DK
5 987
23.3
76.7
0.0
81.6
Es onia
EE
1 366
19.0
81.0
81.8
Finland
FI
5 564
76.9
23.1
78.7
F ance (me opoli an)
FR
66 017
1.1
69.1
26.7
3.1
88.1
Ge many
DE
83 119
0.0
59.7
40.3
0.0
89.4
G eece
GR
10 414
2.8
30.0
33.3
33.9
94.3
Hunga y
HU
9 600
29.6
70.4
92.4
Iceland
IS
388
93.1
6.9
77.8
I eland
IE
5 271
97.4
2.6
74.4
I aly
IT
58 997
2.6
17.0
40.3
40.1
97.7
La ia
LV
1 883
100.0
0.0
85.2
Liech ens ein
LI
40
99.9
0.1
93.3
Li huania
LT
2 857
65.6
34.4
89.1
Luxembou g
LU
661
94.6
5.4
87.2
Mal a
MT
542
98.2
1.8
97.0
Monaco
MC
39
100.0
102.3
Mon eneg o
ME
617
4.3
94.0
1.7
93.8
Ne he lands
NL
17 811
0.6
99.4
0.0
85.1
No h Macedonia
MK
1 830
22.2
67.9
9.4
0.5
83.3
No way
NO
5 489
53.4
46.4
0.2
80.2
Poland
PL
36 754
53.1
46.9
0.0
89.3
Po ugal (excl. Azo es, Madei a)
PT
10 022
14.6
64.7
20.8
0.0
86.3
Romania
RO
19 055
20.4
70.9
8.6
0.0
84.3
San Ma ino
SM
34
100.0
97.6
Se bia (incl. Koso o)
RS
8 350
8.7
58.7
32.5
0.2
87.5
Slo akia
SK
5 429
54.2
45.8
0.0
89.4
Slo enia
SI
2 117
18.5
76.9
4.6
93.8
Spain (excl. Cana ias)
ES
45 872
10.8
15.5
46.0
27.6
93.8
Sweden
SE
10 522
51.1
48.9
0.0
80.0
Swi ze land
CH
8 815
3.4
93.4
3.1
95.0
Tü kiye
TR
85 280
11.6
48.2
21.3
16.8
2.0
0.0
75.6
To al
555 254
1.7
14.0
43.1
32.7
8.5
0.0
87.7
15.7
8.5
EU-27
443 198
0.0
7.7
48.0
34.5
9.8
0.0
89.8
7.7
9.8
No he n Eu ope
34 055
42.8
54.2
3.0
81.2
Wes e n Eu ope
86 334
6.8
80.3
12.8
0.0
85.4
Cen al Eu ope
165 805
0.0
47.5
52.2
0.3
90.3
Sou he n Eu ope
142 589
6.1
23.6
40.6
29.7
94.8
Sou h-Eas e n Eu ope
131 386
7.3
37.8
32.1
19.5
3.3
0.0
79.7
Koso o
XK
1 709
6.1
73.2
19.8
0.9
86.2
Se bia (excl. Koso o)
RS
6 641
9.3
55.0
35.7
0.0
87.8
No e: The pe cen age alue "0.0" indica es ha an exposed popula ion exis s, bu i is small and es ima ed o be less han 0.05%. Emp y cells mean no popula ion
in exposu e.
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 39
Figu e 3.6 shows, o he whole mapped a ea, he popula ion equency dis ibu ion o exposu e
classes o 1 µg/m3. The highes popula ion equency is ound o classes be ween 84 and
96 µg/m3. Fo classes abo e 96 µg/m3, a sha p decline o popula ion equency can be seen.
Figu e 3.6 Popula ion exposu e equency dis ibu ion, ozone peak season a e age o maximum
daily 8-hou means, 2023. The WHO AQG le el (60 µg/m3) is ma ked by he g een line
The boxplo in Figu e 3.7 shows o indi idual coun ies he ozone concen a ions exp essed as peak
season a e age o maximum daily 8-hou means o which he popula ion pe coun y was exposed in
2023. I can be seen ha he coun ies wi h he highes ozone concen a ions a e loca ed in he
sou he n, sou h-eas e n and cen al pa s o Eu ope.
Figu e 3.7 Popula ion equency dis ibu ion, O3 peak season a e age o maximum daily 8-hou
means, 2023. The WHO AQG le el (60 µg/m3) is ma ked by he g een line.
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 40
3.3 Ozone – SOMO35 and SOMO10
SOMO35 is he annually accumula ed ozone maximum daily 8-hou ly means in excess o 35 ppb (i.e.
70 µg/m3). I is no egula ed in he EU ai quali y di ec i es and he e a e no associa ed limi o a ge
alues de ined. Ne e heless, i is conside ed by he WHO as a good indica o o human exposu e o
ozone (WHO, 2013). Compa ing he 93.2 pe cen ile o maximum daily 8-hou means e sus he
SOMO35 o all backg ound s a ions shows no simple ela ionship be ween he wo indica o s.
Howe e , i seems ha he TV h eshold o he 93.2 pe cen ile o maximum daily 8-hou means (120
µg/m3) is ela ed app oxima ely wi h a SOMO35 alue in he ange o 6 000-8 000 µg/m3·d. This
compa ison mo i a es a somewha a bi a ily chosen h eshold o 6 000 µg/m3·d, in o de o acili a e
he discussion o he es ima ed SOMO35 le els in hei spa ial and empo al con ex . This h eshold is
used in his and p e ious pape s (Ho álek e al., 2023, and he e e ences ci ed he ein) when dealing
wi h he popula ion exposu e es ima es.
SOMO10 is he annually accumula ed ozone maximum daily 8-hou ly means in excess o 10 ppb (i.e.
20 µg/m3). This indica o was in oduced due o i s link o he heal h impac assessmen , since he
WHO ecommended using he SOMO10 as an al e na i e o he SOMO35 when es ima ing he heal h
impac o ozone (WHO, 2013).
3.3.1 Concen a ion maps
Maps 3.4 and 3.5 p esen he inal combined map o SOMO35 and SOMO10 in 2023. In he inal
combined map o SOMO35, he o ange a eas show alues abo e 6 000 µg/m3·d, while he ed and da k
ed a eas show alues abo e 8 000 µg/m3·d. In he case o SOMO10, he bounda ies o concen a ion
classes ha e been chosen qui e a bi a y, in o de o e lec he concen a ion dis ibu ion o his
indica o . In he inal combined map o SOMO10, he ed and da k ed a eas show alues abo e
24 000 µg/m3·d.
Map 3.4 Concen a ion map o ozone indica o SOMO35, 2023
Like in he case o he 93.2 pe cen ile o he maximum daily 8-hou means, gene ally he sou he n and
sou h-eas e n pa s o Eu ope show highe ozone SOMO35 and SOMO10 concen a ions han he
no he n pa s. Highe le els o ozone also occu mo e equen ly in moun ainous a eas sou h o 50
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 41
deg ees la i ude han in lowlands. In 2023, SOMO35 le els abo e 6 000 µg/m3·d we e es ima ed in
la ge a eas o Tü kiye, I aly, Spain, Aus ia, in pa s o many Balkan coun ies and in sou he n F ance.
SOMO10 le els abo e 24 000 µg/m3·d we e mainly ound in he same a eas.
The ela i e mean unce ain y o he 2023 maps o he SOMO35 and SOMO10 is abou 33% and 12%,
espec i ely, o u al a eas and 39% and 14%, espec i ely, o u ban a eas (see Annex 3).
Map 3.5 Concen a ion map o ozone indica o SOMO10, 2023
Map 3.6 p esen s he di e ence be ween 2023 and he 5-yea mean 2018-2022 o he O3 indica o s
SOMO35 and SOMO10. O ange o ed a eas show an inc ease o hose O3 indica o s in 2023, while
blue a eas show a dec ease. Qui e simila pa e ns as in Map 3.2 can be seen.
The la ges inc eases in SOMO35 and SOMO10 le els we e eco ded in some a eas o se e al Balkan
coun ies, in Poland and in he Bal ic s a es. Inc eases we e also obse ed in smalle a eas o I aly,
Spain, and Po ugal; in he case o SOMO10, also in Ge many, Aus ia, and he Benelux coun ies. A eas
wi h he highes dec eases we e ound in Tü kiye and some Balkan s a es, plus, pa s o I aly, F ance,
Ge many, Aus ia, Slo akia and Hunga y in he case o SOMO35.
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 48
3.4 Ozone – AOT40 ege a ion and AOT40 o es s
In he Ambien Ai Quali y Di ec i e (EC, 2008) a a ge alue (TV) and a long- e m objec i e (LTO) o
he p o ec ion o ege a ion om high ozone concen a ions accumula ed du ing he g owing season
ha e been de ined. TV and LTO a e speci ied using “accumula ed ozone exposu e o e a h eshold o
40 pa s pe billion” (AOT40). This is calcula ed as a sum o he di e ence be ween hou ly
concen a ions g ea e han 40 ppb (i.e. 80 µg/m3) and 40 ppb, using only obse a ions be ween 08:00
and 20:00 Cen al Eu opean Time (CET) each day, calcula ed o e h ee mon hs om 1 May o 31 July.
The TV is 18 000 µg/m3·h (a e aged o e i e yea s) and he LTO is 6 000 µg /m3·h.
No e ha he e m “ ege a ion” as used in he Ambien Ai Quali y Di ec i e (EC, 2008) is no u he
de ined. Ne e heless, he TV used in he di ec i e is qui e simila as he c i ical le el used in
he Mapping Manual (CLRTAP, 2024) o “ag icul u al c ops” (al hough he de ini ions o AOT40 by he
EU and he CLRTAP a e sligh ly di e en ), so he e m ege a ion in he Ai Quali y Di ec i e has been
in e p e ed as p ima ily ag icul u al c ops. The e o e, he exposu e o ag icul u al c ops has been
e alua ed he e based on he AOT40 o ege a ion as de ined in he Ai Quali y Di ec i e and he
ag icul u al a eas, de ined as he CORINE Land Co e le el-1 class 2 Ag icul u al a eas (encompassing
he le el-2 classes 2.1 A able land, 2.2 Pe manen c ops, 2.3 Pas u es and 2.4 He e ogeneous
ag icul u al a eas), see Annex 2 Sec ion A2.3. No e ha in addi ion o hese ag icul u al a eas he e
a e se e al o he CLC classes ha could be conside ed “ ege a ion”, namely le el-2 classes 1.4
A i icial, non-ag icul u al ege a ed a eas (encompassing he le el-3 classes 1.4.1 G een u ban a eas
and 1.4.2 Spo and leisu e acili ies), 3.1 Fo es s (see below) and 3.2 Sc ub and/o he baceous
ege a ion associa ions. These o he CLC classes ha e no been conside ed (apa om o es s, see
below).
Nex o he AOT40 o ege a ion p o ec ion, he Ambien Ai Quali y Di ec i e (EC, 2008) de ines also
he AOT40 o o es p o ec ion, which is calcula ed simila ly as he AOT40 o ege a ion, bu is
summed o e six mon hs om 1 Ap il o 30 Sep embe . Fo AOT40 o o es s he e is no TV de ined
in he Ai Quali y Di ec i e. Howe e , he e is a c i ical le el (CL) es ablished by he CLRTAP, see CLRTAP
(2024). This c i ical le el is se a 10 000 µg/m3·h. Al hough CLRTAP (2024) calcula es he AOT40
indica o s somewha di e en ly (e.g. i uses he ozone concen a ion co ec ed a canopy heigh ), his
CL le el is u he used o he AOT40 o o es s calcula ed acco ding o he EC (2008).
Fo he exposu e o o es s e alua ion, he CLC le el-2 class 3.1 Fo es s has been used.
The ecosys em based accumula i e ozone indica o s desc ibed in his sec ion a e speci ically p epa ed
o calcula ion o he EEA indica o on ecosys em exposu e o ozone (EEA, 2025b). Fo he es ima ion
o he ege a ion and o es ed a ea exposu e o accumula ed ozone, he maps in his sec ion a e
c ea ed on a g id o 2 km esolu ion. The exposu e equency dis ibu ion ou comes a e based on he
o e lay wi h he 100 m g id esolu ion o he CLC2018 land co e classes.
3.4.1 Concen a ion maps
The in e pola ed maps o AOT40 o ege a ion and AOT40 o o es s a e applicable o u al a eas
only. Map 3.7 p esen s he inal map o AOT40 o ege a ion in 2023. No e ha in he Ambien Ai
Quali y Di ec i e (EC, 2008) he TV is ac ually de ined as 18 000 µg/m3·h a e aged o e 5 yea s. He e
bo h 2023 da a and 5-yea mean (2019-2023) a e p esen ed (5-yea mean o AOT40 o ege a ion is
p esen ed o he i s ime in his epo ). Da a o he cu en calenda yea (i.e. 2023) a e e alua ed
agains wha i is called he a ge alue h eshold, an AOT40 o 18 000 µg/m3·h o jus one yea .
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 49
Map 3.7 Concen a ion map o ozone indica o AOT40 o ege a ion, u al map, 2023 (le ) and
5-yea mean 2019-2023 ( igh )
The a eas in he map wi h AOT40 o ege a ion in 2023 abo e he TV h eshold o 18 000 µg/m3·h a e
ma ked in ed and da k ed. The a eas below he long- e m objec i e (LTO) a e ma ked in g een. AOT40
le els abo e he TV h eshold o ege a ion occu speci ically in sou he n and sou h-eas e n o Eu ope
(I aly, pa s o Spain, F ance and pa s o he Balkan coun ies and Tü kiye) and also in cen al Eu ope
(pa s o Swi ze land, Ge many, Aus ia, Slo enia, Czechia, Slo akia, Poland and Hunga y). The highes
le els (da k ed) we e es ima ed, simila ly o p e ious yea s, in he no h o I aly, in he sou h-wes o
Tü kiye and in Cyp us. Based on he 5-yea mean o AOT40 o ege a ion, he si ua ion is qui e simila
in e ms o he spa ial dis ibu ion o AOT40 alues, a bi wo se in Tü kiye and he Balkans. The ela i e
mean unce ain y o he 2023 map o he AOT40 o ege a ion is abou 36% (Annex 3, Sec ion A3.3).
Map 3.8 p esen s he inal map o AOT40 o o es s in 2023. The a eas in he map wi h concen a ions
below he c i ical le el (CL) de ined by CLRTAP (2024) a e ma ked in g een. One can see la ge o es ed
a eas exceeding his le el in mos o Eu ope, wi h he excep ion o pa s o some no he n coun ies
and I eland. The highes alues o he AOT40 o o es s in 2023 we e ound mainly in sou he n Eu ope
(Spain, sou h o F ance, pa s o he Balkan s a es, he Po Valley and Cyp us) and Tü kiye. The ela i e
mean unce ain y o he 2023 map o he AOT40 o o es s is abou 30% (Annex 3, Sec ion A3.3).
In o de o p o ide mo e comple e in o ma ion o he ai quali y ac oss Eu ope, he AOT40 maps
including he AOT40 alues based on he ac ual u al backg ound measu emen da a a s a ions a e
p esen ed in Maps A4.8 and A4.9 o Annex 4.
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 50
Map 3.8 Concen a ion map o ozone indica o AOT40 o o es s, u al map, 2023
Map 3.9 p esen s he di e ence be ween 2023 and he 5-yea mean 2018-2022 o AOT40 o
ege a ion and o AOT40 o o es s. O ange o ed a eas show an inc ease o AOT40 in 2023, while
blue a eas show a dec ease.
Map 3.9 Di e ence concen a ions be ween 2023 and he 5-yea mean 2018-2022 o ozone
indica o s, AOT40 o ege a ion (le ) and AOT40 o o es s ( igh )
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 51
The mos no able inc eases in AOT40 o ege a ion we e eco ded in sou he n Spain, eas e n F ance,
pa s o Ge many and no he n Eu ope. In no he n Eu ope, speci ically in he Bal ic s a es, an inc ease
also in AOT40 o o es s was also obse ed. Elsewhe e, a dec ease in AOT40 has been obse ed ac oss
a ious pa s h oughou he mapped a ea, wi h he mos no able dec ease in Tü kiye, he Balkan
s a es, I aly and pa s o F ance and Spain. Rega ding AOT40 le els o o es s, a no iceable decline is
obse ed in simila a eas, i.e. in Tü kiye, he Balkan s a es, I aly and pa s o Spain and mos o F ance
and Ge many.
3.4.2 Vege a ion exposu e
Ag icul u al c ops
The u al map wi h he ozone indica o AOT40 o ege a ion has been combined wi h he land co e
CLC2018 map. Following a simila p ocedu e as desc ibed in Ho álek e al. (2007), he exposu e o
ag icul u al a eas (as de ined abo e) has been calcula ed a he coun y-le el.
Tables 3.6 and 3.7 gi e he absolu e and ela i e ag icul u al a ea in 2023 and o he 5-yea mean
(2013-2023) o each coun y and o i e Eu opean egions whe e ozone concen a ions a e abo e
he a ge alue (TV) h eshold and he long- e m objec i e (LTO) o he p o ec ion o ege a ion as
de ined in he Ambien Ai Quali y Di ec i e (EC, 2008). The equency dis ibu ion o he ag icul u al
a ea o e some exposu e classes pe coun y is p esen ed as well.
Table 3.6 illus a es ha in 2023, 12% o all Eu opean ag icul u al land including Tü kiye was exposed
o ozone concen a ions abo e he TV h eshold o 18 000 µg/m3·h. Fo he a ea o he EU-27, i was
also 12%. None o he ag icul u al a ea p esen s ozone le els in excess o he TV in 17 coun ies.
Ag icul u al a eas wi h ozone concen a ions abo e TV h eshold co e ed less han 25% in Po ugal,
Slo akia, Poland, Hunga y No h Macedonia, Mon eneg o, Koso o, F ance, Albania, Liech ens ein,
Czechia, C oa ia, San Ma ino, Slo enia, Tü kiye, Aus ia, G eece, Ge many (in ascending o de ). In
Spain, I aly and Swi ze land, be ween 26% and 50% o ag icul u al a ea has been exposed o ozone
concen a ions abo e he TV h eshold. The la ges p opo ion o he ag icul u al a ea exposed o
ozone concen a ions abo e he TV h eshold is Cyp us, Ando a and Mal a ( om 54% up o 100%).
Conside ing he LTO o 6 000 µg/m3·h, he o al Eu opean a ea (including Tü kiye) in excess has been
91%. Fo he a ea o he EU-27, i has been 94%. In 2023, alues o he AOT40 o ege a ion abo e
he LTO ha e occu ed in all coun ies wi h he excep ion o Iceland and I eland. Fewe han 50% o
he a eas wi h alues abo e he LTO ha e occu ed in Finland (17%) and No way (27%). In he
emaining coun ies, he ag icul u al a ea exposed abo e he LTO in 2023 has been be ween 75% and
100%. In Albania, Ando a, Aus ia, Belgium, C oa ia, Cyp us, Czechia, Ge many, Hunga y, Koso o,
La ia, Liech ens ein, Li huania, Luxembou g, Mal a, Ne he lands, No h Macedonia, Poland, San
Ma ino, Se bia, Slo enia, Swi ze land, he en i e ag icul u e a ea was exposed o AOT40 le els abo e
he LTO o p o ec ion o ege a ion.
In 2023, he ag icul u al-weigh ed ozone concen a ion o ege a ion- ela ed AOT40 o he o al
mapped a ea was es ima ed o be 12 103 µg/m3·h, i.e. 2 049 µg/m3·h lowe han he 5-yea 2018-2022
mean. Fo he EU-27 a ea, i was es ima ed o be 12 407 µg/m3·h, i.e. 538 µg/m3·h lowe han he 5-
yea 2019-2023 mean. When assessing he change in indi idual coun ies, he s eepes dec ease was
ound in Tü kiye (10 508 µg/m3·h), while he highes inc ease was es ima ed in La ia (3 838 µg/m3·h,
espec i ely).
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 52
Table 3.6 Ag icul u al a ea exposu e and ag icul u al-weigh ed concen a ions, ozone indica o
AOT40 o ege a ion, 2023
Coun y
Ag icul u al a ea, 2023
Pe cen age o ag icul u al a ea (%)
Ag icul u al-weigh ed conc.
To al
a ea
> LTO
(6 000 µg/m3·h)
> TV h eshold
(18 000 µg/m3·h)
<
6 000
6 000-
12 000
12 000-
18 000
18 000-
27 000
> 27 000
(µg/m3·h)
(km2)
(km2)
(%)
(km2)
(%)
(µg/m3·h)
2023
5-yea
mean
Di .
Albania
8 017
8 017
100.0
416
5.2
21.4
73.5
5.2
14 254
16 602
-2 347
Ando a
13
13
100.0
9
64.8
35.2
64.8
19 607
Aus ia
26 827
26 827
100.0
4 731
17.6
0.4
81.9
17.6
0.0
16 601
17 413
-812
Belgium
17 473
17 473
100.0
21.9
78.1
13 092
11 781
1 312
Bosnia-He zego ina
17 023
17 011
99.9
0.1
89.3
10.7
10 288
10 857
-570
Bulga ia
57 390
51 940
90.5
9.5
87.8
2.7
8 330
11 538
-3 209
C oa ia
22 168
22 168
100.0
1 346
6.1
44.5
49.5
6.1
12 543
13 450
-907
Cyp us
4 291
4 291
100.0
2 322
54.1
45.9
54.1
18 368
24 179
-5 811
Czechia
44 784
44 784
100.0
2 524
5.6
94.4
5.6
16 229
16 883
-654
Denma k (incl. Fa oes)
31 236
31 177
99.8
0.2
99.8
7 889
6 977
913
Es onia
14 252
14 182
99.5
0.5
99.5
6 893
4 101
2 792
Finland
27 505
4 791
17.4
82.6
17.4
4 208
3 050
1 158
F ance
323 377
321 366
99.4
5 294
1.6
0.6
61.3
36.4
1.6
0.0
11 330
11 612
-282
Ge many
204 463
204 463
100.0
51 049
25.0
32.6
42.4
25.0
14 385
14 096
289
G eece
50 052
50 019
99.9
9 994
20.0
0.1
23.6
56.4
17.1
2.9
15 028
19 830
-4 803
Hunga y
60 390
60 390
100.0
23
0.0
25.1
74.9
0.0
13 201
15 843
-2 642
Iceland
2 518
0
0.0
100.0
0.0
943
1 102
-158
I eland
46 756
0
0.0
100.0
0.0
2 116
2 932
-816
I aly
155 718
155 673
100.0
59 443
38.2
0.0
23.7
38.1
24.0
14.2
17 674
20 868
-3 194
La ia
25 532
25 532
100.0
100.0
8 039
4 201
3 838
Liech ens ein
37
37
100.0
2
5.6
94.4
5.6
16 210
17 648
-1 438
Li huania
38 155
38 155
100.0
100.0
9 203
5 465
3 738
Luxembou g
1 351
1 351
100.0
100.0
16 134
13 843
2 291
Mal a
125
125
100.0
125
100.0
100.0
20 597
19 983
614
Monaco
Mon eneg o
2 243
2 236
99.7
5
0.2
0.3
56.9
42.6
0.2
11 762
13 547
-1 784
Ne he lands
23 644
23 644
100.0
69.8
30.2
11 021
9 399
1 622
No h Macedonia
9 146
9 146
100.0
15
0.2
58.2
41.6
0.2
11 731
15 892
-4 161
No way
15 637
4 237
27.1
72.9
27.1
0.0
4 622
3 590
1 032
Poland
183 268
183 268
100.0
50
0.0
42.6
57.4
0.0
12 482
11 953
529
Po ugal
42 566
41 800
98.2
0
0.0
1.8
60.7
37.5
0.0
11 206
11 109
97
Romania
135 279
122 047
90.2
9.8
85.3
4.9
8 380
10 182
-1 802
San Ma ino
42
42
100.0
5
11.9
88.1
11.9
17 151
19 108
-1 957
Se bia (incl. Koso o)
46 768
46 768
100.0
18
0.0
39.3
60.6
0.0
12 249
14 078
-1 829
Slo akia
23 100
23 090
100.0
3
0.0
0.0
31.1
68.9
0.0
13 015
14 890
-1 875
Slo enia
6 986
6 986
100.0
1 010
14.4
2.4
83.2
14.4
0.0
15 911
16 878
-967
Spain
241 014
231 836
96.2
78 106
32.4
3.8
12.1
51.7
32.4
0.0
15 676
15 744
-67
Sweden
39 035
34 395
88.1
11.9
88.1
7 185
5 679
1 506
Swi ze land
11 359
11 359
100.0
5 466
48.1
0.6
51.2
48.0
0.1
17 937
18 575
-638
Tü kiye
339 984
255 707
75.2
54 998
16.2
24.8
39.6
19.4
13.6
2.5
10 717
21 225
-10 508
To al
2 299 526
2 096 348
91.2
276 952
12.0
8.8
43.2
35.9
10.6
1.4
12 103
14 153
-2 049
EU-27
1 846 681
1 741 774
94.3
216 019
11.7
5.7
44.0
38.6
10.4
1.3
12 407
12 945
-538
No he n Eu ope
193 869
152 469
78.6
21.4
78.6
0.0
7 076
4 934
2 142
Wes e n Eu ope
346 009
298 273
86.2
1 753
0.5
13.8
50.5
35.1
0.5
10 226
10 059
167
Cen al Eu ope
561 215
561 205
100.0
64 858
11.6
0.0
29.8
58.6
11.6
0.0
13 924
14 123
-199
Sou he n Eu ope
560 414
549 360
98.0
153 544
27.4
2.0
26.3
44.3
23.2
4.2
15 306
16 907
-1 602
Sou h-Eas e n Eu ope
638 018
535 040
83.9
56 797
8.9
16.1
55.2
19.8
7.5
1.4
10 234
16 780
-6 546
Koso o
4 167
4 167
100.0
18
0.4
18.3
81.2
0.4
13 506
16 119
-2 613
Se bia (wi hou Koso o)
42 601
42 601
100.0
41.4
58.6
12 126
13 878
-1 752
No e: The pe cen age alue "0.0" indica es ha an exposed ag icul u al a ea exis s, bu i is small and es ima ed o be less han 0.05%. Emp y cells mean no
ag icul u al a ea in exposu e. 5-yea mean, i.e. 5-yea mean 2018-2022. Di ., i.e. di e ence concen a ions be ween 2023 and he 5-yea mean 2018-2022.
Rela ing o 5-yea mean 2019-2023 (Table 3.7), 16% o all Eu opean ag icul u al land including Tü kiye
has been exposed o ozone concen a ions abo e he TV o 18 000 µg/m3·h. Fo he a ea o he EU-
27, i was 10%. None o he ag icul u al a ea p esen s ozone le els in excess o he TV in 17 coun ies.
Ag icul u al a eas wi h ozone concen a ions abo e he TV co e ed less han 25% in Se bia, Po ugal,
Slo akia, Czechia, Mon eneg o, Ge many, Hunga y, F ance, Aus ia, Liech ens ein, C oa ia, No h
Macedonia, Koso o. Albania, Slo enia and Spain (in ascending o de ). In Swi ze land, Ando a, G eece
and I aly, be ween 27% and 50% o ag icul u al a ea has been exposed o ozone concen a ions abo e
he TV. The la ges p opo ion o he ag icul u al a ea exposed o ozone concen a ions abo e he TV
is Tü kiye, Mal a, San Ma ino and Cyp us ( om 54% up o 100%).
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 53
Table 3.7 Ag icul u al a ea exposu e and ag icul u al-weigh ed concen a ions, ozone indica o
AOT40 o ege a ion, 5-yea mean (2019-2023)
Coun y
Ag icul u al a ea, 2019-2023
Pe cen age o ag icul u al a ea (%)
Ag icul u al-
weigh ed conc.
To al
a ea
> TV
(18 000 µg/m3·h)
<
6 000
6 000-
12 000
12 000-
18 000
18 000-
27 000
> 27 000
(µg/m3·h)
(km2)
(km2)
(%)
(µg/m3·h)
2019-2023
Albania
8 017
1200
15.0
2.8
82.2
15.0
15 839
Ando a
13
6
44.7
55.3
44.7
17 290
Aus ia
26 827
1074
4.0
0.6
95.4
4.0
0.0
16 087
Belgium
17 473
91.6
8.4
10 464
Bosnia-He zego ina
17 023
0.5
89.3
10.3
9 975
Bulga ia
57 390
75.5
24.5
10 609
C oa ia
22 168
1545
7.0
58.2
34.8
7.0
0.0
12 313
Cyp us
4 291
4291
100.0
91.9
8.1
23 500
Czechia
44 784
52
0.1
0.2
99.7
0.1
15 002
Denma k (incl.
Fa oes)
31 236
66.4
33.6
5 749
Es onia
14 251
98.3
1.7
4 435
Finland
27 504
100.0
2 771
F ance
323 377
10839
3.4
0.4
78.1
18.2
3.3
0.0
10 579
Ge many
204 463
978
0.5
0.2
44.0
55.3
0.5
12 551
G eece
50 051
22801
45.6
5.9
48.5
42.5
3.0
17 870
Hunga y
60 387
1408
2.3
12.2
85.5
2.3
14 290
Iceland
2 517
100.0
681
I eland
46 756
100.0
2 104
I aly
155 718
77144
49.5
2.6
47.9
30.7
18.8
20 284
La ia
25 530
99.4
0.6
4 545
Liech ens ein
37
2
5.5
94.5
5.5
15 711
Li huania
38 148
76.3
23.7
5 579
Luxembou g
1 351
12.3
87.7
12 622
Mal a
125
70
56.3
43.7
56.3
19 842
Monaco
Mon eneg o
2 243
10
0.5
26.7
72.9
0.5
13 018
Ne he lands
23 644
0.1
99.6
0.3
8 698
No h Macedonia
9 146
805
8.8
17.4
73.8
8.8
14 647
No way
15 636
96.3
3.7
2 970
Poland
183 258
64.3
35.7
10 998
Po ugal
42 566
1
0.0
2.4
59.7
37.9
0.0
11 374
Romania
135 270
1.7
85.9
12.4
9 495
San Ma ino
42
30
71.1
28.9
71.1
18 401
Se bia (incl. Koso o)
46 768
477
1.0
21.1
77.9
1.0
13 325
Slo akia
23 100
3
0.0
30.9
69.1
0.0
13 385
Slo enia
6 986
1189
17.0
1.7
81.3
17.0
0.0
16 131
Spain
241 014
55388
23.0
4.4
8.7
63.9
23.0
0.0
15 344
Sweden
39 035
73.7
26.3
4 909
Swi ze land
11 359
3065
27.0
0.1
72.9
26.6
0.4
17 367
Tü kiye
339 966
183555
54.0
1.8
9.8
34.4
44.7
9.3
18 616
To al
2 299
474
365935
15.9
10.1
36.2
37.8
13.2
2.7
13 002
EU-27
1 846
648
176785
9.6
11.3
41.8
37.4
7.9
1.7
12 043
No he n Eu ope
193 857
84.1
15.9
4 579
Wes e n Eu ope
346 009
1728
0.5
13.7
71.4
14.4
0.5
9 046
Cen al Eu ope
561 202
7772
1.4
0.1
39.7
58.8
1.4
0.0
12 772
Sou he n Eu ope
560 414
168844
30.1
2.2
17.6
50.1
24.6
5.6
16 300
Sou h-Eas e n
Eu ope
637 992
187592
29.4
1.3
36.6
32.7
24.5
4.9
15 013
Koso o
4 167
477
11.4
4.2
84.3
11.4
15 754
Se bia (wi hou
Koso o)
42 601
0
0.0
22.8
77.2
0.0
13 087
No e: The pe cen age alue "0.0" indica es ha an exposed ag icul u al a ea exis s, bu i is small and es ima ed o be less han 0.05%. Emp y cells mean no
ag icul u al a ea in exposu e.
In 2023, he ag icul u al-weigh ed ozone concen a ion o ege a ion- ela ed AOT40 (5-yea mean) o
he o al mapped a ea was es ima ed o be 13 002 µg/m3·h. Fo he EU-27 a ea, i was es ima ed o
be 12 043 µg/m3·h.
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 54
Fo es s
The u al map wi h ozone indica o AOT40 o o es s was combined wi h he land co e CLC2018 map.
Following a simila p ocedu e as desc ibed in Ho álek e al. (2007), he exposu e o o es a eas (as
de ined abo e) has been calcula ed o each coun y, o he same i e Eu opean egions as o c ops
and o Eu ope as a whole. Table 3.8 gi es he absolu e and ela i e o es a ea whe e he c i ical le el
(CL) se a 10 000 µg/m3·h, he same le el as de ined in CLRTAP (2024), and he alue 20 000 µg/m3·h
(which is equal o he ea lie used epo ing alue, RV, as was de ined in he epealed ozone di ec i e
2002/3/EC, EC, 2002) a e exceeded. Nex o he o es a ea in exceedance, he able p esen s he
equency dis ibu ion o he o es a ea o e some exposu e classes.
The CL was exceeded in 2023 a 73% o all Eu opean o es ed a ea including Tü kiye. Fo he a ea o
he EU-27 i was exceeded a abou 74%. As in p e ious yea s, mos coun ies con inue o ha e in 2023
he whole o conside able o es a eas in excess o he CL. In 2023, he e we e only wo coun ies wi h
almos no CL exceedance (Iceland and I eland). Up o 50% o he a eas wi h alues abo e he CL ha e
occu ed in Finland, No way and Sweden. In he emaining coun ies, he CL o AOT40 was exceeded
in mo e han 90% o he a ea o he espec i e coun y. In 27 coun ies, he en i e o es ed a ea was
exposed o AOT40 le els abo e he CL o o es s.
In 2023, he o es -weigh ed ozone concen a ion o o es - ela ed AOT40 o he o al mapped a ea
was es ima ed o be 18 143 µg/m3·h, i.e. 2 176 µg/m3·h less han he 5-yea 2018-2022 mean. Fo he
EU-27 a ea, i was es ima ed o be 17 993 µg/m3·h, i.e. 1 445 µg/m3·h less han he 5-yea 2018-2022
mean. When assessing he change in indi idual coun ies, he s eepes absolu e dec ease was ound
in Tü kiye (12 395 µg/m3·h), while he highes inc ease was es ima ed in Li huania (4 553 µg/m3·h).
In his con ex , i should be men ioned ha he AOT40 indica o is no he bes p oxy o ege a ion
damage assessmen . AOT40 does no ake in o accoun plan physiological con ol o ozone abso bed
doses, which is aken in o accoun in he POD (i.e. Phy o oxic Ozone Dose) indica o s, as discussed in
Sec ion 3.5. POD indica o s a e known o be mo e ela ed wi h ozone e ec s on plan g ow h
han ambien ai ozone concen a ions alone. The AOT40 does no ake in o accoun he in luence o
me eo ological condi ions on g owing season iming. G owing season´s s a and end da es can change
ac oss Eu ope, and be ween yea s o a gi en si e, depending on ac o s such as ai empe a u e, sola
adia ion, pho ope iod o ain all. High empe a u e and d y wea he a ou ing ozone pollu ion cause
a educ ion o ozone abso bed doses by plan s due o plan physiological esponse o d ough (i.e. he
ege a ion closes i s s oma a p o ec ing i sel om he exposu e o ozone). Howe e , plan s may s ill
be sensi i e o ozone in such wea he condi ions, as illus a ed by olia inju y eco ds in Aleppo pine
s ands g owing in sou he n F ance (CLRTAP, 2016) o con olled expe imen al esul s (e.g. Alonso e
al., 2014).
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 55
Table 3.8 Fo es ed a ea exposu e and o es -weigh ed concen a ions, ozone indica o AOT40
o o es s, 2023
Coun y
Fo es ed a ea
Pe cen age o o es ed a ea [%]
Fo es -weigh ed conc.
To al
a ea
> CL
(10 000 µg/m3·h)
> RV
(20 000 µg/m3·h)
< 10 000
10 000-
20 000
20 000-
30 000
30 000-
50 000
> 50 000
(µg/m3·h)
(km2)
(km2)
(%)
(km2)
(%)
(%)
(µg/m3·h)
(µg/m3·h)
(µg/m3·h)
(µg/m3·h)
2023
5-yea
mean
Di .
Albania
7 104
7 104
100.0
7 031
99.0
1.0
50.5
48.4
0.0
29 921
34 999
-5 078
Ando a
128
128
100.0
128
100.0
0.0
0.0
14.1
85.9
34 970
Aus ia
36 667
36 667
100.0
36 135
98.5
1.5
77.3
21.2
27 608
30 799
-3 190
Belgium
6 089
6 089
100.0
3 063
50.3
49.7
50.3
20 196
22 794
-2 598
Bosnia-He zego ina
23 911
23 911
100.0
19 205
80.3
19.7
77.3
3.0
23 160
23 062
97
Bulga ia
34 675
34 636
99.9
23 084
66.6
0.1
33.3
59.8
6.8
22 195
27 419
-5 224
C oa ia
19 734
19 734
100.0
17 995
91.2
8.8
75.1
16.1
25 163
27 103
-1 940
Cyp us
1 458
1 458
100.0
1 458
100.0
99.3
0.7
41 404
48 212
-6 808
Czechia
25 867
25 867
100.0
25 867
100.0
94.0
6.0
27 189
30 280
-3 091
Denma k (incl. Fa oes)
3 747
3 707
98.9
1.1
98.9
13 280
12 880
400
Es onia
21 080
20 143
95.6
4.4
95.6
10 962
7 871
3 092
Finland
211 668
3 040
1.4
98.6
1.4
6 079
5 742
337
F ance
143 376
142 897
99.7
74 278
51.8
0.3
47.9
37.7
14.0
0.1
21 897
25 651
-3 754
Ge many
108 031
108 030
100.0
84 900
78.6
0.0
21.4
71.5
7.1
24 096
27 670
-3 574
G eece
26 122
26 122
100.0
25 070
96.0
4.0
53.0
41.6
1.4
29 647
37 853
-8 206
Hunga y
17 407
17 407
100.0
15 474
88.9
11.1
86.9
2.0
24 260
29 099
-4 839
Iceland
537
3
0.5
99.5
0.5
4 215
4 778
-563
I eland
4 510
11
0.2
99.8
0.2
4 857
6 611
-1 754
I aly
79 052
79 052
100.0
77 836
98.5
1.5
41.2
51.9
5.4
33 204
37 591
-4 388
La ia
24 261
24 261
100.0
100.0
12 772
8 558
4 214
Liech ens ein
79
79
100.0
79
99.4
0.6
34.5
65.0
31 505
35 937
-4 432
Li huania
19 455
19 455
100.0
100.0
15 546
10 993
4 553
Luxembou g
937
937
100.0
937
100.0
100.0
22 415
25 465
-3 050
Mal a
2
2
100.0
2
100.0
100.0
41 655
43 548
-1 893
Monaco
1
1
100.0
1
100.0
100.0
52 516
45 236
7 280
Mon eneg o
5 777
5 780
100.0
5 513
95.4
4.6
75.1
20.3
26 526
30 080
-3 555
Ne he lands
3 118
3 115
99.9
137
4.4
0.1
95.5
4.4
17 660
17 794
-134
No h Macedonia
8 144
8 144
100.0
8 083
99.3
0.7
68.9
30.4
28 147
34 703
-6 557
No way
103 494
43 042
41.6
102
0.1
58.4
41.5
0.1
9 742
9 498
244
Poland
96 966
96 966
100.0
54 203
55.9
44.1
55.4
0.5
20 865
21 583
-718
Po ugal
16 512
16 368
99.1
8 716
52.8
0.9
46.3
52.7
0.1
19 657
21 956
-2 299
Romania
71 273
71 033
99.7
23 867
33.5
0.3
66.2
33.2
0.3
18 453
20 766
-2 313
San Ma ino
6
6
100.0
6
100.0
100.0
35 064
35 121
-57
Se bia (incl. Koso o)
27 211
27 211
100.0
26 286
96.6
3.4
86.4
10.2
25 543
28 656
-3 113
Slo akia
20 484
20 484
100.0
16 016
78.2
21.8
76.0
2.2
23 067
26 719
-3 652
Slo enia
11 441
11 441
100.0
11 331
99.0
1.0
61.3
37.7
28 918
32 708
-3 790
Spain
107 927
101 906
94.4
85 131
78.9
5.6
15.5
44.0
34.9
0.0
25 826
26 200
-374
Sweden
261 757
118 467
45.3
0
0.0
54.7
45.3
0.0
9 382
8 845
537
Swi ze land
11 850
11 850
100.0
11 643
98.3
1.7
58.4
39.2
0.7
29 716
35 917
-6 202
Tü kiye
114 886
91 315
79.5
60 638
52.8
20.5
26.7
27.8
23.1
1.9
21 685
34 080
-12 395
To al
1 676 742
1 227 868
73.2
724 217
43.2
26.8
30.0
32.0
10.8
0.4
18 143
20 319
-2 176
EU-27
1 373 615
1 009 295
73.5
585 501
42.6
26.5
30.9
32.1
10.1
0.3
17 993
19 439
-1 445
No he n Eu ope
645 997
232 117
35.9
102
0.0
64.1
35.9
0.0
8 740
7 975
765
Wes e n Eu ope
104 660
99 683
95.2
43 083
41.2
4.8
54.1
36.6
4.6
19 394
23 109
-3 715
Cen al Eu ope
328 793
328 792
100.0
255 649
77.8
0.0
22.2
69.4
8.3
0.0
24 095
26 920
-2 825
Sou he n Eu ope
284 577
278 409
97.8
233 680
82.1
2.2
15.7
43.1
37.4
1.7
27 785
30 681
-2 896
Sou h-Eas e n Eu ope
312 715
288 867
92.4
191 703
61.3
7.6
31.1
46.9
13.7
0.7
22 115
28 515
-6 400
Koso o
4 316
4 316
100.0
4 312
99.9
0.1
59.2
40.7
29 519
33 871
-4 352
Se bia (wi hou Koso o)
22 894
22 894
100.0
21 974
96.0
4.0
91.5
4.5
24 793
27 673
-2 880
No e: The pe cen age alue “0.0” indica es ha an exposed o es ed a ea exis s, bu i is small and es ima ed o be less han 0.05%. Emp y cells mean no o es ed
a ea in exposu e. 5-yea mean, i.e. 5-yea mean 2018-2022. Di ., i.e. di e ence concen a ions be ween 2023 and he 5-yea mean 2018-2022.
3.5 Ozone – Phy o oxic Ozone Dose (PODY) o c ops and o es ees
Ozone is gene ally ecognized o be he mos ele an pollu an o plan s. Visible inju y, educ ion in
g ow h, changes in biomass pa i ioning, o a highe suscep ibili y o pa hogen a ack can be he e ec
o ozone in luence (K upa e al., 2000). As men ioned abo e, scien i ic e idence sugges s ha obse ed
e ec s o ozone on ege a ion a e mo e s ongly ela ed o he up ake o ozone h ough he s oma al
lea po es in o he lea in e io (s oma al lux) han o he concen a ion in he a mosphe e a ound he
plan s (Reich, 1987; Ashmo e e al., 2004; Mills e al., 2011).
The cumula i e s oma al ozone luxes (Fs o) h ough he s oma a o lea es ound a he op o he
canopy a e calcula ed o e he cou se o he g owing season based on ambien ozone concen a ion
and s oma al conduc ance (gs o) o ozone. The s oma al conduc ance has been calcula ed using a
mul iplica i e s oma al conduc ance model (Embe son e al., 2000a) based on Ja is (1976) as a
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 56
unc ion o species-speci ic maximum gs o (exp essed on a single lea -a ea basis), phenology, and
p e ailing en i onmen al condi ions (pho osyn he ic pho on lux densi y, PPFD), ai empe a u e,
apou p essu e de ici (VPD), and soil mois u e.
PODY (Phy o oxic Ozone Dose) is he accumula ed plan up ake ( lux) o ozone abo e a h eshold o Y
du ing a speci ied ime o g ow h pe iod. The lux-based PODY me ics a e p e e ed in isk assessmen
o e he concen a ion-based AOT40 exposu e index. AOT40 accoun s o he ambien ozone
concen a ion and is he e o e biologically less ele an o ozone impac assessmen han PODY as i
does no ake in o accoun how ozone up ake is a ec ed by clima e, soil and plan ac o s.
Se e al PODY indica o s a e desc ibed in CLRTAP (2024). PODYSPEC is a species o g oup o species-
speci ic PODY ha equi es comp ehensi e inpu da a and is sui able o de ailed isk assessmen .
PODYIAM is a ege a ion- ype speci ic PODY ha equi es less inpu da a and is sui able o la ge-scale
modelling, including in eg a ed assessmen modelling. PODYSPEC is u he used in his epo .
Fo c ops (whea , po a o and oma o), he Y alue is aken equal o 6 nmol/m2 PLA/s (i.e. pe uni
p ojec ed lea a ea) as ecommended in CLRTAP (2024). Fo he de ails o PODY (and speci ically
POD6SPEC as used in his epo ) calcula ion, see Annex 1, Sec ion A1.3.
The species-speci ic lux models and associa ed esponse unc ions and c i ical le els (CL) o ozone-
sensi i e c ops and cul i a s can be used o quan i y he po en ial nega i e impac s o O3 on he
secu i y o ood supplies a he local and egional scale. They can be used o es ima e yield losses,
including economic losses. A lux- h eshold Y o 6 (POD6SPEC) p o ides he s onges lux-e ec
ela ionships o c ops (Pleijel e al., 2007). O3 e ec s p o ed o be signi ican a a 5% educ ion o he
e ec pa ame e (Mills e al., 2011), hence CLs we e de e mined o his 5% educ ion o he e ec
pa ame e (i.e. yield, weigh o quali y o g ain, ube o ui ), based on he slope o he unc ion. The
POD6SPEC CLs o c ops we e de e mined based on his educ ion o ele an yield o weigh , as shown
in Table 3.9.
Whea , po a o and oma o a e conside ed as ep esen a i e species o c ops in Eu ope ( oma o can
be ega ded as ep esen a i e ho icul u al c op o he Medi e anean and Black Sea egions, which
is he case o po a o o o he egions). The e o e, POD6SPEC o hese c ops (labelled u he simply
as POD6 o whea , po a o and oma o, espec i ely) a e ecommended o egula map cons uc ion.
This epo p esen s maps o POD6 o whea (T i icum aes i um), po a o (Solanum ube osum) and
oma o (Solanum lycope sicum).
Table 3.9 POD6SPEC c i ical le els o c ops as de e mined by CLRTAP
C op
E ec pa ame e
POD6SPEC c i ical le el
Whea
g ain yield
1.3 mmol/m2 PLA
Whea
1000-g ain weigh
1.5 mmol/m2 PLA
Whea
p o ein yield
2.0 mmol/m2 PLA
Po a o
ube yield
3.8 mmol/m2 PLA
Toma o
ui yield
2 mmol/m2 PLA
Toma o
ui quali y
3.8 mmol/m2 PLA
Sou ce: CLRTAP, 2024
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 57
Rega ding ees, beech (Fagus syl a ica) and No way sp uce (Picea abise) we e selec ed as he ee
species o which he mos comp ehensi e pa ame e iza ion o POD is a ailable. Fo hem, he Y alue
is aken equal o 1 nmol/m2 PLA/s (i.e. pe uni p ojec ed lea a ea). Fo he de ails o PODY (and
speci ically POD1SPEC as used in his epo ) calcula ion, see Vlasáko á e al. (2023).
A uni o m O3 lux h eshold o Y = 1 nmol/m2 PLA/s was adop ed o use in species-speci ic phy o oxic
O3 doses (PODYSPEC) o all ee species a he O3 CLs wo kshop in Mad id, No embe 2016 (CLRTAP,
2024), based on da a and analyses p esen ed in Büke e al. (2015). Ana e al. (2022) illus a ed ha
POD1 is he mos eliable simple es ima e o O3 isk and ecommended he use o his me ic by policy
make s as an ai quali y s anda d o p o ec ulne able o es ecosys ems in he u u e. The POD1SPEC
CLs o o es ees we e se o alues o an accep able biomass loss, as shown in Table 3.10.
Table 3.10 POD1SPEC c i ical le els o ees as de e mined by CLRTAP
T ee
E ec pa ame e
POD1SPEC c i ical le el
Beech
4% annual educ ion o he whole ee biomass
5.2 mmol/m2 PLA
Sp uce
2% annual educ ion o he whole ee biomass
9.2 mmol/m2 PLA
Sou ce: CLRTAP, 2024
The POD maps ha e been calcula ed based on he hou ly ozone concen a ion maps, oge he wi h
he me eo ological and soil hyd aulic p ope ies da a, based on he me hodology desc ibed in Annex
1, Sec ion A1.3. The ozone maps o each hou o he yea 2023 ha e been cons uc ed using he same
me hodology as he annual maps, i.e. he mul iple linea eg ession ollowed by he k iging o i s
esiduals (see Annex 1, Sec ion A1.1) based on he measu emen da a, chemical anspo model
(CAMS-Ensemble o ecas ) ou pu , al i ude and he su ace sola adia ion. Fo de ails, see Annex 3,
Sec ion A3.3. The ozone maps ha e been calcula ed a he 2 km esolu ion, while he comple e POD
calcula ion has been execu ed in 0.1° esolu ion. The hou ly ozone maps a e c ea ed o u al a eas
only, based on u al backg ound s a ions. The POD maps a e he e o e applicable o u al a eas only.
Nex o his, i should be no ed ha in he POD calcula ions o whea and po a o, all g owing a eas
a e conside ed ain- ed (i.e. wi hou i iga ion), see Cole e e al. (2018). Thus, he maps a e di ec ly
applicable only o a eas wi hou i iga ion. I applied o i iga ed a eas, he POD alues o whea and
po a o migh be somewha unde es ima ed. On he o he hand, no limi a ion o s oma al conduc ance
due o soil mois u e can be assumed o oma o, since i is an i iga ed ho icul u al c op (see Annex
1, Sec ion A1.3).
3.5.1 Phy o oxic Ozone Dose maps
Maps 3.10 o 3.12 p esen he maps o Phy o oxic Ozone Dose (POD6) o whea , po a o and oma o
and maps 3.13 and 3.14 p esen he maps o POD1 o beech and sp uce in 2023. Gene ally, high alues
o he POD can be ound in di e en pa s o Eu ope since he POD is dependen no only on ozone
le els bu also on he en i onmen al condi ions and plan phenology. The lowes le els o he POD
usually occu in a eas wi h lowe ozone concen a ions (e.g. no he n Eu opean egions) and/o in
a eas whe e en i onmen al condi ions limi he ozone s oma al conduc ance (d y and wa m a eas,
including pa s o he sou he n, sou h-wes e n and sou h-eas e n Eu ope). On he o he hand, highe
POD alues can occu in a eas wi h lowe ozone concen a ions, bu a ou able condi ions o he
s oma al conduc ance.
C ops
The a eas in he Map 3.10 wi h POD6 alues below he lowes CL o whea (i.e. 1.3 mmol/m2 PLA o
g ain yield) a e ma ked in da k g een and g een. The a eas wi h POD6 alues in be ween CLs o g ain
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 64
Map 4.2 p esen s he di e ence be ween 2023 and he 5-yea mean 2018-2022 o NO2 annual
a e age. O ange o ed a eas show an inc ease o NO2 concen a ion in 2023, while blue a eas show a
dec ease.
A he annual a e age NO2 di e ence map he highes inc eases a e obse ed in Tü kiye and G eece.
The e a e inc eases also in pa s o sou he n and sou h-eas e n Eu ope. A smalle inc ease is also
obse ed in no he n Eu ope, speci ically in disconnec ed a eas o Scandina ia and in he Bal ic s a es.
On he o he hand, he e a e dec eases in se e al coun ies, including he Benelux egion, Ge many,
Swi ze land, no he n I aly, he Île-de-F ance egion, Romania and eas e n Tü kiye.
Map 4.2 Di e ence concen a ions be ween 2023 and he 5-yea mean 2018-2022 o NO2
annual a e age
4.1.2 Popula ion exposu e
Table 4.1 and Figu e 4.1 gi e he popula ion equency dis ibu ion o a limi ed numbe o exposu e
classes calcula ed on a g id o 1 km esolu ion o indi idual coun ies, la ge egions, EU-27 and o he
whole mapping a ea. Table 4.1 also p esen s he popula ion-weigh ed concen a ion.
I has been es ima ed ha in 2023, 2.6% o he conside ed Eu opean popula ion including Tü kiye and
0.2% o he EU-27 popula ion li ed in a eas wi h NO2 annual a e age concen a ions abo e he annual
EU limi alue o 40 µg/m3.
Abou 67% o he conside ed Eu opean popula ion including Tü kiye and 63% o he EU-27 popula ion
has been exposed o annual a e age concen a ions abo e he WHO AQG le el o 10 µg/m3 (WHO,
2021a).
No popula ion has been exposed o concen a ions abo e he ALV in 35 coun ies. In F ance, I aly,
Romania, G eece up o 4% o popula ion has been exposed o concen a ions abo e he limi alue. In
Cyp us and Tü kiye, his is he case o 8% and 19% o he popula ion, espec i ely.
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 65
Table 4.1 Popula ion exposu e and popula ion-weigh ed concen a ion, NO2 annual a e age,
2023
Coun y
ISO
Popula ion
(inhbs·1000)
NO2 — annual a e age, exposed popula ion (%)
Popula ion-weigh ed concen a ion
< 10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-45
> 45
2023
5-yea mean
Di .
Albania
AL
2 762
52.9
33.0
13.5
0.6
11.7
13.6
-1.9
Ando a
AD
80
27.5
72.5
12.5
17.0
-4.5
Aus ia
AT
9 105
32.9
52.7
14.3
0.2
13.1
15.4
-2.2
Belgium
BE
11 743
25.9
66.4
7.7
0.0
12.7
16.9
-4.2
Bosnia and He zego ina
BA
3 194
25.3
61.3
13.5
14.1
13.8
0.3
Bulga ia
BG
6 448
24.5
57.4
16.3
1.8
14.5
17.5
-3.0
C oa ia
HR
3 851
36.5
51.0
12.0
0.6
12.4
13.4
-1.0
Cyp us
CY
1 419
10.7
8.7
72.5
0.8
7.3
24.6
22.4
2.2
Czechia
CZ
10 828
40.8
55.9
3.3
11.5
13.6
-2.1
Denma k (incl. Fa oe Islands)
DK
5 987
88.9
11.0
0.1
6.4
8.2
-1.8
Es onia
EE
1 366
80.6
19.4
6.6
6.9
-0.3
Finland
FI
5 564
84.2
15.8
6.9
7.6
-0.7
F ance (me opoli an)
FR
66 017
53.2
36.6
8.0
2.2
0.0
11.1
13.7
-2.7
Ge many
DE
83 119
34.0
58.4
7.2
0.4
12.4
16.2
-3.8
G eece
GR
10 414
35.0
27.8
21.0
12.3
0.9
3.0
17.4
18.4
-1.0
Hunga y
HU
9 600
31.8
55.4
11.2
1.6
12.9
15.7
-2.8
Iceland
IS
388
86.4
13.3
0.3
7.2
8.7
-1.5
I eland
IE
5 271
67.5
30.2
2.2
0.1
8.0
9.3
-1.3
I aly
IT
58 997
17.2
54.3
23.5
4.8
0.2
0.0
16.7
18.7
-2.0
La ia
LV
1 883
62.1
36.5
1.4
9.0
10.4
-1.4
Liech ens ein
LI
40
6.9
91.9
1.2
12.2
15.3
-3.2
Li huania
LT
2 857
55.5
41.1
3.5
9.9
11.0
-1.1
Luxembou g
LU
661
44.8
53.8
1.4
10.8
16.4
-5.6
Mal a
MT
542
45.7
47.3
7.0
10.8
10.9
-0.1
Monaco
MC
39
80.5
19.5
16.5
20.5
-3.9
Mon eneg o
ME
617
20.7
75.3
4.0
12.9
13.4
-0.5
Ne he lands
NL
17 811
16.7
78.4
4.9
13.5
17.4
-3.8
No h Macedonia
MK
1 830
50.5
44.6
3.4
1.5
10.8
16.2
-5.4
No way
NO
5 489
72.9
25.4
1.7
7.4
8.6
-1.2
Poland
PL
36 754
43.4
49.4
6.7
0.4
11.8
13.9
-2.1
Po ugal (excl. Azo es, Madei a)
PT
10 022
42.1
49.1
8.0
0.8
11.7
13.1
-1.4
Romania
RO
19 055
27.5
53.0
14.3
4.4
0.5
0.3
14.9
17.9
-3.0
San Ma ino
SM
34
30.1
65.2
4.7
11.0
14.0
-3.0
Se bia (incl. Koso o)
RS
8 350
22.2
63.1
14.2
0.4
14.3
16.2
-2.0
Slo akia
SK
5 429
40.8
56.9
2.2
11.1
12.7
-1.6
Slo enia
SI
2 117
40.5
56.3
3.1
11.4
13.4
-2.1
Spain (excl. Cana ias)
ES
45 872
30.9
45.1
18.9
5.1
15.0
16.6
-1.7
Sweden
SE
10 522
88.4
11.6
6.3
7.3
-1.0
Swi ze land
CH
8 815
22.4
69.3
8.3
12.8
15.4
-2.6
Tü kiye
TR
85 280
8.7
11.6
30.4
30.0
6.3
13.0
30.7
26.4
4.3
To al
560 170
33.1
43.8
13.9
6.2
1.0
2.0
15.5
16.9
-1.4
73.1
2.6
EU-27
443 198
37.4
49.0
11.2
2.2
0.1
0.1
12.9
15.4
-2.5
81.4
0.2
No he n Eu ope
34 055
80.6
18.7
0.7
7.1
8.3
-1.2
Wes e n Eu ope
86 334
43.3
48.1
7.0
1.6
0.0
11.7
15.0
-3.3
Cen al Eu ope
165 805
36.1
56.2
7.3
0.4
12.2
15.2
-3.0
Sou he n Eu ope
142 589
28.1
47.4
19.5
4.6
0.1
0.3
15.3
17.0
-1.7
Sou h-Eas e n Eu ope
131 386
16.3
27.6
24.2
19.7
4.1
8.2
24.5
22.7
1.8
Koso o
XK
1 709
30.5
69.1
0.4
11.6
15.4
-3.9
Se bia (excl. Koso o)
RS
6 641
20.0
61.6
17.8
0.6
14.9
16.4
-1.5
No e: The pe cen age alue "0.0" indica es ha an exposed popula ion exis s, bu i is small and es ima ed o be less han 0.05%. Emp y cells mean no popula ion
in exposu e. 5-yea mean, i.e. 5-yea mean 2018-2022. Di ., i.e. di e ence concen a ions be ween 2023 and he 5-yea mean 2018-2022.
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 66
The popula ion-weigh ed concen a ion o he NO2 annual mean has been es ima ed o 2023 a 15.5
µg/m3 o o al mapped a ea and 12.9 µg/m3 o he EU-27, which means a dec ease o 1.4 µg/m3 and
2.5 µg/m3 compa ed o he p e ious 5-yea mean, espec i ely. When assessing he change in
indi idual coun ies, he s eepes absolu e dec ease was ound in Luxembou g (5.6 µg/m3), and he
highes inc ease was es ima ed in Tü kiye (4.3 µg/m3).
Figu e 4.1 Pe cen age o he popula ion (%) exposed o di e en alues o NO2 annual a e age
(µg/m3), 2023
Figu e 4.2 shows, o he whole mapped a ea, he popula ion equency dis ibu ion o exposu e
classes o 1 µg/m3. One can see he highes popula ion equency o classes be ween 4 and 22 µg/m3,
a con inuous decline o popula ion equency o classes be ween 22 and 40 µg/m3 and con inuous
mild decline o popula ion equency o classes be ween 41 and 75 µg/m3.
Figu e 4.2 Popula ion exposu e equency dis ibu ion, NO2 annual a e age, 2023. The WHO AQG
le el (10 µg/m3) is ma ked by he g een line, he 2030 EU limi alue (20 µg/m3) is
ma ked by he yellow line, he EU annual limi alue (40 µg/m3) is ma ked by he ed
line
No e: Apa om he popula ion dis ibu ion shown in he g aph, i was es ima ed ha 0.13% o popula ion li ed in a eas
wi h PM2.5 annual a e age concen a ions be ween 75 and 95 µg/m3.
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 67
The boxplo showing o indi idual coun ies he NO2 annual a e age concen a ions o which he
popula ion pe coun y was exposed in 2023 is p esen ed in Figu e 4.3.
Figu e 4.3 NO2 annual a e age concen a ions o which he popula ion pe coun y was exposed in
2023. The WHO AQG le el (10 µg/m3) is ma ked by he g een line, he 2030 EU limi
alue (20 µg/m3) is ma ked by he yellow line, he 2008 EU limi alue (40 µg/m3) is
ma ked by he ed line
No e: Fo each coun y, he box plo shows he concen a ion o which a pe cen age o he popula ion was exposed: 50% in
he case o he black ma ke , 25% and 75% in he cases o he box’s edges, 2% and 98% in he cases o he whiske s’ edges.
4.2 NOx – Annual mean
4.2.1 Concen a ion map
The Ambien Ai Quali y Di ec i e (EC, 2008) se s a c i ical le el (CL) o he p o ec ion o ege a ion
o he NOx annual mean a 30 µg/m3 (and his s anda d emains unchanged unde EU, 2024).
Acco ding o hese di ec i es, he sampling poin s a ge ed a he p o ec ion o ege a ion and na u al
ecosys ems shall be in gene al si ed mo e han 20 km away om agglome a ions o mo e han 5 km
away om o he buil -up a eas. Thus, only he obse a ions a u al backg ound s a ions a e used o
he NOx mapping and he esul ing map is ep esen a i e o u al a eas only.
The numbe o NOx measu emen s a ions is limi ed. The mapping o he NOx annual a e age has been
he e o e pe o med on he basis o an app oach p esen ed in Ho álek e al. (2007). This app oach
de i es addi ional pseudo NOx annual mean concen a ions om NO2 annual mean measu emen
concen a ions and inc eases as such he numbe and spa ial co e age o NOx ‘da a poin s’, and applies
hese da a o he NOx mapping. Sec ion A1.1 o Annex 1 p o ides some de ails.
Map 4.3 p esen s he concen a ion map o NOx annual a e age. I conce ns u al a eas only,
ep esen ing an indica o o ege a ion exposu e o NOx.
Mos o he Eu opean a ea shows NOx le els below 20 µg/m3. Howe e , in he Po Valley, pa s o
Tü kiye and a ound some la ge Eu opean ci ies (A hens and Ba celona) NOx concen a ions abo e he
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 68
CL a e obse ed. These concen a ions a e expec ed o be he esul o la ge emissions om anspo
in and a ound he ci ies, as well as ene gy p oduc ion and indus ial acili ies aking place a hese
a eas. These alues abo e he CL would be ele an only o he so-called pe i-u ban ege a ion whe e
pa ches o ag icul u al land and o na u al o plan ed ege a ion can be ound. On he con a y, low
concen a ions (below 10 µg/m³) a e obse ed ac oss la ge a eas in mos o he mapped coun ies,
wi h he excep ion o mo e ex ensi e egions in G eece, Bulga ia, Romania, he Po Valley, he Benelux
coun ies, Tü kiye, and se e al smalle , discon inuous a eas in Cen al Eu ope and on he Ibe ian
Peninsula.
Map 4.3 Concen a ion map o NOx annual a e age, u al map, 2023
The ela i e mean unce ain y o his NOx u al map is 43%. This means highe mapping unce ain y
compa ed o he quali y objec i e o models o NOx annual a e age (i.e. 30%) as se in he Ai Quali y
Di ec i e (EC, 2008). This highe ela i e unce ain y is s ongly in luenced by he low concen a ion
alues o NOx in mos o he a eas. The NOx annual a e age u al map including he da a measu ed a
u al backg ound s a ions is p esen ed in Map A4.11 o Annex 4. The map illus a es he lack o he
NOx u al s a ions in he Balkan a ea.
Map 4.4 p esen s he di e ence be ween 2023 and he 5-yea mean 2018-2022 o annual a e age o
NOX. O ange o ed a eas show an inc ease o NOX concen a ion in 2023, while blue a eas show a
dec ease. The highes inc eases a e obse ed in Tü kiye, wi h inc eases also in he eas e n egions o
Bulga ia and Romania. No able dec eases a e p ima ily obse ed in he Île-de-F ance egion and he
Benelux coun ies, he Po Valley, pa s o Ge many, and sou he n Tü kiye. Addi ional a eas showing a
widesp ead decline in NOX concen a ions include Hunga y and la ge pa s o he Balkan s a es. A
con inuous a ea o dec ease is also obse ed in Ge many and in se e al smalle egions ac oss Cen al
and Wes e n Eu ope.
Vege a ion exposu e has no been calcula ed o NOx, since alues abo e he CL o p o ec ion o he
ege a ion would occu in limi ed ege a ion a eas only and, as such, is conside ed no o p o ide
essen ial in o ma ion om he Eu opean scale pe spec i e. Fu he mo e, con a y o ege a ion
exposu e o high ozone concen a ions in Eu ope ha leads o conside able damage, ege a ion
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 69
exposu e o NOx pollu ion is o mino impo ance in e ms o ac ual impac s. On he o he hand, NOx
concen a ions con ibu e in pa o he o al N-deposi ion, which leads o acidi ying and eu ophying
e ec s on ege a ion. These e ec s, especially eu ophica ion, a e s ill e y impo an in Eu ope (e.g.
EMEP, 2020). Howe e , hese e ec s on ege a ion canno be exp essed by an exposu e o NOx as
many oxidized and educed ni ogen compounds con ibu e o o al a mosphe ic ni ogen deposi ion.
Map 4.4 Di e ence concen a ions be ween 2023 and he 5-yea mean 2018-2022 o NOx annual
a e age
Conce ning he po en ial exposu e es ima e o ege a ion and na u al ecosys ems o NOx he e is
an addi ional dilemma: which ecep o ypes should be selec ed o es ima e he exposu e and CL
exceedance o ege a ion and na u al ecosys ems? An op ion would be he use o CLC classes (e.g. like
in Ho álek e al., 2008, i.e. na u al a eas); ne e heless, his classi ica ion is oo gene al. Ano he op ion
would be he NATURA 2000 da abase. Howe e , ha da a sou ce con ains a wide se ies o ecep o
ypes, species and classes. Se ious addi ional e o s would be needed o conclude on he mos
ele an se o ecep o s om he NATURA 2000 geog aphical da abase.
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 70
5 Benzo(a)py ene
An annual a e age map o benzo(a)py ene (BaP) has been p oduced and is p esen ed in he egula
mapping epo o he ou h ime. In ag eemen wi h he conclusions o Ho álek e al. (2022b), i is
labelled as an expe imen al map o indica e ha i does no ye mee he same accu acy s anda ds as
he egula ly p oduced maps o o he pollu an s.
The map o BaP is based on he mapping me hodology de eloped and es ed in Ho álek e al. (2022b).
The me hodology o c ea ing he concen a ion maps ollows he same p inciple as o he es o
pollu an s: a linea eg ession model based on Eu opean wide s a ion measu emen da a, ollowed by
k iging o he esiduals p oduced om ha eg ession model ( esidual k iging). The map laye s a e
c ea ed o he u al and u ban backg ound a eas sepa a ely on a g id a 1 km esolu ion. Fo de ails,
see Annex 1, Sec ion A1.1. Supplemen a y da a used in he linea eg ession o u al a eas consis o
chemical anspo model (CTM) ou pu , al i ude, empe a u e, wind speed and land co e ; o u ban
backg ound a eas hey a e CTM ou pu and empe a u e (Annex 3, Sec ion A3.5). The inal
concen a ion map is p esen ed a a 1 km g id esolu ion.
Due o he poo spa ial co e age o he BaP measu emen s a ions, so-called pseudo-BaP s a ions ha e
been used in addi ion. Pseudo-BaP da a in loca ions wi h PM2.5 measu emen s (o wi h pseudo-PM2.5
da a based on PM10 measu emen s) and wi h no BaP measu emen s ha e been es ima ed based on
he exponen ial eg ession o he obse ed BaP concen a ions wi h he PM2.5 da a, geog aphical
coo dina es and he land co e . Due o qui e high unce ain y o he pseudo da a, hey a e only used
in a eas wi h a lack o BaP measu emen s. Due o he se ious lack o Tu kish da a, Tü kiye is no
included in he mapping a ea. Annex 3, Sec ion A3.5 p o ides de ails on he eg ession and k iging
pa ame e s applied o de i ing he BaP map, as well as he unce ain y analysis o his map.
The 2004 Ambien Ai Quali y Di ec i e (EC, 2004) se s a a ge alue (TV) o ambien ai concen a ion
o BaP, as a ma ke o he ca cinogenic isk o polycyclic a oma ic hyd oca bons (PAHs) in ambien ai .
The TV o BaP (measu ed in PM10) is se o 1 ng/m3 as an annual mean. The e ised Ambien Ai Quali y
Di ec i e (EU, 2024) in oduces he EU limi alue o be eached by 2030 (LV2030), which is se o 1.0
ng/m3 o he annual mean.
Bo h he 2030 EU LV (1.0 ng/m3) and he es ima ed WHO e e ence le el (RL, 0.12 ng/m3) a e based
on he WHO lung cance uni isk o PAH mix u es and co espond o an addi ional li e ime cance isk
o app oxima ely 9 cases and 1 case in 100 000 exposed indi iduals, espec i ely (WHO, 2021b).
5.1 Benzo(a)py ene – Annual mean
5.1.1 Concen a ion map
Map 5.1 p esen s he inal combined 1 km esolu ion concen a ion map o he 2023 annual a e age
o BaP. Red and pu ple a eas indica e concen a ions abo e 1.0 ng/m3 (i.e. abo e he 2030 LV).
BaP concen a ions abo e 1.0 ng/m3 a e ound in Poland, he no h-eas e n pa o Czechia, wes
Balkan, he eas e n Po Valley in no he n I aly, and some popula ed loca ions in cen al and sou h-
eas e n Eu ope, La ia and Finland. By con as , wes e n and sou he n Eu ope (excep I aly) ha e low
BaP alues. Gene ally, lowe le els o BaP concen a ions in na u al a eas can be seen, compa ed wi h
he o he land co e ypes.
The ela i e mean unce ain y o he 2023 map o BaP annual a e age is 137% o u al and 67% o
u ban a eas and de e mined exclusi ely on he ac ual BaP measu emen da a poin s, i.e. no he
pseudo s a ions (Annex 3, Sec ion A3.5). This unce ain y is conside ably high (especially in he u al
a eas) wi h espec o he quali y objec i e o models o BaP annual a e age (i.e. 60%) as se in he
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 71
Eu opean di ec i e (EC, 2004). The high unce ain y in he u al a eas is p obably s ongly a ec ed
(besides he low densi y o he u al s a ions) by he ac ha s a ions classi ied as “ u al backg ound”
comp ise bo h egional s a ions wi h low BaP alues and s a ions loca ed in illages, which a e o en
highly in luenced by local hea ing leading o high BaP concen a ions.
Map 5.1 Concen a ion map o benzo(a)py ene annual a e age, 2023, expe imen al map
Map 5.2 Di e ence concen a ions be ween 2023 and he i e-yea mean 2018-2022
benzo(a)py ene annual a e age
Map 5.2 p esen s he di e ence be ween 2023 and he i e-yea mean 2018-2022 o BaP annual
a e age. O ange o ed a eas show an inc ease o BaP concen a ion in 2023, while blue a eas show a
dec ease. A eas wi h he highes dec eases ha e been ound in Poland. A eas wi h he highes inc ease
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 72
a e shown in he wes e n Balkans, howe e , his es ima ed inc ease can be in luenced by a high
unce ain y o he map and a low densi y o BaP s a ions in his a ea.
5.1.2 Popula ion exposu e
Table 5.1 gi es he popula ion equency dis ibu ion o a limi ed numbe o exposu e classes o BaP
concen a ions, as well as he popula ion-weigh ed concen a ion. Due o he expe imen al cha ac e
o he BaP map and i s high unce ain y, he popula ion exposu e is p esen ed only o EU-27, o i e
Eu opean egions and o he o al mapping a ea, no o indi idual coun ies.
Table 5.1 Popula ion exposu e and popula ion-weigh ed concen a ion, benzo(a)py ene annual
a e age, 2023, based on he expe imen al map
A ea
Popula ion
[inhbs·1000]
BaP – annual a e age, exposed popula ion, 2023 [%]
Popula ion-weigh ed concen a ion
< 0.12
0.12-0.4
0.4-0.6
0.6-1.0
1.0-1.5
> 1.5
2023
5-yea mean
Di .
No he n Eu ope
34 055
9.6
62.5
16.5
10.6
0.8
0.37
0.53
-0.16
Wes e n Eu ope
86 334
63.7
36.2
0.0
0.0
0.12
0.15
-0.03
Cen al Eu ope
165 805
27.2
35.5
8.0
14.0
8.2
7.2
0.53
0.96
-0.44
Sou he n Eu ope
142 589
21.3
63.8
8.9
4.0
1.9
0.1
0.29
0.27
0.02
Sou h-Eas e n Eu ope wi hou Tü kiye
46 106
1.8
18.6
15.5
39.9
17.0
7.2
0.84
1.29
-0.45
To al
474 890
28.0
44.3
8.2
10.9
5.2
3.3
0.40
0.62
-0.21
EU-27
443 198
29.7
44.3
8.3
10.7
4.2
2.8
0.38
No e: The pe cen age alue “0.0” indica es ha an exposed popula ion exis s, bu i is small and es ima ed o be less han 0.05%. Emp y cells mean no
popula ion in exposu e.
Based on he expe imen al map, i is es ima ed ha 8.5% o he popula ion li ing in he conside ed
Eu opean a ea was exposed o concen a ions abo e 1.0 ng/m3 in 2023 (7% o EU27). Fu he , i is
es ima ed ha abou 72% o he popula ion li ing in he conside ed Eu opean a ea was exposed o
concen a ions abo e he WHO RL o 0.12 ng/m3 (70.3% o EU27). The popula ion-weigh ed
concen a ion o he BaP annual a e age o 2023 o he conside ed Eu opean coun ies is es ima ed
o be 0.4 ng/m3 (0.38 ng/m3 o EU27).
Figu e 5.1 shows, o he whole mapped a ea, he popula ion equency dis ibu ion o exposu e
classes o 0.05 ng/m3. The highes popula ion equency is ound o classes be ween 0.05 and 0.20
ng/m3. A qui e con inuous decline o popula ion equency is isible o classes abo e 0.30 ng/m3.
Figu e 5.1 Popula ion equency dis ibu ion, benzo(a)py ene annual a e age, 2023. The alue 1.0
ng/m3 is ma ked by he ed line
No e: Apa om he popula ion dis ibu ion shown in he g aph, i was es ima ed ha 0.15% o popula ion li ed in a eas
wi h BaP annual a e age concen a ions be ween 3.0 and 4.3 ng/m3.
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 73
6 Accumula ed isks
Al hough he spa ial dis ibu ions o PM, NO2 and ozone concen a ions di e widely, he possibili y o
an accumula ion o isk esul ing om high exposu es o all h ee pollu an s canno be excluded. The
maps o he h ee mos equen ly exceeded EU s anda ds (PM10 daily limi alue as p esen ed in Map
2.3, O3 a ge alue as shown in Map 3.1 le and NO2 annual limi alue as p esen ed in Map 4.1) ha e
been combined, see Map 6.1.
Map 6.1 Exceedance o Heal h-Rela ed Ai Quali y S anda ds, 2023
The combined popula ion exposu e shows he ollowing esul s: ou o he o al popula ion o 560
million in he conside ed a ea, 5% (30.2 million) people li e in a eas whe e wo o h ee o hese ai
quali y s anda ds a e exceeded; 0.1% (0.5 million) people li e in a eas whe e all h ee s anda ds a e
exceeded (in some u ban a eas a ec ed by a ics, no isible in he 1 km esolu ion map). The wo s
si ua ion in 2023 was obse ed in G eece and Tü kiye, whe e 4% and 0.2% li ed in a eas whe e all
h ee s anda ds a e exceeded, espec i ely.
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 80
The end analysis o he o es -weigh ed concen a ions o he AOT40 o o es s ac oss he pe iod
2005-2023 o he o al conside ed mapping a ea shows no end.
The e olu ion o he popula ion-weigh ed and he ag icul u al-weigh ed concen a ions o ozone
indica o s SOMO35 and AOT40 o ege a ion is shown in Figu e 7.5.
Figu e 7.5 Popula ion-weigh ed concen a ion o ozone indica o SOMO35 (le ) and ag icul u al-
weigh ed concen a ion o ozone indica o AOT40 o ege a ion ( igh ) in 2005-2023
7.3 Human heal h NO2 indica o
Table 7.5 summa ises he de elopmen in exposu e le els o he conside ed Eu opean popula ion o
he human heal h NO2 indica o (annual a e age), in e ms o popula ion-weigh ed concen a ions and
pe cen age o popula ion exposed o concen a ions abo e he 2008 annual LV (40 µg/m3) and he
2030 annual LV (20 µg/m3), o he yea s 2005, 2009, 2010 and 2013 o 2023, o which he maps based
on he cu en me hodology a e a ailable. The popula ion-weigh ed concen a ion is p esen ed
addi ionally also o 2007, al hough based on di e en mapping me hodology han he o he yea s.
This 2007 alue is p obably sligh ly unde es ima ed; based on Ho álek e al. (2017b), one can suppose
he ue alue would be o abou 1 pe cen age poin highe (i.e. i would be abou 23.5 µg/m3).
Table 7.5 Popula ion-weigh ed concen a ion and pe cen age o he conside ed Eu opean
popula ion (including Uni ed Kingdom, wi hou Tü kiye) exposed o concen a ions
abo e he 2008 NO2 limi alue (LV) o 40 µg/m3 and he 2030 NO2 limi alue (LV2030) o
20 µg/m3 o he p o ec ion o heal h o 2005 o 2023
NO2#### 2006 #### 2008 #### #### #### #### #### #### #### #### #### #### #### #### #### #### ####
Pop.-weigh ed conc. [μg/m3]23.3 23.3 22.1 22.1 19.4 18.6 18.8 18.6 18.4 17.6 16.8 14.0 14.4 14.4 12.9
Pop. exp. > LV (40 μg/m3) [%] 7.9 5.6 4.9 3.2 2.8 3.2 2.8 3.0 1.8 1.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1
Pop. exp. > LV2030 (20 μg/m3) [%] 57.1 53.8 55.0 41.5 39.4 38.1 38.5 37.2 33.1 29.5 16.0 17.5 17.8 13.0
Annual a e age
no
mappe
d
no
mappe
d
no
mapped
In 2023 he ac ions o he popula ion exposed o NO2 annual mean concen a ions abo e he 2008
limi alue o 40 µg/m3 and abo e he 2030 limi alue o 20 µg/m3 ha e been 0.1% and 13% o he
o al popula ion, espec i ely, which a e he lowes alues in he whole se ies. Fu he mo e, i is
es ima ed ha he conside ed Eu opean inhabi an s ha e been exposed on a e age o an annual mean
NO2 concen a ion o 13 µg/m3, again he lowes in he whole se ies.
T end analysis on he popula ion-weigh ed concen a ion o he o al mapping a ea shows a
downwa d end o abou -0.7 µg/m3 pe yea , o he pe iod 2005-2023, which is s a is ically
signi ican (a he s onges le el 0.001).
Figu e 7.6 p esen s he NO2 popula ion exposu e o six concen a ion classes, o 2012-2023.
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 81
Figu e 7.6 Popula ion exposu e, NO2 annual a e age, 2012-2023
The e olu ion o he popula ion-weigh ed concen a ions o NO2 is shown in Figu e 7.7. As he egula
NO2 maps a e no a ailable o all yea s, an al e na i e mapping esul s p epa ed based on a subse o
s a ions o he pu pose o end analysis 2005-2019 (Ho álek e al., 2022a) a e also p esen ed.
Figu e 7.7 Popula ion-weigh ed concen a ion o NO2 annual mean. Resul s based on bo h egula
maps ( ed) and maps o end analysis (blue) a e p esen ed, whe e a ailable
7.4 Human heal h BaP indica o
Table 7.6 summa ises o he human heal h BaP indica o (annual a e age) he popula ion-weigh ed
concen a ion and he pe cen age o he conside ed Eu opean popula ion exposed o BaP
concen a ions abo e he 2030 EU limi alue (LV2030) o 1.0 ng/m3, o yea s 2012-2023.
Table 7.6 Popula ion-weigh ed concen a ion and pe cen age o he conside ed Eu opean
popula ion (including Uni ed Kingdom, wi hou Tü kiye) exposed o concen a ions
abo e he 2030 BaP limi alue o 1.0 ng/m3 o he p o ec ion o heal h in 2012-2023
BaP 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Popula ion-weigh ed concen a ion [ng/m3]0.84 0.62 0.56 0.54 0.62 0.47 0.38
Popula ion exposed > LV2030 (1.0 ng/m3) [%] 20.5 16.4 15.1 13.9 15.5 11.9 7.5
Annual a e age
no mapped
In 2023 he popula ion exposed o BaP annual mean concen a ions abo e he le el o
1.0 ng/m3 has been 7.5% o he o al popula ion, which is he lowes alue in he whole se ies.
T end analysis on he popula ion-weigh ed concen a ion o he pe iod 2012-2023 shows a downwa d
end o cc. -0.04 ng/m3 pe yea , which is s a is ically signi ican (a a le el 0.05). Howe e , one should
ha e in mind bo h sho pe iod o he ime se ies and he expe imen al cha ac e o he BaP maps.
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 82
Lis o abb e ia ions
Abb e ia ion
Name
Re e ence
ALV
Annual Limi Value
AOT40
Accumula ed Ozone exposu e o e a Th eshold o
40 ppb (i.e. 80 µg/m³) in a speci ic pe iod
h p://eu -
lex.eu opa.eu/LexU iSe /L
exU iSe .do?u i=OJ:L:200
8:152:0001:0044:EN:PDF
AQ
Ai Quali y
BaP
Benzo(a)py ene
CL
C i ical Le el
h ps://icp ege a ion.ceh.a
c.uk/chap e -3-mapping-
c i ical-le els- ege a ion
CLC
CORINE Land Co e
h ps://land.cope nicus.eu
/pan-eu opean/co ine-
land-co e
CLRTAP
Con en ion on Long- ange T ansbounda y Ai
Pollu ion (Ai Con en ion)
h ps://unece.o g/en i on
men -policy/ai
CORINE
Co-ORdina ed IN o ma ion on he En i onmen
h ps://land.cope nicus.eu
/pan-eu opean/co ine-
land-co e
CTM
Chemical T anspo Model
De a
Uni ed Kingdom Depa men o En i onmen Food
& Ru al A ai s
DLV
Daily Limi Value
ECMWF
Eu opean Cen e o Medium-Range Wea he
Fo ecas s
h ps://www.ecmw .in /
EBAS
EMEP da aBASe
h ps://ebas.nilu.no/
EEA
Eu opean En i onmen Agency
www.eea.eu opa.eu
EMEP
Eu opean Moni o ing and E alua ion P og amme
h ps://www.emep.in /
ETC/ACM
Eu opean Topic Cen e on Ai pollu ion and Clima e
change Mi iga ion
h ps://www.eione .eu op
a.eu/e cs
ETC/ATNI
Eu opean Topic Cen e on Ai pollu ion, Noise,
T anspo and Indus ial pollu ion
h ps://www.eione .eu op
a.eu/e cs
ETC HE
Eu opean Topic Cen e on Human Heal h and he
En i onmen
h ps://www.eione .eu op
a.eu/e cs
EU
Eu opean Union
h ps://eu opean-
union.eu opa.eu
GMTED
Global Mul i- esolu ion Te ain Ele a ion Da a
GRIP
Global Roads In en o y Da ase
HLV
Hou ly Limi Value
ICP
In e na ional scien i ic Coope a i e P og amme
h ps://icp ege a ion.ceh.a
c.uk/
ILV
Indica i e Limi Value
JRC
Join Resea ch Cen e
h ps://ec.eu opa.eu/in o/
depa men s/join -
esea ch-cen e_en
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 83
Abb e ia ion
Name
Re e ence
LV
Limi Value
h p://eu -
lex.eu opa.eu/LexU iSe /L
exU iSe .do?u i=OJ:L:200
8:152:0001:0044:EN:PDF
LV2030
New o e ised 2030 EU Limi Value
NILU
No wegian Ins i u e o Ai Resea ch
h ps://www.nilu.no/
NO2
Ni ogen dioxide
NOx
Ni ogen oxides
O3
Ozone
ORNL
Oak Ridge Na ional Labo a o y
h ps://www.o nl.go /
PLA
P ojec ed Lea A ea
h ps://icp ege a ion.ceh.a
c.uk/chap e -3-mapping-
c i ical-le els- ege a ion
PM10
Pa icula e ma e wi h a diame e o 10
mic ome es o less
PM2.5
Pa icula e ma e wi h a diame e o 2.5
mic ome es o less
POD6
Phy o oxic Ozone Doze abo e
a h eshold o 6 nmol/m2 PLA/s
h ps://icp ege a ion.ceh.a
c.uk/chap e -3-mapping-
c i ical-le els- ege a ion
POD1
Phy o oxic Ozone Doze abo e
a h eshold o 1 nmol/m2 PLA/s
h ps://icp ege a ion.ceh.a
c.uk/chap e -3-mapping-
c i ical-le els- ege a ion
R2
Coe icien o de e mina ion
RIMM
Reg ession – In e pola ion – Me ging Mapping
RMSE
Roo Mean Squa e E o
SOMO10
Sum o Ozone Maximum daily 8-hou means O e
10 ppb (i.e. 20 µg/m3)
SOMO35
Sum o Ozone Maximum daily 8-hou means O e
35 ppb (i.e. 70 µg/m3)
TV
Ta ge Value
h p://eu -
lex.eu opa.eu/LexU iSe /L
exU iSe .do?u i=OJ:L:200
8:152:0001:0044:EN:PDF
UN
Uni ed Na ions
h ps://www.un.o g
UNECE
Uni ed Na ions Economic Commission o Eu ope
h ps://unece.o g/
UTC
Coo dina ed Uni e sal Time
WHO
Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion
h ps://www.who.in /
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 84
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ETC HE Repo 2025/5 96
while 𝑅𝑎(𝑧𝑡𝑔𝑡, 𝑧𝑚,𝑂3)= 1
𝑘.𝑢∗[𝑙𝑛(𝑧𝑚,𝑂3−𝑑
𝑧𝑡𝑔𝑡−𝑑 ) − 𝛹𝐻(𝑧𝑚,𝑂3−𝑑
𝐿) + 𝛹𝐻(𝑧𝑡𝑔𝑡−𝑑
𝐿)] (A1.8a)
𝑅𝑎(𝑑+𝑧0, 𝑧𝑚,𝑂3)= 1
𝑘.𝑢∗[𝑙𝑛(𝑧𝑚,𝑂3−𝑑
𝑧0) − 𝛹𝐻(𝑧𝑚,𝑂3−𝑑
𝐿) + 𝛹𝐻(𝑧0
𝐿)] (A1.8b)
𝑅𝑏= 2
𝑘· 𝑢∗ (𝑆𝑐
𝑃𝑟)2/3 (A1.8c)
𝑅𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓 =1
𝐿𝐴𝐼
𝑅𝑠𝑡𝑜+ 𝑆𝐴𝐼
𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡+ 1
𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑐+ 𝑅𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
(A1.8d)
while 𝐿= − 𝑢∗3
𝑘·𝑔·𝐻·𝑅
𝑃·𝑐𝑝 (A1.8e)
whe e k is he on Ká mán cons an (equal o 0.41),
z g is he op canopy heigh ( he a ge heigh ),
zm, O3 is he heigh o he a ailable ozone measu emen abo e he canopy,
z0 is he oughness leng h, usually assumed as 1/10 o he canopy heigh ,
L is he Obukho leng h,
H is he sensible hea lux in [Wm2],
d is he displacemen heigh , usually assumed as 2/3 o he canopy heigh ,
u* is he ic ion eloci y in [m/s],
Sc is he Schmid numbe o ozone (equal o 0.41),
P is he P and l numbe o ai (equal o 0.71),
P is he a mosphe ic p essu e in [Pa],
g is he g a i y accele a ion (equal o 9.8 m/s2),
cp is he speci ic hea a cons an p essu e (equal o 1048 J/kg/K),
R is he speci ic gas cons an o d y ai (equal o 287.05 J/kg/K),
LAI is he p ojec ed lea a ea in [m2/m2] (
8
),
SAI is he su ace a ea o he canopy in [m2/m2],
ΨH(..) = ΨH(ζ) is he simila i y unc ion o hea wi h ζ as he a gumen (
9
),
acco ding o
(𝜁)=2 when 𝜁<0
=−5𝜁 when 𝜁≥0 (A1.8 )
wi h x = (1 – 16 * ζ)1/4 (A1.8g)
and Rex is he esis ance o cu icula deposi ion o ozone (equal o 2 500 s/m);
Rsoil is he soil esis ance (equal o 200 s/m1),
while Rs o = 1/gs o (A1.8h)
Rinc = b.SAI.h / u* (A1.8i)
whe e gs o is he ac ual s oma al conduc ance,
b is he empi ical cons an (equal o 14 m-1),
h is he heigh o he canopy.
The calcula ions o LAI and SAI a e based on Simpson e al. (2012) and Embe son e al. (2000b), as well
as he schema ics ega ding LAI p esen ed he ein (see Eq. 2.8i o 2.8n).
(
8
) Fo mo e de ails see LMD e al. (2020).
(
9
) Fo mo e de ails see CLRTAP (2017).
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 97
LAI = LAImin + (d – SGS) * (LAImax − LAImin) / SGSleng h, (A1.8j)
SAI = 5 * LAI / 3.5 (A1.8k)
when SGS ≤ d < SGS + SGSleng h
LAI = LAImax, (A1.8l)
SAI = LAI + 1.5, (A1.8m)
when SGS + SGSleng h ≤ d < EGS −EGSleng h
LAI = LAImax − (d – (EGS –EGSlengh )) * (LAImax − LAImin) / EGSleng h, (A1.8n)
SAI = LAI + 1.5, (A1.8o)
when EGS − EGSleng h ≤ d ≤ EGS
whe e LAImin is he minimum (wi hin he g owing season) LAI alues [m2/m2]
LAImax is he maximum (wi hin he g owing season) LAI alues [m2/m2]
SGS is he s a o he g owing season [day o yea ]
SGSlengh is he du a ion o he s a o he g owing season [days]
EGSlengh is he du a ion o he end o he g owing season [days]
EGS is he end o he g owing season [day o yea ] [day o yea ]
Calcula ion o he hou ly s oma al conduc ance o ozone (gs o)
The basis o he app oach used o calcula ing phy o oxic ozone doses is he calcula ion o an
ins an aneous s oma al conduc ance gs o in he gi en hou H, acco ding o he equa ion
gs o = gmax * [min( phen, O3)] * ligh * max[ min, ( emp * VPD * SW)] (A1.9)
whe e gs o is he ac ual s oma al conduc ance in [mmol O3 /m2 PLA pe second],
gmax is he species-speci ic maximum s oma al conduc ance in [mmol O3 /m2 PLA pe
second], see Table A1.2,
phen is he ela i e p opo ion unc ion o he phenology o he di e en s age o
g owing,
O3 is he ela i e p opo ion unc ion o he in luence o ozone on s oma al lux by
p omo ing p ema u e senescence,
min is he species-speci ic ela i e minimum s oma al conduc ance ha occu s
du ing dayligh hou s, see Table A1.2,
emp, VPD, SW, ligh a e ela i e p opo ion unc ions o lea s oma a espond o
empe a u e, ai humidi y, soil mois u e and ligh .
Pa ame e s phen, O3, ligh , emp, VPD, SW and min a e exp essed as ela i e p opo ion unc ions, aking
alues be ween 0 and 1 as a p opo ion o gmax. These unc ions allow aking in o accoun i adiance
( ligh ), empe a u e ( emp), wa e apou de ici a lea es le el ( pd), soil mois u e ( sw), phenology o
he di e en s age o g owing ( phen) and he in luence o ozone on s oma al lux by p omo ing
p ema u e senescence ( O3). min is he minimum ela i e alue o s oma al conduc ance du ing he
dayligh .
The pa ame e phen is calcula ed based on he accumula ion o he mal ime o e he g owing season
o he c op being conside ed (Cole e e al., 2018), acco ding o CLRTAP (2024). Fo whea and po a o,
he accumula ion pe iod is de ined o each yea using he e ec i e empe a u e sum (ETS) in ˚C o
days in excess o 0 ˚C, while o oma o o days in excess o 10 ˚C.
Fo whea , he o al accumula ion pe iod du ing which whea is sensi i e o ozone exposu e is 200 °C
days and 300 °C days be o e mid-an hesis (mid-poin in lowe ing) o 700 °C days o 550 °C days a e
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 98
mid-an hesis o A lan ic, Bo eal and Con inen al egions and Medi e anean egion, espec i ely. The
iming o mid-an hesis is es ima ed by s a ing a he i s da e a e 1 Janua y (o jus 1 Janua y) when
he empe a u e exceeds 0 °C. The mean daily empe a u e is hen accumula ed ( empe a u e sum),
and mid-an hesis is es ima ed o be a empe a u e sum o 1075 °C days o A lan ic, Bo eal and
Con inen al egions and 1250 °C days o Medi e anean egion, which in gene al co esponds o b ead
whea .
Fo po a o, he accumula ion pe iod s ands be ween 330 °C days be o e he ube ini ia ion da e and
800 °C days a e his da e. The ube ini ia ion da e is conside ed o be homogeneous h oughou
Eu ope. The easons o i s simpli ica ion a e a) he e ogeneous clima ic condi ions in he Eu opean
coun ies na u ally lead o di e en ime o po a o plan ing (Pede sen e al., 2005) ollowed by
di e en ime o he ube ini ia ion and b) lack o de ailed local da a a ailabili y o modelling and
mapping.
As discussed (
10
) wi h he F ench na ional Chambe o ag icul u e (APCA, h p://chamb es-
ag icul u e. ), he ube ini ia ion s a s 15 days a e he ansplan a ion in he ield, which occu s in
May. The e o e, he ixed da e o he ube ini ia ion was se o June 1s .
Fo oma o, he accumula ion pe iod is om 250 ˚C days o 1500 ˚C days a e ansplan a ion in he
ield o e a base empe a u e o 10 °C. The iming o he ansplan a ion is se on he da e June 1s .
The pa ame e phen is calcula ed acco ding o ollowing equa ions:
in he case o whea :
𝑓𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑛 =1 when ( phen_2_ETS + phen_1_ETS) ≤ ETS ≤ ( phen_2_ETS + phen_3_ETS)
=1−( 𝑓𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑛_𝑎
𝑓𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑛_4_𝐸𝑇𝑆−𝑓𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑛_3_𝐸𝑇𝑆) * (ETS – phen_3_ETS)
when ( phen_2_ETS + phen_3_ETS) < ETS ≤ ( phen_2_ETS + phen_4_ETS)
=𝑓𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑛_𝑒 −( 𝑓𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑛_𝑒
𝑓𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑛_5_𝐸𝑇𝑆−𝑓𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑛_4_𝐸𝑇𝑆) * (ETS – phen_4_ETS)
when ( phen_2_ETS + phen_4_ETS) < ETS ≤ phen_5_ETS (A1.9a)
in he case o po a o ( o mula ed based on CLRTAP, 2017):
𝑓𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑛 =1−(1 − 𝑓𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑛_𝑎
𝑓𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑛_1_𝐸𝑇𝑆)∗𝐸𝑇𝑆 when phen_1_ETS ≤ ETS < 0
=1−(1 − 𝑓𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑛_𝑒
𝑓𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑛_2_𝐸𝑇𝑆)∗𝐸𝑇𝑆 when 0 < ETS ≤ phen_2_ETS (A1.9b)
in he case o oma o ( o mula ed based on CLRTAP, 2017):
𝑓𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑛 =𝐸𝑇𝑆−𝑓𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑛_2_𝐸𝑇𝑆
𝐴𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡_𝐸𝑇𝑆−𝑓𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑛_2_𝐸𝑇𝑆 when As a _ETS ≤ ETS < Aend_ETS (A1.9c)
(
10
) The e is a lack o in o ma ion on a da e o po a o ube ini ia ion in Eu ope. I should ideally ely on exis ing models based
on ag icul u al p ac ices, local clima ology, g ound p ope ies, and loca ion. INERIS, while de eloping he POD sc ip , elied
on con en s o discussions wi h he F ench Na ional Chambe o Ag icul u e (consul a ion wi h APCA, Ma ch 2018; Deumie
and Hannon, 2010). Based on he in o ma ion gi en ha he ube ini ia ion s a s 15 days a e he ansplan a ion in he
ield, which occu s in May in F ance, a ixed da e o June 1s has been chosen o F ance and applied also o he es o Eu ope.
This da e should be e ised acco ding o he a ailabili y o mo e accu a e in o ma ion on po a o plan a ions in Eu ope.
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 99
whe e ETS is he e ec i e empe a u e sum in ˚C days using a base empe a u e o 0 ˚C o
whea and po a o and a base empe a u e o 10 °C o oma o (see Table A1.2);
o whea , ETS is se o 0 °C days a mid-an hesis day. Then As a _ETS will be a 200
˚C days be o e mid-an hesis, and Aend_ETS will be a 700 ˚C days a e mid-an hesis
o e a base empe a u e o 0 °C;
o po a o, ETS is se o 0 °C days a ube ini ia ion day. Then As a _ETS will be a
330 ˚C days be o e ube ini ia ion and Aend_ETS a 800 ˚C days a e ube ini ia ion
o e a base empe a u e o 0 °C;
o oma o, ETS is se o 0 °C days a ansplan a ion day in he ield. Then As a _ETS
will be a 250 ˚C days a e ansplan a ion in he ield and Aend_ETS a 1500 ˚C days
a e ansplan a ion in he ield o e a base empe a u e o 10 °C,
phen_a, phen_e is he phenology unc ion, which consis s o e ms desc ibing a e
changes o gmax exp essed as ac ions (see Table A1.2),
phen_1_ETS, phen_2_ETS , phen_3_ETS , phen_4_ETS, phen_5_ETS a e °C days (see Table A1.2; phen_1_ETS
and phen_5_ETS de ine pe iod c ops o be sensi i e o ozone exposu e),
As a _ETS and Aend_ETS a e he e ec i e empe a u e sums (coun ed om he day o he mid-
an hesis o whea , om he day o he ube ini ia ion o po a o and om he
day o he ansplan a ion in he ield o oma o) abo e a base empe a u e o
0 ˚C o whea and po a o and 10 ˚C o oma o a he s a and end o he O3
accumula ion pe iod espec i ely; see Table A1.2.
The pa ame e O3 in he case o whea is calcula ed acco ding o equa ion
O3 = [(1+(POD0/14)8]-1 (A1.9d)
while 𝑃𝑂𝐷0=∑𝐹𝑠𝑡𝑜
𝐻−1
𝑛=𝐴𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡 (𝑛)·3600
106 (A1.9e)
whe e POD0 is he ozone lux al eady accumula ed since he beginning o he ege a ion
pe iod As a up o he las hou H-1,
Fs o(n) is he hou ly ozone lux in he hou n, calcula ed in he p e ious s eps based on
Equa ion A1.10, while Fs o(As a ) is equal o 0.
The pa ame e (ozone unc ion) O3 in he case o po a o is calcula ed acco ding o equa ion
O3 = [(1+(AOT0/40)5]-1 (A1.9 )
whe e AOT0 is accumula ed ozone concen a ion om he s a o he ege a ion pe iod As a
up o he las hou H-1.
The pa ame e (ozone unc ion) O3 in he case o oma o is no de e mined.
The pa ame e ligh is calcula ed acco ding o
ligh = 1 – EXP[(–ligh _a)*PPFD] (A1.9g)
while PPFD = SSRD * 0.5 * 4.5 (A1.9h)
whe e PPFD ep esen s he pho osyn he ic pho on lux densi y [μmol/m2 pe second],
ligh _a is a ligh pa ame e (see Table A1.2),
SSRD ep esen s he su ace ne sola adia ion in [W/m2].
The pa ame e emp is calcula ed acco ding o:
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 100
emp = max { min, [(T – Tmin) / (Top – Tmin)] * [(Tmax – T) / (Tmax – Top )]b } when Tmin < T < Tmax
= min when Tmin > T > Tmax (A1.9i)
while b = (Tmax – Top ) / (Top – Tmin) (A1.9j)
whe e Tmin, Tmax and Top a e minimum, maximum and op imum empe a u es de e mining lea
s oma a opening (see Table A1.2)
Table A1.2 Pa ame isa ion o POD6SPEC o whea lag lea es and he uppe -canopy sunli lea es
o po a o and oma o, o di e en biogeog aphical egions
Pa ame e
Uni s
(B ead) Whea
Po a o
Toma o
A lan ic, Bo eal,
Con inen al
(Pannonia,
S eppic)
Medi e anean
A lan ic, Bo eal,
Con inen al
(Medi e anean
Pannonia, S eppic)
Medi e anean
gmax
mmol O3 /m2 PLA
pe second
500
430
750
330
min
ac ion
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.06
ligh _a
-
0.0105
0.0105
0.005
0.0125
Tmin
°C
12
12
13
18
Top
°C
26
28
28
28
Tmax
°C
40
39
39
37
VPDmax
kPa
1.2
3.2
2.1
1
VPDmin
kPa
3.2
4.6
3.5
4
ΣVPD_c i
kPa
8
16
10
-
O3
POD0 mmol O3/m2
PLA pe second
14
-
-
-
O3
AOT0, ppmh
-
-
40
-
O3
exponen
8
-
5
-
As a _ETS
ºC day
-
-
-
250
Aend_ETS
ºC day
-
-
-
1500
SGS
ºC day
As a _ETS
As a _ETS
As a _ETS
As a _ETS
EGS
ºC day
Aend_ETS
Aend_ETS
Aend_ETS
Aend_ETS
SGSleng h
days
70
70
35
70
EGSleng h
days
22
44
65
44
LAImin
m2/m2
0
0
0
0
LAImax
m2/m2
5
3.5
6
3.5
Lea dimension
cm
2
2
4
3
Canopy heigh
m
1
0.75
1
2
phen_a
ac ion
0.3
0.5
0.4
1
phen_b
ac ion
-
-
-
-
phen_c
ac ion
-
-
-
-
phen_d
ac ion
-
-
-
-
phen_e
ac ion
0.7
0.5
0.2
0.0
phen_1_ETS
°C day
-200
-300
-330
0
phen_2_ETS
°C day
0
0
800
2770
phen_3_ETS
°C day
100
70
-
-
phen_4_ETS
°C day
525
312
-
-
phen_5_ETS
°C day
700
550
-
-
mid-an hesis
°C day
1075
1250
-
-
Sou ce: CLRTAP, 2024; Embe son e al., 2000b; González-Fe nández e al., 2013; González-Fe nández (pe sonal
communica ion, May 2021).
The pa ame e VPD is calcula ed acco ding o:
VPD = min{1,max { min, [(1– min)*(VPDmin – VPD) / (VPDmin – VPDmax)] + min}} (A1.9k)
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 101
while VPD = es(T) * (1− RH) (A1.9l)
es(T) = 0.61 exp[17.502T/(240.97+T)] (A1.9m)
whe e VPDmin is he minimum apou p essu e de ici de e mining lea s oma a opening,
VPDmax is he maximum apou p essu e de ici de e mining lea s oma a opening,
T is he ai empe a u e [°C],
RH is he ela i e humidi y [%]/100 (i.e. in he ange 0-1),
es(T) is he po en ial (sa u a ion) wa e apou p essu e,
The ΣVPD (i.e. he unc ion desc ibing s oma al e-opening in he a e noon) is aken in o accoun o
maps PODYSPEC o whea and po a o. ΣVPD (kPa) should be calcula ed o dayligh hou s un il dawn
o he nex day. I ΣVPD ≥ ΣVPD_c i , gs o calcula ed using Equa ion A1.9 is alid i smalle o equal o
gs o o he p eceding hou . I gs o is la ge han gs o o he p eceding hou , gi en ha ΣVPD is la ge han
o equal o ΣVPD_c i , i is eplaced by he gs o o he p eceding hou .
The pa ame e SW is eplaced by SMI (whe e SMI ep esen s Soil Mois u e Index wi h maximum a ield
capaci y), aking alues be ween 0 and 1 as a p opo ion o gmax (wi h 0 o soil mois u e a and below
wil ing poin ), ollowing he pa ame e iza ion gi en in Simpson e al. (2012), simila o he plan
a ailable wa e (PAW) pa ame e iza ion PAW as de ined o whea in CLRTAP (2024). The basic equa ion
used o SW esp. SMI is:
𝑓𝑆𝑀𝐼 = 0 o SMI ≤ 0
=SMI
PAW𝑡 o 0 <SMI ≤ PAW
=1 o SMI > PAW (A1.9n)
while SMI=SWLL − PWP
FC − PWP (A1.9o)
whe e PAW is he h eshold amoun o wa e in he soil a ailable o he plan s, abo e which
s oma al conduc ance is a a maximum, se o 0.5,
SWLL is he soil mois u e in [m3/m3],
PWP is he pe manen wil ing poin in [cm3/cm3],
FC is he ield capaci y in [cm3/cm3].
Pa ame e SW ep esen s below-g ound soil wa e , which is ex emely di icul o e i y due o he
limi ed a ailabili y o measu ed da a ac oss Eu ope. Mo eo e , he ela ionship be ween p ecipi a ion,
soil wa e con en and soil wa e p essu e is highly non-linea and sensi i e o soil cha ac e is ics,
making eliable es ima ion p oblema ic. Soils and plan esponses a e highly he e ogeneous, and
simple models o en ail o e lec his complexi y. The e o e, using SMI p o ides a mo e p ac ical and
obus al e na i e o cap u ing he e ec s o soil mois u e s ess in la ge-scale modelling (CLRTAP,
2020).
The Soil Mois u e Index using he EMEP me hodology as desc ibed in Simpson e al. (2012) and CLRTAP
(2020) is used. I is compu ed using he soil mois u e a iable a ailable om a me eo ological model,
which ep esen s he wa e con en in m3 o wa e pe m3 o g ound [m3/m3] in a speci ic g ound le el,
in dependence on he a ailable da ase . Fo soil mois u e, he ECWMF’s ERA5-Land a iable Volume
o wa e in soil laye 3 (i.e. 28-100 cm) has been used, see Sec ion 3.3. The le el o soil laye was chosen
based on ecommenda ion o Habe le and S oboda (2015). The soil mois u e is qui e a sensi i e
pa ame e in he calcula ion o he POD. Nex o he soil mois u e, he soil mois u e index also akes
in o accoun he pe manen wil ing poin and he ield capaci y; hey a e aken om JRC soil da abase
(JRC, 2016), see Annex 2, Sec ion A2.3.
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 102
No limi a ion o s oma al conduc ance due o soil mois u e can be assumed o oma o, since i is an
i iga ed ho icul u al c op. Thus, SMI o his c op could be es ablished o SMI = 1 o e he whole ange
o SMI alues o emo e limi a ion due o soil mois u e de ici .
Modelling he hou ly s oma al lux o ozone (Fs o)
Once he hou ly s oma al conduc ance o ozone (gs o) and all ele an a iables a e compu ed, he
s oma al lux o ozone (Fs o) can be calcula ed, based on he assump ion ha he concen a ion o
ozone a he op o he canopy ep esen s a easonable es ima e o he concen a ion a he uppe
su ace o he lamina laye o a sunli uppe canopy lea . Fs o is calcula ed acco ding o he CLRTAP
(ICP Vege a ion) me hodology, hus he ac ion o he ozone aken up by he s oma a is gi en using a
combina ion o he s oma al conduc ance, he ex e nal lea , o cu icula , esis ance and he lea
su ace esis ance. The hou ly s oma al lux in he gi en hou H is calcula ed acco ding o
𝐹𝑠𝑡𝑜 =𝑐(𝑧1)∗𝑔𝑠𝑡𝑜 ∗𝑟𝑐
𝑟𝑏+𝑟𝑐 (A1.10)
whe e Fs o is he hou ly s oma al lux o ozone in [nmol/m2 PLA pe second]
c(z1) is he concen a ion o ozone a canopy op in [nmol/m3]
b is he quasi-lamina esis ance in [s/m]
c is he lea su ace esis ance in [s/m]
gs o is he ac ual s oma al conduc ance in [m/s],
while c = 1/(gs o + gex ) (A1.10a)
𝑟𝑏=1.3∗150∗√𝐿
𝑢(𝑧1) (A1.10b)
whe e gex is he ex e nal lea , o cu icula , esis ance in [m/s], equal o 1/2500 m/s
u(z1) is he wind speed a heigh z1 (z1 is he canopy op)
L is he c oss-wind lea dimension (2 cm, see Table A1.2)
while 𝑢(𝑧1) = 𝑢∗
𝑘∗𝑙𝑛 (𝑧1−𝑑
𝑧0) o whea (A1.10c)
𝑢(𝑧1) = 𝑢∗
𝑘∗𝑙𝑛 (𝑧1
𝑧0) o po a o and oma o (A1.10d)
whe e k is he on Ká mán cons an (equal o 0.41)
d is he displacemen heigh usually assumed as 2/3 o he canopy heigh ,
z1 is he op o he canopy
z0 is he oughness leng h usually assumed as 1/10 o he canopy heigh
u* is he ic ion eloci y.
Box A1.1 shows he con e sion o s oma al conduc ance and ozone concen a ion o uni s demanded
o PODY calcula ion.
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 103
Box A1.1 Con e sion o s oma al conduc ance gs o and ozone concen a ion o uni s demanded
o PODy calcula ion
S oma al conduc ance gs o has o be con e ed om uni s mmol/m2 pe second o uni s m/s (since all
he esis ances a e exp essed in he uni o s/m). A s anda d empe a u e (20 °C) and ai p essu e
(1.013 x 105 Pa), he con e sion is made by di iding he conduc ance in mmol/m2 pe second by 41
000 o gi e conduc ance in m/s.
To con e he ozone concen a ion (C) a canopy heigh om µg/m3 esp. ppb o nmol/m, he
ollowing equa ion should be used:
C [nmol·m-3] = C [ppb] * P/(R·T) = C [µg/m3] / 2 * P/(R·T) (A1.11)
whe e P is he a mosphe ic p essu e in Pa,
R is he uni e sal gas cons an o 8.31447 J/mol pe Kel in
T is he ai empe a u e in Kel in.
A s anda d empe a u e (20 °C) and ai p essu e (1.013 x 105 Pa), he concen a ion in ppb should
be mul iplied by 41.56 o calcula e he concen a ion in nmol/m3.
Sou ce: CLRTAP, 2024
Calcula ion o PODY om Fs o
Hou ly a e aged s oma al ozone luxes (Fs o) in excess o a Y h eshold a e accumula ed o e a species
o ege a ion-speci ic accumula ion pe iod using he ollowing equa ion:
𝑃𝑂𝐷𝑌=∑(𝐹𝑠𝑡𝑜(𝑛)−𝑌)
𝑛·3600
106 (A1.12)
while Y ( o whea , po a o o oma o) = 6 nmol/m2 PLA pe second
whe e PODY is he phy o oxic ozone dose ela ed o he h eshold Y, in [mmol/m2 PLA],
Fs o(n) is he hou ly ozone lux in he hou n o he accumula ion pe iod.
The alue Y (in [nmol/m2 PLA/s]) is sub ac ed om each hou ly a e aged Fs o (in [nmol/m2 PLA/s])
alue and he Fs o (a e he sub ac ing o Y) is accumula ed only when Fs o>Y, du ing dayligh hou s
(when global adia ion is mo e han 50 W/m2). The alue is hen con e ed o hou ly luxes by
mul iplying by 3 600 and o mmol by di iding by 106 o ge he s oma al ozone lux in mmol/m2 PLA.
T ees
The POD maps o selec ed ees, i.e. beech (F. syl a ica) and sp uce (P. abies), a e c ea ed wi h
calcula ed hou ly POD alues which a e based on hou ly O3 concen a ions, hou ly me eo ological
pa ame e s such as empe a u e, apou p essu e de ici , sola adia ion and soil hyd aulic p ope y
da a. The hou ly O3 concen a ions a e calcula ed by combining he moni o ing da a om u al
backg ound s a ions, chemical anspo modelling da a and o he supplemen a y da a (Ho álek e al.,
2023).
The calcula ion o he phy o oxic O3 dose abo e a h eshold Y (POD1) as desc ibed in Vlasáko á e al.
(2023) ollows p ecisely he me hodology desc ibed in he Manual o modelling and mapping c i ical
loads & le els o he CLRTAP in i s mos ecen a ailable e ision (CLRTAP, 2024), including some
speci ica ions p esen ed in he Scien i ic Backg ound Documen s o his manual (CLRTAP, 2017, 2020),
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 104
as p epa ed by he In e na ional scien i ic Coope a i e P og amme on e ec s o ai pollu ion on
na u al ege a ion and c ops o he Wo king G oup on E ec s o he CLRTAP (ICP Vege a ion).
A1.4 Me hods o unce ain y analysis
The unce ain y es ima ion o he Eu opean map is based on lea e-one-ou c oss- alida ion. This c oss-
alida ion me hod compu es he quali y o he spa ial in e pola ion o each poin o measu emen
(i.e. moni o ing s a ion) om all a ailable in o ma ion excep om he poin in ques ion, i.e. i
wi hholds one da a poin and hen makes a p edic ion a he spa ial loca ion o ha poin . This
p ocedu e is epea ed o all measu emen poin s in he a ailable se . The p edic ed and measu emen
alues a hese poin s a e plo ed in he o m o a sca e plo . Wi h help o s a is ical indica o s (see
below), he quali y o he p edic ions is demons a ed objec i ely. The ad an age o he na u e o his
c oss- alida ion echnique is ha i enables e alua ion o he quali y o he p edic ed alues a
loca ions wi hou measu emen s, as long as hey a e wi hin he a ea co e ed by he measu emen s.
In addi ion, a simple compa ison is made be ween he poin measu emen da a and he es ima ed
alues o he 1 km x 1 km g id cells ( o PM and NO2) o he 10 km x10 km g id cells ( o ozone) o he
sepa a e u al and u ban backg ound (and u ban a ic, whe e ele an ) map laye s and he 1 km x 1
km g id cells o he inal combined maps, o he heal h- ela ed indica o s, and he 2 x 2 km g id cells
in he case o AOT40 and NOx. No e ha he g id cell alue is he mean es ima ed alue o his g id cell
a ea. The es ima ed alue wi hin a g id cell will only app oxima e he p edic ed alue(s) a he
s a ion(s) lying wi hin ha cell. This addi ional analysis has no been pe o med o BaP.
C oss- alida ion
The esul s o c oss- alida ion a e desc ibed by he s a is ical indica o s and sca e plo s. The main
indica o used is oo mean squa ed e o (RMSE) and he addi ional ones a e ela i e RMSE (RRMSE),
which is exp essed in ela i e e ms (by ela ing he RMSE o he mean o he ai pollu ion indica o
alue o all s a ions), and bias (mean p edic ion e o , MPE):
𝑅𝑀𝑆𝐸=√1
𝑁∑(𝑍
(𝑠𝑖)−𝑍(𝑠𝑖))2
𝑁
𝑖=1 (A1.13)
𝑅𝑅𝑀𝑆𝐸=𝑅𝑀𝑆𝐸
𝑍
.100 (A1.14)
𝑏𝑖𝑎𝑠(𝑀𝑃𝐸)= 1
𝑁∑(𝑍
(𝑠𝑖)−𝑍(𝑠𝑖))
𝑁
𝑖=1 (A1.15)
whe e 𝑍
(𝑠𝑖) is he ai quali y indica o alue de i ed om he measu ed concen a ion a he
i h poin , i = 1, …, N,
𝑍(𝑠𝑖) is he ai quali y es ima ed indica o alue a he i h poin using o he in o ma ion,
wi hou he indica o alue de i ed om he measu ed concen a ion a he i h
poin ,
RRMSE is he ela i e RMSE, exp essed in pe cen ,
𝑍 is he a i hme ic a e age o he indica o alues Z(s1), …, Z(sN), as de i ed om
measu emen concen a ions a he s a ions i = 1, … , N,
N is he numbe o he measu ing poin s.
O he indica o s a e R2 and he eg ession equa ion (y = a.x + c) pa ame e s slope (a) and in e cep (c),
ollowing om he sca e plo be ween he p edic ed (using c oss- alida ion) and he obse ed
concen a ions. RMSE should be as small as possible, bias (MPE) should be as close o ze o as possible,
R2 should be as close o 1 as possible, slope a should be as close o 1 as possible, and in e cep c should
be as close o ze o as possible (in he eg ession equa ion y = a.x + c).
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 105
In he c oss- alida ion o PM2.5, NOx and BaP, only s a ions wi h PM2.5, NOx and BaP measu emen da a,
espec i ely, a e used (no he pseudo PM2.5, NOx and BaP s a ions, see Annex 1 Sec ion A1.1).
Compa ison o he poin measu emen and in e pola ed g id alues
The compa ison o poin measu emen and p edic ed g id alues is desc ibed by he linea eg ession
equa ion and i s pa ame e s and s a is ical alues. The compa ison is execu ed sepa a ely o u al and
u ban backg ound (and u ban a ic, whe e ele an ) map laye s and o he inal combined map. In
he case o PM2.5 and NOx, only he s a ions wi h ac ual PM2.5 and NOx measu emen da a a e used
(no he pseudo PM2.5 and NOx s a ions). This analysis is done o PM, ozone, NO2 and NOx, no o BaP.
The poin obse a ion – poin c oss- alida ion p edic ion analysis (Annex 3, sec ions “Unce ain y
es ima ed by c oss- alida ion”) desc ibes in e pola ion pe o mance a poin loca ions when he e is
no obse a ion (as i ollows he lea e-one-ou app oach). In his case, he smoo hing e ec o he
in e pola ion is mos p e alen .
The poin obse a ion – g id p edic ion app oach indica es pe o mance o he alue o he g id cell
(ei he in 1 km, 2 km o 10 km esolu ion) wi h espec o he obse a ions ha a e loca ed wi hin ha
cell. As such, some a iabili y is due o smoo hing bu i also includes smoo hing due o spa ial
a e aging in o he g id cells. As such, he poin -g id alida ion app oach ells us how well ou
in e pola ed and agg ega ed g id alues app oxima e he measu emen s a he ac ual s a ion (poin )
loca ions. Whe eas he poin -poin app oach ells us how well ou in e pola ed alues es ima e he
indica o a a poin whe e he e is no ac ual measu emen a ha loca ion, unde he cons ain ha
he poin lies wi hin he a ea co e ed by measu emen s.
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 112
Table A2.2 Gene al land co e classes, based on CLC2018 classes, used in mapping
Label
Gene al class desc ip ion
CLC classes g id codes
CLC classes codes
CLC classes desc ip ion
HDR
High densi y esiden ial a eas
1
111
Con inuous u ban ab ic
LDR
Low densi y esiden ial a eas
2
112
Discon inuous u ban ab ic
AGR
Ag icul u al a eas
12-22
211-244
Ag icul u al a eas
NAT
Na u al a eas
23-34
311-335
Fo es and semi na u al a eas
Two agg ega ions a e used, i.e. in o 1 km esolu ion g id and in o he ci cle wi h adius o 5 km. Fo
each gene al CLC class, he high land use esolu ion is spa ially agg ega ed in o he 1 km EEA s anda d
g id esolu ion. The agg ega ed g id squa e alue ep esen s o each gene al class he o al a ea o
his class as pe cen age o he o al 1 km x 1 km a ea. Fo de ails, see Ho álek e al. (2017b).
Road ype ec o da a
GRIP (Meije e al., 2018) ec o oad ype da a p o ided by he Ne he lands En i onmen al
Assessmen Agency (PBL) a e used o he weigh ing p ocedu e o he u ban backg ound and he u ban
a ic map laye s (Annex 1, Sec ion A1.1). The oad ypes a e dis ibu ed in o 5 classes, om highways
o local oads and s ee s. In ag eemen wi h Ho álek e al. (2017b), oad classes No. 1 “Highways”,
No. 2 “P ima y oads” and No. 3 “Seconda y oads” a e used.
Pe cen age o he a ea in luenced by a ic is ep esen ed by bu e s a ound he oads: o
he indi idual classes 1-3 and o classes 1-3 oge he , a all 1 km x 1 km g id cells; a bu e o 75 me es
dis ance a each side om each oad ec o is aken o he oads o classes 1 and 2, while a bu e o
50 me es is aken o he oads o class 3. Fo de ails, see Ho álek e al. (2017b).
Sa elli e da a
The annual a e age NO2 da ase was cons uc ed based on da a om he TROPOsphe ic Moni o ing
Ins umen (TROPOMI) onboa d o he Sen inel-5 P ecu so sa elli e (Vee kind e al., 2012). All
a ailable swa h-based Le el-2 da a wi h an i egula pixel geome y was acqui ed o he yea 2023.
The spa ial esolu ion o he p oduc is cc. 5.5 km by 3.5 km. The p oduc used is he
S5P_OFFL_L2__NO2 p oduc ( an Ge en e al., 2019, 2020) and i p o ides he oposphe ic e ical
column densi y o NO2, i.e. a e ically in eg a ed alue o e he en i e oposphe e. All o e passes o
a speci ic day we e hen mosaicked using HARP (h ps://s co p.gi hub.io/ha p/doc/h ml/index.h ml)
and e ie als wi h a quali y assu ance alues g ea e han 0.75 (indica ing high quali y and cloud- ee
condi ions) we e g idded o a egula p ojec ed g id o all a ea wi h a 1 km spa ial esolu ion in a
ETRS89 / ETRS-LAEA (EPSG 3035) p ojec ion. The daily g idded iles we e subsequen ly a e aged o an
annual mean. I.e. he pa ame e used is
NO2 – annual a e age oposphe ic e ical column densi y (VCD) [numbe o NO2 molecules pe
cm2 o ea h su ace], yea 2023 (agg ega ed om cloud- ee high-quali y daily da a).
Soil hyd aulic p ope ies da a
JRC da a called "Maps o indica o s o soil hyd aulic p ope ies o Eu ope" in 1 km esolu ion a e used
o POD calcula ions, JRC (2016). Namely he ollowing indica o s a e used:
Wil ing Poin – wa e con en a wil ing poin [cm3/cm3],
Field Capaci y – wa e con en a ield capaci y [cm3/cm3].
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 113
Annex 3
Technical de ails and mapping unce ain ies
This annex con ains echnical de ails on he linea eg ession models and he esidual k iging as used
in he mapping. Fu he mo e, unce ain y es ima es o he maps o he indica o s a e gi en.
A3.1 PM10
Technical de ails on he mapping and unce ain y es ima es o bo h PM10 indica o s maps annual
a e age (Map 2.1) and 90.4 pe cen ile o daily means (Map 2.3) a e p esen ed in his sec ion.
Technical de ails on he mapping
Table A3.1 p esen s he es ima ed pa ame e s o he linea eg ession models (c, a1, a2, …) and o he
esidual k iging (nugge , sill, ange) and includes he s a is ical indica o s o bo h he eg ession and
he k iging, o bo h PM10 indica o s. The linea eg ession and o dina y k iging o i s esiduals a e
applied on he loga i hmically ans o med da a o bo h measu emen and modelled PM10 alues. In
Table A3.1 he s anda d e o and a iog am pa ame e s (nugge , sill and ange) e e o hese
ans o med da a, whe eas RMSE and bias e e o he in e pola ion a e a back- ans o ma ion. Since
2017 maps, an upda ed me hodology as de eloped and es ed unde Ho álek e al. (2019) has been
used, i.e. including land co e among he supplemen a y da a and using he a ic u ban map laye .
The adjus ed R2 and s anda d e o a e indica o s o he i o he eg ession ela ionship, whe e
he adjus ed R2 should be as close o 1 as possible and he s anda d e o should be as small as possible.
The adjus ed R2 o he u al a eas was 0.67 a he annual a e age and 0.66 a he 90.4 pe cen ile o
daily means (P90.4); o he u ban backg ound a eas 0.38 a he annual a e age and 0.37 a he P90.4;
o he u ban a ic a eas 0.38 a he annual a e age and 0.28 a he P90.4.
Table A3.1 Pa ame e s and s a is ics o linea eg ession model and o dina y k iging o PM10
indica o s annual a e age and 90.4 pe cen ile o daily means o 2023 in u al, u ban
backg ound and u ban a ic a eas o he inal combined map
Ru al a eas U b. b. a .
U b. . a .
Ru . a . U b. b. a . U b. . a .
c (cons an ) 1.40 0.74 1.68 1.44 1.06 2.44
a1 (log. CAMS model) 0.862 0.842 0.56 0.788 0.764 0.41
a2 (al i ude GMTED) -0.00015 non signi .
a3 (wind speed) -0.03171 -0.053 non signi . -0.075
a4 ( ela i e humidi y) -0.012 -0.010
a5 (land co e NAT) -0.0009 -0.0011
Adjus ed R20.67 0.38 0.38 0.66 0.37 0.28
S and. E o [µg/m3]0.23 0.32 0.29 0.22 0.33 0.33
Nugge 0.020 0.024 0.026 0.020 0.023 0.031
Sill 0.054 0.051 0.048 0.039 0.058 0.060
Range [km] 1000 210 330 990 220 250
RMSE [µg/m3]3.4 6.4 4.8 6.1 11.4 9.4
Rela i e RMSE [%] 24.7 31.1 23.5 25.9 32.7 26.9
Bias (MPE) [µg/m3]0.0 0.1 0.0 -0.1 0.0 -0.1
90.4 pe cen ile o daily means
Linea
eg esion
model (LRM,
Eq. A1.3)
O dina y
k iging (OK) o
LRM esiduals
LRM + OK o
i s esiduals
Annual a e age
RMSE ( he smalle he be e ) and bias ( he close o ze o he be e ), highligh ed by o ange, a e
he c oss- alida ion indica o s, showing he quali y o he esul ing map. The bias indica es o wha
ex en he p edic ions a e unde - o o e es ima ed on a e age. Fu he in his sec ion, mo e de ailed
unce ain y analysis is p esen ed.
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 114
Unce ain y es ima ed by c oss- alida ion
Using RMSE as he mos common indica o , he absolu e mean unce ain y o he inal combined map
a a eas 'in be ween' he s a ion measu emen s (i.e. a loca ions wi hou measu emen s, as long as
hey a e wi hin he a ea co e ed by he measu emen s) can be exp essed in µg/m3. Table A3.1 shows
ha he absolu e mean unce ain y o he inal combined map o PM10 annual a e age and 90.4
pe cen ile o daily means exp essed by RMSE is 3.4 µg/m3 and 6.1 µg/m3 o he u al a eas, 6.4 µg/m3
and 11.4 µg/m3 o he u ban backg ound a eas, and 4.8 µg/m3 and 9.4 µg/m3 o he u ban a ic
a eas, espec i ely. Al e na i ely, one can exp ess his unce ain y in ela i e e ms by ela ing he
absolu e RMSE unce ain y o he mean ai pollu ion indica o alue o all s a ions. This ela i e mean
unce ain y (Rela i e RMSE) o he inal combined map o PM10 annual a e age and 90.4 pe cen ile o
daily means is 24.7% and 25.9% o u al a eas, 31.1% and 32.7% o u ban backg ound a eas, and
23.5% and 26.9% o u ban a ic a eas, espec i ely. These qui e high numbe s in u ban backg ound
a eas compa ed o p e ious yea s up o 2015 a e caused by inclusion o Tü kiye since 2016 mapping.
Fo he mapping esul s wi hou Tü kiye, he ela i e mean unce ain y is 19.8% and 19.6% o u al
a eas, 19.5% and 22.1% o u ban backg ound a eas and 18.0% and 20.4% o u ban a ic a eas,
espec i ely. Ne e heless, he ela i e unce ain y alues including Tü kiye ul il he da a quali y
objec i es o models as se in Annex I o he Ai Quali y Di ec i e (EC, 2008).
Figu e A3.1 shows he c oss- alida ion sca e plo s, ob ained acco ding o Annex 1, Sec ion A1.4 o
u al, u ban backg ound and u ban a ic a eas, o bo h PM10 indica o s. The R2 indica es ha he
a iabili y is a ibu able o he in e pola ion o abou 70% and 67% a he u al a eas, o 66% and
65% a he u ban backg ound a eas, and o abou 72% and 68% a he u ban a ic a eas, o he
annual a e age and he 90.4 pe cen ile o daily means, espec i ely.
Figu e A3.1 Co ela ion be ween c oss- alida ed p edic ed (y-axis) and measu emen alues o
PM10 indica o s annual a e age ( op) and 90.4 pe cen ile o daily means (bo om) o
2023 o u al (le ), u ban backg ound (middle) and u ban a ic ( igh ) a eas
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 115
The end line in he sca e -plo s de ia es a he lowes alues somewha abo e, and a highe alues
below he symme y axis, indica ing ha he in e pola ion me hods end o unde es ima e he high
concen a ions and o e es ima e he low concen a ions. Fo example, in u ban backg ound a eas o
annual a e age an obse ed alue o 40 µg/m3 is es ima ed in he in e pola ions o be abou 36 µg/m3,
abou 10% lowe . This unde es ima ion a high alues is common o all spa ial in e pola ion me hods.
I could be educed by ei he using a highe numbe o s a ions wi h an imp o ed spa ial dis ibu ion,
o by in oducing an imp o ed eg ession ha uses ei he o he supplemen a y da a o mo e ad anced
chemical anspo model (o a model in ine esolu ion).
Compa ison o poin measu emen alues wi h he p edic ed g id alue
In addi ion o he abo e poin obse a ion – poin p edic ion c oss- alida ion, a simple compa ison has
been made be ween he poin obse a ion alues and in e pola ed p edic ion alues spa ially
a e aged a g id cells. This poin obse a ion – g id a e aged p edic ion compa ison indica es o wha
ex en he p edic ed alue o a g id cell ep esen s he co esponding measu emen alues a s a ions
loca ed in ha cell. The compa ison has been made p ima ily o he sepa a e u al, u ban backg ound
and u ban a ic map laye s a 1 km esolu ion. (One can di ec ly ela e his compa ison esul o he
c oss- alida ion esul s o Figu e A3.1). Apa om his, he compa ison has been done also o he inal
combined maps a he same 1 km esolu ion. Figu e A3.2 shows he sca e plo s o hese compa isons,
o PM10 annual a e age only as an illus a ion. The esul s o he poin obse a ion – poin p edic ion
c oss- alida ion o Figu e A3.1 and hose o he poin obse a ion – g id a e aged p edic ion alida ion
o sepa a e u al, u ban backg ound and u ban a ic map laye s, and o he inal combined maps
a e summa ised in Table A3.2 o bo h PM10 indica o s.
Figu e A3.2 Co ela ion be ween p edic ed g id alues om u al (uppe le ), u ban backg ound
(uppe middle) and u ban a ic (uppe igh ) map laye and inal combined map (all
bo om) (y-axis) e sus measu emen s om u al (le ), u ban/subu ban backg ound
(middle) and u ban/subu ban a ic s a ions ( igh ) (x-axis) o PM10 annual a e age
2023
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 116
Table A3.2 S a is ical indica o s om he sca e plo s o he p edic ed g id alues om sepa a e
( u al, u ban backg ound o u ban a ic) map laye s and inal combined map e sus
he measu emen poin alues o u al (uppe le ), u ban backg ound (uppe igh ) and
u ban a ic (bo om le ) s a ions o PM10 indica o s annual a e age ( op) and 90.4
pe cen ile o daily means (bo om) o 2023
RMSE Bias
R2Lin. . equa ion RMSE Bias R2Lin. . equa ion
c oss- al. p edic ion, sepa a e ( o ub) map laye 3.4 0.0 0.699 y = 0.720x + 3.8 6.4 0.1 0.657 y = 0.782x + 4.6
g id p edic ion, 1 km es., sepa . ( o ub) map laye
2.3 -0.2 0.861 y = 0.796x + 2.6 4.3 0.0 0.838 y = 0.834x + 3.3
g id p edic ion, 1 km es., inal combined map 2.6 0.2 0.823 y = 0.846x + 2.3 7.4 -0.3 0.831 y = 0.835x + 3.4
c oss- al. p edic ion, sepa a e ( o ub) map laye 6.1 -0.1 0.668 y = 0.669x + 7.7 11.4 0.0 0.654 y = 0.724x + 9.6
g id p edic ion, 1 km es., sepa . ( o ub) map laye
4.7 -0.4 0.814 y = 0.739x + 5.7 7.5 -0.5 0.855 y = 0.805x + 6.5
g id p edic ion, 1 km es., inal combined map 5.0 0.2 0.780 y = 0.804x + 4.8 7.5 -0.2 0.847 y = 0.807x + 6.6
RMSE Bias
R2Lin. . equa ion
c oss- alid. p edic ion, u ban a ic map laye 4.8 0.0 0.716 y = 0.748x + 5.2
g id p edic ion, 1 km es., u ban a ic map laye 3.8 -0.1 0.830 y = 0.806x + 3.9
g id p edic ion, 1 km es., inal combined map 5.2 -2.4 0.745 y = 0.752x + 2.7
c oss- alid. p edic ion, u ban a ic map laye 9.4 -0.1 0.675 y = 0.691x + 10.7
g id p edic ion, 1 km es., u ban a ic map laye 7.0 -0.2 0.822 y = 0.774x + 7.7
g id p edic ion, 1 km es., inal combined map 10.1 -4.2 0.688 y = 0.682x + 6.9
Annual a e age
90.4 pe cen ile o daily means
Ru al backg ound s a ions
U ban/subu ban backg ound s a ions
PM10
Annual a e age
90.4 pe cen ile o daily means
PM10
U ban/subu ban a ic s a ions
By compa ing he sca e plo s and he s a is ical indica o s o he sepa a e u al, u ban backg ound
and u ban a ic map laye s wi h he inal combined map, one can e alua e he le el o ep esen a ion
o he u al, u ban backg ound and u ban a ic a eas in he inal combined map. Bo h he u al and
he u ban ai quali y a e ai ly well ep esen ed in he 1 km inal combined map, while he a ic ai
quali y is unde es ima ed in his spa ial esolu ion. One can conclude ha he inal combined map in
1 km esolu ion is ep esen a i e o u al and u ban backg ound a eas, bu no o u ban a ic a eas.
The Table A3.2 shows a be e ela ion (i.e. lowe RMSE, highe R2, smalle in e cep and slope close
o 1) be ween s a ion measu emen s and he in e pola ed alues o he co esponding g id cells a
ei he u al, u ban backg ound o u ban a ic a eas han i does a he poin c oss- alida ion
p edic ions. Tha is because he simple compa ison be ween poin measu emen s and he g idded
in e pola ed alues shows he unce ain y a he ac ual s a ion loca ions (poin s), while he poin c oss-
alida ion p edic ion simula es he beha iou o he in e pola ion a poin posi ions assuming no ac ual
measu emen would exis a ha poin . The unce ain y a measu emen loca ions is in oduced pa ly
by he smoo hing e ec o he in e pola ion and pa ly by he spa ial a e aging o he alues in he
1 km g id cells. The le el o he smoo hing e ec leading o unde es ima ion a a eas wi h high alues
is he e smalle han in si ua ions whe e no measu emen is ep esen ed in such a eas. Fo example,
in u ban backg ound a eas he p edic ed in e pola ion g idded annual a e age alue in he sepa a e
u ban backg ound map will be abou 37 µg/m3 a he co esponding s a ion wi h he measu emen
alue o 40 µg/m3. This means an unde es ima ion o abou 8%. I is a sligh ly less han he p edic ion
unde es ima ion o 10% a he same poin loca ion, when lea ing ou his one ac ual measu emen
poin and he in e pola ion is done wi hou his s a ion (see he p e ious subsec ion).
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 117
A3.2 PM2.5
Technical de ails and unce ain y es ima es o Map 2.5 wi h he PM2.5 annual a e age a e p esen ed
in his sec ion.
Technical de ails on he mapping
Like o PM10, an upda ed me hodology as de eloped and es ed unde Ho álek e al. (2019) has been
used, i.e. including he land co e among supplemen a y da a and using he a ic u ban map laye .
Table A3.3 p esen s he eg ession coe icien s de e mined o pseudo PM2.5 s a ions da a es ima ion,
based on he 1205 u al and u ban/subu ban backg ound and 458 u ban/subu ban a ic s a ions ha
ha e bo h PM2.5 and PM10 measu emen s a ailable (see Sec ion 2.1.1).
Table A3.3 Pa ame e s and s a is ics o linea eg ession model o gene a ing pseudo PM2.5
annual a e age da a o 2023 in u al and u ban backg ound (le ) and u ban a ic
( igh ) a eas
c (cons an ) 22.0 42.3
b (PM10 measu emen da a) 0.625 0.444
a1 (su ace sola adia ion) -0.003 -0.004
a2 (la i ude) -0.261 -0.552
a3 (longi ude) 0.078 0.106
Adjus ed R20.82 0.74
S anda d E o [µg.m-3]1.7 2.0
Linea
eg esion
model (LRM,
Eq. A1.1)
PM2.5, Annual a a age
Ru al and u ban backg ound
a eas
U ban a ic
a eas
Due o su icien da a co e age o PM2.5 measu emen s in u ban backg ound a eas in some coun ies,
he pseudo PM2.5 s a ions ha e no been used in u ban backg ound a eas o hese coun ies. This e e s
o Aus ia, Benelux, Czechia, C oa ia, F ance, Ge many, I eland, I aly, Poland, Slo enia, Slo akia and
Spain. Table A3.4 p esen s he es ima ed pa ame e s o he linea eg ession models (c, a1, a2,…) and
o he esidual k iging (nugge , sill, ange) and includes he s a is ical indica o s o bo h he eg ession
and he k iging o i s esiduals.
Table A3.4 Pa ame e s and s a is ics o linea eg ession model and o dina y k iging o PM2.5
annual a e age 2023 in u al, u ban backg ound and u ban a ic a eas o inal
combined map
Ru al a eas U ban b. a eas U ban .. a eas
c (cons an ) 0.55 0.56 0.73
a1 (log. CAMS model) 0.820 0.780 0.706
a2 (al i ude GMTED) -0.00030
a3 (wind speed) -0.055
a4 (land co e NAT1) non signi .
Adjus ed R20.65 0.46 0.59
S anda d E o [µg.m-3]0.26 0.29 0.25
nugge 0.028 0.023 0.016
sill 0.076 0.052 0.035
ange [km] 1000 220 180
RMSE [µg.m-3]2.2 2.9 2.4
Rela i e RMSE [%] 27.0 25.7 21.9
Bias (MPE) [µg.m-3]-0.1 0.0 -0.1
Linea eg esion
model (LRM,
Eq. A1.3)
O dina y k iging
(OK) o LRM
esiduals
LRM + OK o i s
esiduals
PM2.5
Annual a e age
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 118
The same supplemen a y da a as in Ho álek e al. (2019) has been used. Like in he case o PM10, he
linea eg ession is applied on he loga i hmically ans o med da a o bo h measu emen and
modelled PM2.5 alues. Thus, he s anda d e o and a iog am pa ame e s e e o hese ans o med
da a, whe eas RMSE and bias e e o he in e pola ion a e he back- ans o ma ion.
The adjus ed R2 and s anda d e o a e indica o s o he quali y o he i o he eg ession ela ion.
The adjus ed R2 is 0.65 o he u al a eas, 0.46 o u ban backg ound a eas and 0.59 o u ban a ic
a eas. Qui e weake eg ession ela ion in he u ban backg ound a eas causes a highe impac o he
in e pola ion pa o he in e pola ion- eg ession-me ging mapping me hodology in hese a eas.
RMSE and bias – highligh ed in o ange – a e he c oss- alida ion indica o s, showing he quali y o he
esul ing map; he bias indica es o wha ex en he p edic ions a e unde - o o e es ima ed on
a e age. Only s a ions wi h PM2.5 measu emen da a a e used o calcula ing he RMSE and he bias
(i.e. he pseudo PM2.5 s a ions a e no used). These s a is ical indica o s a e calcula ed excluding
he pseudo s a ions because hey a e es ima ed alues only, no ac ual measu emen alues.
Acco ding o Denby e al (2011), he pseudo PM2.5 da a does no sa is y he quali y objec i es o ixed
moni o ing alone. The pseudo s a ions a e used as hey imp o e he mapping es ima e, whe eas he
ac ual measu emen s can be used o e alua ing he quali y o he map. Fo he u u e, i will be
conside ed o qui he applica ion o he PM2.5 pseudo s a ions as he cu en numbe o he ac ual
PM2.5 measu emen s a ions has inc eased o e ime such ha he use o pseudo PM2.5 s a ions may
no con ibu e enough any longe o imp o e he mapping es ima es.
Due o he lack o u al s a ions in Tü kiye o PM2.5, no p ope in e pola ion esul s could be p esen ed
o his coun y in a u al map, so he es ima ed PM2.5 alues o Tü kiye a e no p esen ed in he inal
map. Thus, he s a ions loca ed in Tü kiye ha e no been used in he unce ain y es ima es (al hough
used in he mapping p ocess), as hey lie ou side he mapping a ea.
Unce ain y es ima ed by c oss- alida ion
Table A3.4 shows ha he absolu e mean unce ain y o he inal combined map o PM2.5 annual
a e age exp essed as RMSE is 2.62 µg/m3 o he u al a eas, 2.9 µg/m3 o he u ban backg ound a eas
and 2.4 µg/m3 o he u ban a ic a eas. On he o he hand, he ela i e mean unce ain y (Rela i e
RMSE) o he inal combined map o PM2.5 annual a e age is 27% o u al a eas, 26% o u ban
backg ound a eas and 22% o u ban a ic a eas. These ela i e unce ain y alues ul il he da a
quali y objec i es o models as se in Annex I o he Ai Quali y Di ec i e (EC, 2008).
Figu e A3.3 shows he c oss- alida ion sca e plo s, ob ained acco ding o Sec ion A1.3, o di e en
a ea ypes. The R2 indica es ha abou 75% o he a iabili y is a ibu able o he in e pola ion o he
u al a eas, 78% o he u ban backg ound a eas and 74% o he u ban a ic a eas.
The sca e plo s indica e ha in a eas wi h high concen a ions he in e pola ion me hods end o
unde es ima e he le els. E.g., in u ban backg ound a eas an obse ed alue o 25 µg/m3 is es ima ed
in he in e pola ions o be abou 22 µg/m3, which is an unde es ima ed p edic ion o abou 11%.
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 119
Figu e A3.3 Co ela ion be ween c oss- alida ed p edic ed and measu emen alues o PM2.5
annual a e age 2023 o u al (le ), u ban backg ound (middle) and u ban a ic ( igh )
a eas
Compa ison o poin measu emen alues wi h he p edic ed g id alue
Like o PM10, a simple compa ison has been made be ween he poin obse a ion alues and
in e pola ed p edic ion alues spa ially a e aged in g id cells, in addi ion o he c oss- alida ion.
The compa ison has been made p ima ily o he sepa a e u al, u ban backg ound and u ban a ic
map laye s a 1 km esolu ion. Nex o his, he compa ison has been done also o he inal combined
maps a he same 1 km esolu ion. Figu e A3.4 shows he sca e plo s o hese compa isons.
Figu e A3.4 Co ela ion be ween p edic ed g id alues om u al (uppe le ), u ban backg ound
(uppe middle) and u ban a ic (uppe igh ) map laye and inal combined map (all
bo om) (y-axis) e sus measu emen s om u al (le ), u ban/subu ban backg ound
(middle) and u ban/subu ban a ic s a ions ( igh ) (x-axis) o PM2.5 annual a e age
2023
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 120
The esul s o he poin obse a ion – poin p edic ion c oss- alida ion o Figu e A3.3 and hose o he
poin obse a ion – g id a e aged p edic ion alida ion Figu e A3.4 o sepa a e map laye s and o he
inal combined map a e summa ised in Table A3.5.
By compa ing he sca e plo s and he s a is ical indica o s o sepa a e u al, u ban backg ound and
u ban a ic map laye s wi h he inal combined maps, one can e alua e he le el o ep esen a ion o
he u al, u ban backg ound and u ban a ic a eas in he inal combined map. Simila esul s as o
PM10 can be obse ed: he inal combined map in 1 km esolu ion is ai ly well ep esen a i e o u al
and u ban backg ound a eas, bu no o u ban a ic a eas. Like in he case o PM10 and o he same
eason, Table A3.5 shows a be e co ela ed ela ion wi h he s a ion measu emen s o he simply
in e pola ed g idded alues han o he poin c oss- alida ion p edic ions, a all a ea ypes.
The unce ain y a measu emen loca ions is in oduced pa ly by he smoo hing e ec o
he in e pola ion and pa ly by he spa ial a e aging o he alues in he 1 km g id cells. Fo example,
in u ban backg ound a eas he p edic ed in e pola ion g idded alue in he inal map will be abou
23 µg/m3 a he co esponding s a ion wi h he measu emen alue o 25 µg/m3 (calcula ed based on
he linea eg ession equa ion), which coincides wi h an unde es ima ion o abou 8%.
Table A3.5 S a is ical indica o s om he sca e plo s o he p edic ed g id alues om sepa a e
( u al, u ban backg ound o u ban a ic) map laye s and inal combined map e sus
he measu emen poin alues o u al (uppe le ), u ban backg ound (uppe igh ) and
u ban a ic (bo om le ) s a ions o PM2.5 annual a e age 2023
RMSE Bias
R2Lin. . equa ion RMSE Bias R2Lin. . equa ion
C oss- al. p edic ion, sepa a e ( o ub) map laye 2.2 -0.1 0.749 y = 0.709x + 2.3 2.9 0.0 0.780 y = 0.794x + 2.3
G id p edic ion, 1 km es., sepa . ( o ub) map laye
1.6 -0.2 0.861 y = 0.765x + 1.7 2.0 0.0 0.845 y = 0.852x + 1.7
G id p edic ion, 1 km es., inal me ged map 1.6 0.0 0.849 y = 0.787x + 1.7 2.0 0.0 0.831 y = 0.842x + 1.8
RMSE Bias
R2Lin. . equa ion
C oss- al. p edic ion, u ban a ic map laye 2.4 -0.1 0.738 y = 0.725x + 2.8
G id p edic ion, 1 km es., u ban a ic map laye 1.7 0.2 0.853 y = 0.873x + 1.5
G id p edic ion, 1 km es., inal me ged map 2.3 -0.6 0.787 y = 0.861x + 1.0
Ru al backg ound s a ions
U ban/subu ban backg ound s a ions
PM2.5, Annual a e age
PM2.5, Annual a e age
U ban/subu ban a ic s a ions
A3.3 Ozone
In his sec ion, he echnical de ails and he unce ain y es ima es a e p esen ed o he maps o ozone
heal h- ela ed indica o s 93.2 pe cen ile o maximum daily 8-hou means, peak season a e age o
maximum daily 8-hou means, SOMO35 and SOMO10 (Maps 3.1, 3.3-3.5), as well as o he maps o
ozone ege a ion- ela ed indica o s AOT40 o ege a ion and AOT40 o o es s (Maps 3.7 and 3.8).
Nex o his, he de ails o PODY (i.e. POD6 and POD1) maps a e p esen ed.
Technical de ails on he mapping
Table A3.6 p esen s he es ima ed pa ame e s o he linea eg ession models and o he esidual
k iging, including he s a is ical indica o s o bo h he eg ession and he k iging.
The adjus ed R2 and s anda d e o show he quali y o he i o he eg ession ela ion. Fo he u al
a eas, all indica o s show he alue o he adjus ed R2 be ween 0.37 and 0.53. Fo he u ban a eas,
he adjus ed R2 is in be ween 0.26 and 0.28 o all indica o s apa om SOMO10, o which i is 0.12.
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 121
Fo he ege a ion- ela ed indica o s he u ban maps a e no cons uc ed. RMSE and bias – highligh ed
by o ange – a e he c oss- alida ion indica o s, showing he quali y o he esul ing map.
Table A3.6 Pa ame e s and s a is ics o linea eg ession model and o dina y k iging o ozone
indica o s 93.2 pe cen ile o maximum daily 8-hou ly means, peak season a e age o
maximum daily 8-hou ly means, SOMO35 and SOMO10 in u al and u ban a eas and o
ozone indica o s AOT40 o ege a ion and o o es s in u al a eas o 2023
AOT40 AOT40
Ru . a . U b. a . Ru . a . U b.a . Ru . a . U b.a . Ru . a . U b.a . Ru . a . Ru . a .
c (cons an ) -6.5 38.8 6.0 33.9 332 2007 4268 6571 3422 3802
a1 (CAMS model) 1.11 0.76 0.93 0.68 0.90 0.58 0.76 0.62 0.91 0.90
a2 (al i . GMTED) 0.0149 0.0119 3.17 3.79 7.81 14.31
a3 (wind speed) -2.98 -2.05 -335.6 n. sign.
a4 (s. sola ad.) n.sign. n.sign. n.sign. n.sign. n.sign. 0.22 n.sign. n. sign. n. sign. n. sign.
Adjus ed R20.48 0.28 0.47 0.26 0.47 0.27 0.37 0.12 0.46 0.53
S . E . [µg/m3·x]* 9.4 13.7 7.4 11.0 1779 2011 2732 3572 5513 9031
Nugge 51 69 33 35 2.2E+06 1.3E+06 4.9E+06 3.8E+06 1.4E+07 4.1E+07
Sill 59 109 38 61 2.6E+06 4.0E+06 5.3E+06 6.2E+06 2.5E+07 7.0E+07
Range [km] 700 120 390 80 690 1000 700 380 1000 1000
RMSE [µg/m3·x]* 9.1 11.6 7.2 8.9 1764 1759 2648 2799 5125 8747
Rel. RMSE [%] 8.2 10.6 7.8 9.9 33.0 39.0 12.2 14.3 35.5 35.8
Bias [µg/m3·x]* 0.1 -0.1 0.1 -0.2 3 101 14 -19 -13 -22
SOMO10
SOMO35
Linea
eg esion
model
(LRM,
Eq. A1.3)
O d. k ig.
(OK) o
LRM
LRM + OK
o i s
esiduals
93.2 pe c.
Peak seas. a g
* Uni s: 93.2 pe cen ile o daily 8-h maximums and peak season a e age o daily 8-h maximums: [µg/m3], SOMO35 and
SOMO10: [µg/m3·d], AOT40 and AOT40 : [µg/m3·h].
Unce ain y es ima ed by c oss- alida ion
The basic unce ain y analysis is p o ided by c oss- alida ion. Table A3.6 shows bo h absolu e and
ela i e mean unce ain y, exp essed by RMSE and Rela i e RMSE. The ela i e mean unce ain y o
he 2023 ozone map is a ound 7-11% o he 93.2 pe cen ile o maximum daily 8-h means and he peak
season a e age o maximum daily 8-h means, a ound 33-39% o SOMO35, a ound 12-15% o
SOMO10 and a ound 35-36% a AOT40 indica o s. The small le els o he ela i e unce ain y o he
93.2 pe cen ile o maximum daily 8-h means, he peak season indica o and SOMO10 a e highly
in luenced by he low a io be ween he ele an s anda d e o and mean calcula ed based on all
annual s a ion concen a ion da a: o hese h ee indica o s he a io is a he le el o abou 0.11-
0.19, while o SOMO35 and o bo h AOT40 indica o s i is a he le el o abou 0.46-0.54.
Figu e A3.5 shows he c oss- alida ion sca e plo s o bo h he u al and u ban a eas o he 2023 map
o he heal h- ela ed ozone indica o s. Based on he R2, one can see ha o he heal h- ela ed ozone
indica o s, abou 41-52% o he a iabili y is a ibu able o he in e pola ion. The sca e plo s indica e
ha he highe alues a e unde es ima ed and he lowe alues somewha o e es ima ed by he
in e pola ion me hod; a ypical smoo hing e ec inhe en o he in e pola ion me hod wi h he linea
eg ession and i s esiduals k iging. Fo example, in he case o he 93.2 pe cen ile o daily 8-h
maximums, in u ban a eas (Figu e A3.5, uppe igh panel) an obse ed alue o 150 µg/m3 is es ima ed
in he in e pola ion as 130 µg/m3, which is 13% lowe . O , in he case o SOMO35, in u al a eas (Figu e
A3.5, lowe middle le panel) an obse ed alue o 8 500 µg/m3·d is es ima ed in he in e pola ion as
abou 6 900 µg/m3·d, which is 19% lowe . In addi ion, an o e es ima ion a he lowe end o p edic ed
alues occu ed.
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 128
Unce ain y es ima ed by c oss- alida ion
Table A3.10 shows bo h absolu e and ela i e mean unce ain y, exp essed by RMSE and Rela i e
RMSE. The absolu e mean unce ain y o he inal combined map o NO2 annual a e age exp essed as
RMSE is 1.9 µg/m3 o he u al a eas, 4.4 µg/m3 o he u ban backg ound a eas and 6.2 µg/m3 o he
u ban a ic a eas. Fo he NOx u al map i is 3.3 µg/m3. The ela i e mean unce ain y o he NO2
annual a e age map is 34% o u al a eas, 29% o u ban backg ound a eas and 26% o u ban a ic
a eas. The NOx annual a e age u al map has a ela i e mean unce ain y o 43%.
Figu e A3.9 shows he poin obse a ion – poin p edic ion c oss- alida ion sca e plo s o NO2
annual a e age. The R2 indica es ha abou 75% o he a iabili y is a ibu able o he in e pola ion
o he u al a eas, while o he u ban backg ound a eas i is 69% and o he u ban a ic 64%.
Figu e A3.9 Co ela ion be ween c oss- alida ed p edic ed and measu emen alues o NO2
annual a e age 2023 o u al (le ), u ban backg ound (middle) and u ban a ic ( igh )
a eas
Like in he case o o he pollu an s, he c oss- alida ion sca e plo s show he unde es ima ion o
p edic ions a high concen a ions a loca ions wi h no measu emen s. Fo example, in u ban
backg ound a eas an obse ed alue o 40 µg/m3 is es ima ed in he in e pola ions o be abou
34 µg/m3, which is an unde es ima ed p edic ion o abou 16%.
Figu e A3.10 shows he c oss- alida ion sca e plo o NOx annual a e age u al map. The R2 indica es
ha abou 65% o he a iabili y is a ibu able o he in e pola ion.
Figu e A3.10 Co ela ion be ween c oss- alida ed p edic ed and measu emen alues o NOx
annual a e age 2023 o u al a eas
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 129
Compa ison o poin measu emen alues wi h he p edic ed g id alue
Nex o he abo e p esen ed c oss- alida ion, a simple compa ison was made be ween he poin
obse a ion alues and in e pola ed p edic ed 1 km and 2 km g id alues, espec i ely.
Fo NO2 annual a e age, he compa ison has been made p ima ily o he sepa a e map laye s a 1 km
esolu ion. Besides, he compa ison has been done also o he inal combined map. Table A3.11
p esen s he esul s o his compa ison, oge he wi h he esul s o c oss- alida ion p edic ion o
Figu e A3.10. One can conclude ha he inal combined map in 1 km esolu ion is ep esen a i e o
u al and u ban backg ound a eas, bu no o u ban a ic a eas.
Table A3.11 S a is ical indica o s om he sca e plo s o he p edic ed g id alues om sepa a e
( u al, u ban backg ound o u ban a ic) map laye s and inal combined map e sus
he measu emen poin alues o u al (uppe le ), u ban backg ound (uppe igh ) and
u ban a ic (bo om le ) s a ions o NO2 annual a e age 2023
RMSE
Bias
R2Lin. . equa ion RMSE Bias R2Lin. . equa ion
C oss- al. p edic ion, sepa a e ( o ub) map laye 1.9 0.0 0.745 y = 0.756x + 1.4 4.4 0.0 0.686 y = 0.738x + 4.0
G id p edic ion, 1 km es., sepa . ( o ub) map laye
1.3 -0.1 0.877 y = 0.835x + 0.8 2.7 0.2 0.880 y = 0.846x + 2.6
G id p edic ion, 1 km es., inal combined map 2.2 0.4 0.736 y = 0.930x + 0.8 3.2 0.8 0.846 y = 0.884x + 2.5
RMSE
Bias
R2Lin. . equa ion
C oss- alid. p edic ion, u ban a ic map laye 6.2 -0.1 0.639 y = 0.669x + 7.7
G id p edic ion, 1 km es., u ban a ic map laye 3.5 0.0 0.889 y = 0.816x + 4.4
G id p edic ion, 1 km es., inal combined map 9.6 -7.0 0.612 y = 0.504x + 4.8
Ru al backg . s a ions
U ban/subu ban backg ound s a ions
NO2, Annual a e age
NO2, Annual a e age
U ban/subu ban a ic s a ions
Table A3.12 p esen s he c oss- alida ion esul s o Figu e A3.11 and hose o he poin obse a ion –
g id a e aged p edic ion alida ion o he u al map o NOx annual a e age.
Table A3.12 S a is ical indica o s om he sca e plo s o p edic ed poin alues based on c oss-
alida ion and p edic ed g id alues om u al 2 km esolu ion map e sus
measu emen poin alues o u al backg ound s a ions o NOx annual a e age 2023
RMSE Bias
R2Linea eg ession equa ion
C oss- alid. p edic ion, u al map 3.3 0.1 0.647 y = 0.660x + 2.63
G id p edic ion, 2 km esolu ion, u al map 2.7 0.1 0.765 y = 0.720x + 2.16
Ru al backg ound s a ions
NOx
A3.5 BaP
In his sec ion, he echnical de ails and he unce ain y es ima es o Map 5.1 o BaP annual a e age
a e p esen ed.
Technical de ails on he mapping
The me hodology as de eloped and es ed in Ho álek e al. (2022b) has been used. Table A3.13
p esen s he eg ession coe icien s de e mined o pseudo BaP s a ions da a es ima es, based on he
341 u al and u ban/subu ban backg ound ha ha e bo h BaP and PM2.5 measu emen s a ailable (see
Annex 1 Sec ion A1.1). Looking a he pa ame e s o he eg ession, one can no e ha he adjus ed R2
o 0.62 is a qui e poo co ela ion. Based on his and in ag eemen wi h Ho álek e al. (2022b), he
pseudo s a ions ha e only been used in a eas wi h a signi ican lack o he BaP measu emen s. The
pseudo s a ions ha e been applied o coun ies and a eas, as ollows. Fo he u al a eas: All he
mapping a ea, apa om Aus ia, Benelux, Czechia, Ge many, Poland, Slo akia, Spain, and I aly no h
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 130
o 44 deg ees la i ude. Fo he u ban backg ound a eas: Finland, G eece, Iceland, No way, Po ugal,
Sweden and wes Balkan coun ies (namely, Albania, Bosnia and He zego ina, Mon eneg o, No he n
Macedonia, and Se bia including Koso o).
Table A3.13 Pa ame e s and s a is ics o linea eg ession model o gene a ing pseudo BaP annual
a e age da a o 2023 in u al and u ban backg ound a eas
c (cons an ) -6.31
a1 (PM2.5 annual a e age) 0.148
a2 (la i ude) 0.061
a3 (longi ude) 0.045
a4 (land co e NAT_1km) -0.0071
a5 (land co e NAT_5km_ ) 0.0110
Adjus ed R20.62
Nonlinea
eg esion
model (NLRM,
Eq. A1.3)
Ru al and u ban backg ound
a eas
Table A3.14 p esen s he es ima ed pa ame e s o he linea eg ession models (c, a1, a2,…) and o
he esidual k iging (nugge , sill, ange) and includes he s a is ical indica o s o bo h he eg ession
and he k iging o i s esiduals. The same supplemen a y da a as in Ho álek e al. (2022b) has been
used.
Table A3.14 Pa ame e s and s a is ics o linea eg ession model and o dina y k iging o BaP annual
a e age 2023 in u al, u ban backg ound and u ban a ic a eas o he inal combined
map
Ru al a eas U ban b. a eas
c (cons an ) 0.74 1.43
a1 (log. EMEP model) 0.370 0.442
a2 (al i ude GMTED) -0.00120
a3 (wind speed) -0.354
a4 ( empe a u e) n. sign. -0.12
a5 (land co e NAT_1km) -0.0059
Adjus ed R20.37 0.42
S anda d E o [ng/m3]1.01 0.89
nugge 0.333 0.187
sill 0.794 0.678
ange [km] 300 530
RMSE [ng/m3]0.37 0.55
Rela i e RMSE [%] 136.5 67.3
Bias (MPE) [ng/m3]0.06 0.01
Linea eg esion
model (LRM,
Eq. A1.3)
O dina y k iging
(OK) o LRM
esiduals
LRM + OK o i s
esiduals
BaP
Annual a e age
The adjus ed R2 is 0.37 o he u al a eas and 0.42 o u ban backg ound a eas.
Unce ain y es ima ed by c oss- alida ion
Table A3.14 shows ha he absolu e mean unce ain y o he inal combined map o BaP annual
a e age exp essed as RMSE is 0.37 ng/m3 o he u al a eas and 0.55 ng/m3 o he u ban backg ound
a eas. The RRMSE o his map is 136.5% o u al a eas and 67.3% o u ban backg ound a eas. The
c oss- alida ion ela i e unce ain y RRMSE is s ill a he conside ably highe le el (especially in he
u al a eas) compa ed o he 60%, being he da a quali y objec i e o he modelling unce ain y in he
Eu opean di ec i e (EC, 2004).
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 131
Annex 4
Concen a ion maps including s a ions
Th oughou he epo , he concen a ion maps p esen ed do no include he concen a ion alues
measu ed a he s a ions. The eason is o be e isualise he heal h- ela ed indica o s wi h hei
dis inc concen a ion le els a he mo e agmen ed and smalle u ban a eas.
As p esen ed in Annex 3, he k iging in e pola ion me hodology somewha smoo hs he concen a ion
ield. The e o e, i is aluable o p esen in his Annex 4 he indica o maps including he concen a ion
alues esul ing om he measu emen da a a he s a ions. These poin s p o ide impo an addi ional
isual in o ma ion on he smoo hing e ec caused by he in e pola ion. Fo ins ance, maps A4.1 and
A4.2 p esen PM10 indica o s annual a e age and 90.4 pe cen ile o daily means and include he
s a ions poin s used in he in e pola ion. They co espond o Maps 2.1 and 2.3 o he main epo ,
which do no ha e s a ions. Table A4.1 p o ides an o e iew o he maps in he main epo and he
co esponding maps including s a ions poin alues as p esen ed in his annex.
Bo h he u al and he u ban/subu ban backg ound s a ions and also u ban/ a ic s a ions o PM and
NO2 a e included in he maps o he heal h- ela ed indica o s, while he u al s a ions only a e shown
in he maps o ege a ion ela ed indica o s. Fo PM2.5, NOx and BaP, only he s a ions wi h ele an
measu ed da a (i.e. no he pseudo s a ions) a e p esen ed.
Table A4.1 O e iew o maps p esen ed in his Annex 4 and hei ela ionship wi h he maps
p esen ed in he main epo
Ai
pollu an
Indica o
Map including
s a ions
Map wi hou
s a ions
PM10
Annual a e age
A4.1
2.1
90.4 pe cen ile o daily means
A4.2
2.3
PM2.5
Annual a e age
A4.3
2.5
Ozone
93.2 pe cen ile o maximum daily 8-hou means
A4.4
3.1 le
Peak season a e age o maximum daily 8-hou means
A4.5
3.3
SOMO35
A4.6
3.4
SOMO10
A4.7
3.5
AOT40 o ege a ion (a)
A4.8
3.7 le
AOT40 o o es s (a)
A4.9
3.8
NO2
Annual a e age
A4.10
4.1
NOx
Annual a e age (a)
A4.11
4.3
BaP
Annual a e age
A4.12
5.1
(a) Ru al map, applicable o u al a eas only.
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 132
Map A4.1 Concen a ion map o PM10 annual a e age including s a ion measu emen alues, 2023
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 133
Map A4.2 Concen a ion map o PM10 indica o 90.4 pe cen ile o daily means including s a ion measu emen alues, 2023
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 134
Map A4.3 Concen a ion map o PM2.5 annual a e age including s a ion measu emen alues, 2023
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 135
Map A4.4 Concen a ion map o ozone indica o 93.2 pe cen ile o maximum daily 8-hou means including s a ion measu emen alues, 2023
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 136
Map A4.5 Concen a ion map o ozone peak season a e age o maximum daily 8-hou means, 2023
ETC HE Repo 2025/5 137
Map A4.6 Concen a ion map o ozone indica o SOMO35 including s a ion measu emen alues, 2023
The Eu opean Topic Cen e on Human heal h and
he en i onmen (ETC HE) is a conso ium o
Eu opean ins i u es unde con ac o he Eu opean
En i onmen Agency.
Eu opean Topic Cen e on
Human Heal h and he En i onmen
h ps://www.eione .eu opa.eu/e cs/e c-he
