Na . Haza ds Ea h Sys . Sci., 25, 3483–3504, 2025
h ps://doi.o g/10.5194/nhess-25-3483-2025
© Au ho (s) 2025. This wo k is dis ibu ed unde
he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion 4.0 License.
How a e public compensa ion e o s implemen ed in mul i-haza d
e en s? Insigh s om he 2020 Glo ia s o m in Ca alonia
Nú ia Pan aleoni Reluy, Ma cel Hü limann, and Nie es Lan ada
Depa men o Ci il and En i onmen al Enginee ing, Uni e si a Poli ècnica de Ca alunya, Ba celona, 08034, Spain
Co espondence: Nú ia Pan aleoni Reluy ([email p o ec ed])
Recei ed: 3 Ma ch 2025 – Discussion s a ed: 12 Ma ch 2025
Re ised: 31 July 2025 – Accep ed: 31 July 2025 – Published: 17 Sep embe 2025
Abs ac . Na u al disas e s esul in inc easing economic
losses wo ldwide. Exis ing loss da abases p ima ily cap u e
insu ed damages and he e o e o en o e look uninsu ed as-
se s and public compensa ion e o s. This s udy examines
he ole o public-sec o compensa ion in disas e eco e y,
using he mul i-haza d 2020 S o m Glo ia in Ca alonia as a
case s udy. By sys ema ically collec ing, classi ying and an-
alyzing public compensa ion da a ela ed o ebuilding and
es o ing he di ec angible damages, we p o ide new in-
sigh s in o inancial aid dis ibu ion o disas e eco e y. In
addi ion, an analysis o single majo haza ds is pe o med
o unde s and he e en ’s equency, as well as i s empo al
and spa ial dis ibu ion. Finally, he ela ionship be ween he
obse ed losses and he e u n pe iod o he igge ing haz-
a ds is e alua ed. The indings e eal ha lu ial and coas al
haza ds caused o e 80 % o eco ded damages, while me e-
o ological and slope haza ds con ibu ed he emainde . Con-
ce ning he a ec ed elemen s, in as uc u e sus ained he
highes losses, ollowed by economic and social sec o s. Re-
building and econs uc ion cos s o S o m Glo ia we e spli
e enly be ween ully public and public-p i a e pa ne ships
e o s. Public unding p io i ized communi y asse s and c i -
ical in as uc u e, using haza d-dependen cos assessmen s
and s anda dized go e nmen p ocedu es. Addi ionally, he
s udy iden i ies po en ial mul i-haza d municipali ies whe e
o e lapping haza ds in ensi ied damages, highligh ing he
need o comp ehensi e disas e documen a ion. Resul s also
indica e ha ully public compensa ions lack a di ec co e-
la ion wi h haza d p obabili y, e lec ing p io i iza ion based
on eco e y needs a he han haza d equency. The esea ch
unde sco es he c i ical ole o public in e en ion in disas-
e isk managemen and calls o enhanced da a s anda d-
iza ion o imp o e loss es ima ion me hodologies in mul i-
haza d scena ios. Finally, his s udy con ibu es o imp o ing
ou unde s anding o disas e loss assessmen and p o ides
a amewo k o u u e e alua ions o go e nmen in e en-
ions in pos -disas e eco e y.
1 In oduc ion
Na u al disas e s ha e caused signi ican and inc easing
losses wo ldwide. In 2023, he global occu ence o na u al
disas e s and hei esul ing economic losses exceeded he
pas 20-yea a e ages, acco ding o he Eme gency E en s
Da abase, EM-DAT (CRED, 2024). Speci ically, 399 na u al
disas e s we e globally eco ded in 2023, leading o o al eco-
nomic losses o USD 202.7 billion, su passing he annual a -
e age o 369 disas e s and USD196.3 billion in losses o he
2003–2022 pe iod. This ise is a ibu ed o g ea e socie al
exposu e and ulne abili y, alongside clea e idence o p o-
g essi ely mo e equen and in ense ex eme e en s d i en
by global clima e change (IPCC, 2022). Adop ed in 2015 o
add ess g owing conce ns abou disas e isk and losses, he
Sendai F amewo k o Disas e Risk Reduc ion emphasizes
isk managemen based on a ho ough unde s anding o isk
and he need o accu a e economic loss da a o mi iga e i-
nancial impac s o ca as ophic e en s (UNDRR, 2015).
A p esen , h ee global and mul i-haza d loss da abases
exis . The Eme gency E en s Da abase, managed by he Cen-
e o Resea ch on he Epidemiology o Disas e s (Del o ge
e al., 2023), Na Ca SERVICE ope a ed by MunichRe (Na -
Ca SERVICE, 2024) and SIGMA by Swiss Re (Sigma Ex-
plo e , 2024). Se e al au ho s ha e compa ed exis ing loss
da abases and ound ha mos p ima ily cap u e di ec eco-
nomic losses, ocusing on insu ance-co e ed asse sec o s
Published by Cope nicus Publica ions on behal o he Eu opean Geosciences Union.
3484 N. Pan aleoni Reluy e al.: Insigh s om he 2020 Glo ia s o m in Ca alonia
(Mazhin e al., 2021; Mo iyama e al., 2018). Relying solely
on p i a e insu ance da a can lead o inconsis en and a -
bi a y loss assessmen s ac oss di e en sec o s and an in-
comple e accoun ing o o al losses (Ladds e al., 2017;
Mo iyama e al., 2018; Zaidi, 2018).
Nowadays, he e is no ully unc ioning p i a e insu ance
ma ke o pos -disas e eco e y wo ldwide (Kousky, 2019).
When p i a e insu ance is ei he oo expensi e o una ail-
able, public-sec o in ol emen becomes necessa y. Go e n-
men s ha e in e ened o ensu e he a ailabili y and a o d-
abili y o disas e loss co e age. Since a mul i ude o cos s
a e no cap u ed in insu ance loss da abases, Spain’s disas-
e isk managemen sys em, p ima ily public-sec o d i en,
o e s a aluable case s udy o analyzing uninsu ed asse
losses. Go e nmen in e en ions in disas e isk manage-
men a y widely a ound he wo ld. Some a e ully public,
managed and unded solely by go e nmen esou ces, while
o he s ely on collabo a ion, such as public-p i a e pa ne -
ships (PPPs) in ol ing di ec coope a ion be ween p i a e
companies and go e nmen al agencies (Auzzi e al., 2014).
In Spain, a e ca as ophic e en s, inancial esou ces a e
alloca ed h ough hese wo channels. The Spanish Gene al
S a e Adminis a ion alloca es inancial esou ces o a ious
go e nmen al bodies, including minis ies, egional depa -
men s, and local adminis a ions as public aid (Je a u a del
Es ado, 2015). Complemen ing his, he Conso cio de Com-
pensación de Segu os (CCS), a public insu ance company
ope a ing as an ins i u ionalized PPP, compensa es claims
wi h unlimi ed s a e inancial backing. Hence o h, we e e
o “ ully public compensa ions” as hose unds alloca ed by
he Spanish Gene al S a e Adminis a ion, and we e e o
“PPP compensa ions” as hose p o ided by he CCS. Spain’s
complex disas e isk managemen sys em, in ol ing mul-
iple ac o s, ensu es a di e se and comp ehensi e app oach
o assessing and compensa ing o losses. Howe e , da a on
losses emain agmen ed due o a ying p ocedu es, pu -
poses and documen a ion s anda ds ac oss ins i u ions, mak-
ing public da a on disas e losses di icul o ga he and s an-
da dize (Ballio e al., 2018; Zaidi, 2018). This issue is no
unique o Spain bu occu s wo ldwide.
As a esul , no o icial na ional o egional da abase con-
solida es in o ma ion on ully public unds alloca ed o dis-
as e loss compensa ion, al hough some local o egional
da abases exis , o en de eloped h ough go e nmen ini ia-
i es o esea ch collabo a ions. Thus, se e al s udies ha e
de eloped hei own da abases using p ima y sou ces such as
newspape s, his o ical documen s and echnical epo s and
se e al hund ed na ional, egional, haza d-based, and sec o -
speci ic da abases exis wo ldwide (Wi z e al., 2014). Fo
ins ance, in Spain, egional da abases like INUNGAMA, i s
upda ed e sion FLOODGAMA (Ba nolas and Llasa , 2007;
Llasa e al., 2014; Llasa -Bo ija e al., 2024) and P edi lood
(Ba iendos e al., 2014), documen lu ial loods om his-
o ical eco ds, while SMC-Flood co e s coas al e en s (Gil-
Gui ado e al., 2019), oge he spanning up o 50 yea s o
lood da a in Ca alonia. These s udies a e highly de ailed, o-
cusing on a single haza d and eco ding e en occu ences,
bu hey lack co e age o mul iple haza ds and do no p o ide
de ailed ully public inancial compensa ion da a o indi id-
ual asse s. Consequen ly, he CCS loss da abase o e s he
mos de ailed and accessible loss da abase, p o iding asse -
based losses a he municipal le el.
The CCS loss da abase has se ed as a ounda ion o nu-
me ous s udies, highligh ing he c i ical ole o comp ehen-
si e his o ical da a o depic ing na u al disas e impac s and
haza d ends (Ba edo e al., 2012; Co és e al., 2018b;
Llasa e al., 2014; López-Ma ínez, 2023), de eloping isk
assessmen models (Co ès e al., 2018a; Ma ínez-Goma iz
e al., 2021; Ri as e al., 2022), alida ing isk assessmen
models (Láng-Ri e e al., 2022; Ri e e al., 2020, 2021;
Rome o-Ma ín e al., 2024), es ima ing suscep ibili y cu es
(Ma ínez-Goma iz e al., 2020; Medie o e al., 2021) and
e alua ing loss p ojec ions (Co és e al., 2019; Ma ínez-
Goma iz e al., 2019; Ribas e al., 2020; So iano e al., 2023).
Howe e , he e is a lack o e idence ha his o ical compen-
sa ion loss da a om o he o ms o go e nmen in e en-
ion ha e been simila ly examined, pa icula ly o ully pub-
lic compensa ions, bo h in Spain and globally. E alua ing
his ype o compensa ion could he e o e p o ide aluable
insigh s in o hese gaps, especially in add essing uninsu ed
sec o s, such as en i onmen al losses, essen ial acili ies like
wa e and elec ici y sys ems, and non-essen ial acili ies in-
cluding cul u al and ec ea ional asse s, and mo e (Ladds e
al., 2017).
As a majo mul i-haza d, high-impac e en , he Glo ia
s o m, which s uck Ca alonia om 19 o 24 Janua y 2020,
ac i a ed all public-sec o pos -disas e compensa ion p o-
g ams, making i a pe ec case s udy o e alua ing he ole
o public in e en ions in disas e esponse. Ma ked by pe -
sis en and in ense ain all along wi h s ong winds (Ma ín-
Vide, 2020), he s o m e en led o a no able inc ease in sea
le els in ensi ied by la ge wa es (de Al onso e al., 2021;
Amo es e al., 2020; Pé ez-Gómez e al., 2021), igge ing
nume ous slope ailu es (Palau e al., 2022), and causing
ex ensi e plu ial and lu ial loods (González e al., 2020;
Ma ín-Vide, 2020). The a e ma h o hese e en s esul ed
in widesp ead subs an ial di ec economic losses (Amo es e
al., 2020). While a ious s udies ha e examined he Glo ia
s o m, only Sancho-Ga cía e al. (2021) e alua e egional-
scale losses by analyzing news epo s, combined wi h hy-
d odynamic da a he iden i ies coas al damage ho spo s.
As shown by he p e ious li e a u e e iew, comp ehensi e
loss da abases p o ide aluable insigh s in o isk unde s and-
ing. Enhancing disas e loss da abases is a p io i y a bo h in-
e na ional and Eu opean le els. Howe e , eliance on insu -
ance da a o en o e looks uninsu ed asse s, leading o signi i-
can knowledge gaps. While public-sec o compensa ion da a
could o e a b oade pe spec i e, i s collec ion, o ganiza-
ion, and analysis p esen signi ican challenges and emains
la gely unexplo ed. The e o e, he p esen s udy aims o ap-
Na . Haza ds Ea h Sys . Sci., 25, 3483–3504, 2025 h ps://doi.o g/10.5194/nhess-25-3483-2025
N. Pan aleoni Reluy e al.: Insigh s om he 2020 Glo ia s o m in Ca alonia 3485
ply an in eg a ed app oach o be e unde s and: (i) he ole
o go e nmen in e en ions in disas e loss esponse, (ii) in-
sigh s in o mul i-haza d isks de i ed om a loss da abase,
and (iii) he assessmen o losses as a unc ion o annual oc-
cu ence p obabili y. The s udy ocuses on public loss com-
pensa ion o uninsu ed asse s ac oss mul iple haza ds a a
egional scale, using he 2020 Glo ia s o m as a case s udy. In
addi ion, a comp ehensi e haza d episode analysis has been
pe o med.
2 Case s udy a ea and Glo ia S o m episode
Ca alonia, wi h i s la ge and expanding u ban se lemen s,
dense c i ical in as uc u e, and signi ican economic ac-
i i ies, is highly ulne able and exposed o na u al haz-
a ds due o i s sp ead ac oss a di e se geog aphy, includ-
ing coas al zones, i e alleys, and moun ain a eas. The ge-
og aphical and empo al ex en o S o m Glo ia, combined
wi h i s mul i-haza d na u e, caused se e e impac s, making
i an ideal case s udy o examining he challenges and con-
sequences o mul i-haza d e en s in exposed egions.
Ca alonia, a egion co e ing app oxima ely 32000km2, is
si ua ed in he no heas e n co ne o he Ibe ian Peninsula.
I s no he n bounda y is de ined by he Py enees Moun ain
ange, wi h peaks exceeding 3000m a.s.l. The egion’s main
opog aphy ea u es include a li o al moun ain ange, wi h
ele a ions unde 500m a.s.l., unning pa allel o he Medi e -
anean coas , and a p e-li o al ange u he inland, ising
be ween 1000 and 2000 ma.s.l. Ca alonia’s ain all pa e ns
a e in luenced by i s di e se o og aphy and he p oximi y
o he Medi e anean Sea. Coas al a eas expe ience in ense
p ecipi a ion du ing sp ing and au umn mon hs, wi h annual
ain all anging om 500mm in he sou h o o e 900 mm in
he no h (Mi a e al., 2017; Tu co and Llasa , 2011). In con-
as , inland egions, shel e ed om ma i ime in luences, e-
cei e signi ican ly less p ecipi a ion, wi h some a eas eco d-
ing below 400 mm annually, he lowes in Ca alonia. The
Py enean egion, howe e , expe iences he highes annual
ain all, exceeding 1000 mm, p ima ily du ing he summe
mon hs (Tu co and Llasa , 2011). Focusing on he locally
sou ced i e s, he ne wo k includes majo egula ed i e s,
such as he Te and Llob ega , and non- egula ed i e s like
he To de a, Flu ià, Besòs, and Muga (Fig. 1), all d aining
o he eas e n coas . Bo de ed by he Medi e anean Sea o
he eas , he Ca alan coas line, which s e ches abou 600km
long, exhibi s di e se landscapes, a ying om ocky sho es
wi h high cli s in he no h o expansi e la a eas wi h long
sandy beaches in he sou h.
On 18 Janua y 2020, a No h A lan ic cold on en e ed
h ough he no hwes e n egion o he Ibe ian Peninsula, ad-
ancing sou hwa d owa ds he Medi e anean Sea. Simul-
aneously, an unusual an icyclonic sys em o e he B i ish
Isles p oduced p essu es o 1050 hPa, he highes since 1957
(Palau e al., 2022; SMC, 2021). This high-p essu e sys-
Figu e 1. Geog aphic o e iew o Ca alonia, indica ing main hy-
d ological and opog aphical ea u es men ioned in he ex . Coo -
dina e sys em: ETRS89 UTM Zone 31N.
em ex ended ac oss a subs an ial po ion o cen al Eu ope.
The o ma ion o he Glo ia s o m esul ed om he p es-
su e g adien be ween he unp eceden ed high p essu es o e
he B i ish Isles and he low p essu es si ua ed sou h o he
Ibe ian Peninsula. Occu ing om 19 o 24 Janua y 2020,
S o m Glo ia b ough pe sis en and in ense ain all, along
wi h s ong winds. This esul ed in widesp ead and signi -
ican lu ial loods, a signi ican sea-le el ise enhanced by
la ge wa es, and mul iple slope ailu es. To isualize he di-
e se haza ds associa ed wi h he s o m, Fig. 2a illus a es
he hou ly p ecipi a ion his og am and daily ain all accumu-
la ion, wi h a ema kable 400 mm o accumula ion eco ded
in he Mon seny a ea (Co al e al., 2008). The wa e dis-
cha ge in he egula ed Te i e expe ienced maximum local
discha ges o 700 m3s−1(Fig. 2b, ACA, 2024). The Begu
buoy in he no he n coas al zone egis e ed maximum wa e
heigh s o nea ly 14m (Fig. 2c, Gómez Lahoz and Ca e e o
Albiach, 2005). Addi ionally, he daily numbe and e en ac-
cumula ion o landslides in Ca alonia du ing he Glo ia s o m
eached app oxima ely 270 landslides egionally (Fig. 2d,
Palau e al., 2022).
3 Me hods and da a
This s udy conduc ed a egional disas e loss analysis by
e alua ing public-sec o in e en ions using a h ee-s ep
me hodology (Fig. 3). Fi s , we compiled a comp ehensi e
loss da abase, ca ego izing he public unds alloca ed o e-
co e y a e he Glo ia s o m in Ca alonia. Second, we ana-
lyzed and assessed he single majo haza ds obse ed du ing
he Glo ia s o m e en . Finally, we examined he in e e ed
damages caused by he s o m condi ions o illus a e he im-
pac assessmen o uninsu ed asse s.
h ps://doi.o g/10.5194/nhess-25-3483-2025 Na . Haza ds Ea h Sys . Sci., 25, 3483–3504, 2025
3486 N. Pan aleoni Reluy e al.: Insigh s om he 2020 Glo ia s o m in Ca alonia
Figu e 2. Tempo al e olu ion o indi idual haza ds du ing Glo ia S o m. (a) Hou ly and cumula ed p ecipi a ion in Mon seny a ea; (b) Te
Ri e wa e low; (c) Maximum and signi ican wa e heigh a Begu buoy and (d) Daily and cumula ed landslide occu ence. See Fig. 1 o
loca ions.
Figu e 3. G aphical diag am o he me hodology.
3.1 Di ec loss analysis
The da a collec ion p ocess in ol ed ga he ing publicly ac-
cessible in o ma ion on public-sec o unds alloca ed o
pos -disas e eco e y. The s udy ocused on di ec angible
cos s, which a e de ined by Meye e al. (2013) as inancial
losses esul ing om di ec physical con ac wi h a haza d,
quan i iable in mone a y e ms and closely ied o he spe-
ci ic ime and loca ion o he e en . Speci ically, we exam-
ined da a ela ed o he epai and ebuilding o damages,
conside ing he asse ’s dep ecia ed alue a he ime o dam-
age, excluding any imp o emen s (Me z e al., 2010). Hence-
o h, he e ms “cos s” o “losses” will speci ically deno e
he di ec angible cos s ela ed o he epai and ebuilding
o damages.
The collec ed da a was classi ied by adap ing he Join Re-
sea ch Cen e’s (JRC) loss da abase model me hodology (De
G oe e e al., 2013). The me hodology was modi ied based
on he goal o assessing losses a he asse le el. The s uc-
u e o he loss da abase includes i e a ibu es, each classi-
Na . Haza ds Ea h Sys . Sci., 25, 3483–3504, 2025 h ps://doi.o g/10.5194/nhess-25-3483-2025
N. Pan aleoni Reluy e al.: Insigh s om he 2020 Glo ia s o m in Ca alonia 3487
ied in o dis inc ca ego ies. Each en y in he da abase co -
esponds o he di ec angible cos o epai ing and ebuild-
ing a speci ic asse , compensa ed by public unds, and is de-
sc ibed acco ding o hese i e a ibu es. In de ail, he a -
ibu es conside ed consis o :
–Geog aphical loca ion: Deno es he loca ion o he dam-
aged asse . This pa ame e is de ined using he Eu o-
pean Union’s Nomencla u e o e i o ial uni s o s a is-
ics (NUTS) e e ence classi ica ion sys em. Fo asse -
le el analysis, we employed he lowe le el o Local
Adminis a i e Uni s (LAU2) comp ising municipali-
ies o equi alen uni s wi hin he EU Membe S a es
(Eu os a , 2024).
–A ec ed elemen : De ines he asse damaged as a e-
sul o he haza d e en . The classi ica ion sys em em-
ployed is adap ed om he Damage and Loss Assess-
men (DaLA) me hodology, de eloped by he Economic
Commission o La in Ame ica and he Ca ibbean
(ECLAC). DaLA p o ides a sec o al amewo k o as-
sessing he social, economic, and in as uc u al im-
pac s o na u al disas e s, wi h each u he subdi ided
(ECLAC, 2003). The classi ica ion scheme o he “A -
ec ed elemen ” a ibu e is p esen ed in Table 1.
–Haza d iden i ica ion: Iden i ies he speci ic e en ha
igge ed he loss. The UN O ice o Disas e Risk Re-
duc ion and he In e na ional Science Council es ab-
lished a common haza d classi ica ion scheme and de i-
ni ions (Mu ay e al., 2020). The esul ing classi ica-
ion includes 302 haza d in o ma ion p o iles (HIPs),
g ouped in o eigh haza d ypes, each u he di ided
by clus e ype and by speci ic haza ds. Based on he
HIPs classi ica ion o speci ic haza d and supplemen ed
by insigh s om a ho ough e iew o he li e a u e
on he main haza ds a ec ing Ca alonia (see Sec . 2),
we employed ou dis inc ca ego ies: Flu ial, Coas al,
Landslide, and Me eo ological ca ego ies co espond o
he “Flu ial (Ri e ine) lood”, “Coas al Flood”, “Rock
Slide”, and “Flash Flood” de ini ions in he HIPs, e-
spec i ely.
–Cos : Rep esen s he mone a y alue equi ed o epai -
ing o ebuilding he incu ed damage.
–Sou ce: Iden i ies he ins i u ion, o company p o iding
he in o ma ion om which he damage loss da a o ig-
ina es and hus, he en i y who bea s he loss. We di-
ided his a ibu e in o wo ca ego ies: “Public-p i a e
pa ne ship” and “Fully public”.
To main ain a simpli ied and s anda dized use o he ame-
wo k, ou a ibu es a e desc ibed as quali a i e uni s ep-
esen ed by classes based on adap ed exis ing classi ica-
ion me hods (“Geog aphical loca ion”, “A ec ed elemen ”,
“Haza d iden i ica ion” and “Sou ce”), while he “Cos ” a -
ibu e is ep esen ed by a nume ical alue.
3.2 Haza d analysis
A mul i ace ed app oach is employed o p o ide a comp e-
hensi e unde s anding o he haza d episode, ocusing on
h ee aspec s: equency, empo al and spa ial ex en . F e-
quency is e alua ed by calcula ing e u n pe iods o assess
he se e i y o he e en compa ed o his o ical occu ences,
while empo al du a ion is de e mined by quan i ying how
long he s o m pe sis ed. These aspec s a e hen in eg a ed
wi h a spa ial analysis. This p ocedu e was applied exclu-
si ely o me eo ological, lu ial, and coas al haza ds. Due o
he inhe en complexi y o landslides mechanisms, he lack
o eliable his o ical da a, and he need o speci ic si e-based
assessmen s, his p ocedu e was no applied o landslide haz-
a d.
Re u n pe iod is a s a is ical es ima e o how o en an e en
exceeding a ce ain in ensi y is likely o occu , based on his-
o ical da a. Ex eme Value Theo y (EVT), in oduced by
Fishe and Tippe (1928), is commonly used o analyze he
p obabili y o a e e en s. The Gene alized Ex eme Value
(GEV) dis ibu ion, de eloped wi hin EVT, app oxima es he
p obabili y dis ibu ion o long sequences o independen ex-
eme a iables (Coles, 2001). The h ee-pa ame e GEV dis-
ibu ion combines Gumbel, Weibull, and F éche dis ibu-
ions in o a single exp ession. The cumula i e dis ibu ion
unc ion (CDF) o he GEV is desc ibed acco ding o Jenk-
inson (1955) as:
F(z)=
exp−h1+ξz−µ
ψi−1/ξ ξ6= 0(1a)
expn−exph−z−µ
ψio ξ=0(1b)
whe e, µis he loca ion, ψis he scale and ξis he shape pa-
ame e . This dis ibu ion includes he Gumbel (Type I) dis-
ibu ion, he F éche (Type II) dis ibu ion and he Weibull
(Type III) dis ibu ion, espec i ely, when he shape pa am-
e e is equal o 0, g ea e han 0, and lowe han 0. De ining
he e u n pe iod as he in e se o he exceedance p obabili y,
o a speci ic e u n le el z, he e u n pe iod (Tz) is gi en by
Tz=1
(1−F(z)), which esul s in (Palu iko e al., 1999):
z=µ−ψln−ln1−1
Tz ξ6= 0 (2)
Based on he GEV dis ibu ions and he p eceden s equa-
ions, e u n pe iods o majo haza ds can be calcula ed.
Hence, depending on he da a a ailable, we apply di e en
ypes o GEV dis ibu ions o cha ac e ize he Glo ia s o m,
conside ing h ee main haza ds: me eo ological, lu ial, and
coas al. The ollowing sec ions desc ibe he me hod applied
o each o hese haza ds.
3.2.1 Me eo ological haza d
Me eo ological da a encompasses (1) ain all da a and
(2) In ensi y-du a ion- equency (IDF) ain all maps (Ta-
ble 2). P ecipi a ion es ima es we e de i ed om he ain
h ps://doi.o g/10.5194/nhess-25-3483-2025 Na . Haza ds Ea h Sys . Sci., 25, 3483–3504, 2025
3488 N. Pan aleoni Reluy e al.: Insigh s om he 2020 Glo ia s o m in Ca alonia
Table 1. Classi ica ion scheme o cha ac e izing he a ibu e “A ec ed elemen ” (adap ed om ECLAC, 2003).
Fi s -le el ca ego ies Second-le el ca ego ies Desc ip ion
Social Residen ial Buildings used as dwellings and hei con en s.
E.g., Housing, domes ic u ni u e, equipmen ...
Educa ion/ esea ch School o educa ional p emises and auxilia y ins alla ions.
E.g., Teaching p emises, adminis a i e buildings . ..
Cul u e and ec ea ion Si es conside ed as cul u al and his o ical he i age.
E.g., Museums, chu ches, public a eas
Heal h In as uc u e o he heal h-ca e se ices ne wo k.
E.g., Hospi als, labo a o ies, blood banks ...
In as uc u e Ene gy Elec ical and oil in as uc u es.
E.g., Gene a ion plan s, dis ibu ion ne wo k ...
Wa e Componen s o wa e and sani a ion sys ems.
E.g., D inking wa e supply, sani a ion, sewe age ...
T anspo T anspo a ion ne wo k.
E.g., Road, ha bo , ai po ...
Communica ion Telecommunica ions se ices.
E.g., Telephony, adio and ele ision b oadcas ing ...
Economic Ag ibusiness Fa m in as uc u e and ope a ional asse s.
E.g., Fa mland, equipmen , p oduc ion losses ...
Indus y Es ablishmen s whe e indus ial ac i i ies a e conduc ed.
E.g., Fac o ies, wa ehouses, machine y . ..
T ade Businesses in ol ed in comme cial ac i i ies.
E.g., S o e on , u ni u e, s ocks o in en o ies ...
Tou ism P emises o ou ism ac i i ies and ela ed se ices.
E.g., Ho els, ou ism acili ies ...
En i onmen al En i onmen En i onmen al ecosys ems goods and se ices.
E.g., Fo es , coas al, eshwa e ecosys ems
O he Vehicle
O ice
gauge and wea he ada ne wo k obse a ions o he Me-
eo ological Se ice o Ca alonia. These obse a ions we e
in eg a ed using he me hod p oposed by Velasco-Fo e o e
al. (2009) and Cassi aga e al. (2020), which employs he
geos a is ical echnique known as k iging wi h an ex e nal
d i o in e pola e ain gauge da a wi h ada ain all se ing
as he seconda y a iable. The hou ly ain all da a co e s he
pe iod om 19 o 23 Janua y 2020, spanning he en i e Ca a-
lan egion wi h a spa ial esolu ion o 1km. This da a was
p o ided by Cen e o Applied Resea ch in Hyd ome eo ol-
ogy (CRAHI). In addi ion, IDF ain all maps o selec ed du-
a ions and e u n pe iods we e ob ained om he s udy con-
duc ed by Llab és B us enga (2020). The da ase consis s o
40 as e maps wi h a 1 km spa ial esolu ion, displaying ex-
pec ed ain all accumula ion o a ious du a ions (1, 6, 12,
24, and 48 h) and o di e en e u n pe iods (2, 5, 10, 20,
50, 100, 200, and 500 yea s). These maps a e p o ided by
he Ca alan me eo ological se ice and a e eely a ailable
on hei websi e (Me eoca , 2023).
Since he IDF ain all maps we e de i ed using a Gum-
bel dis ibu ion i (Llab és B us enga, 2020), we used he
co esponding o mula o calcula e he e u n pe iod o he
ain all accumula ion. The e o e, acco ding o Eq. (2), he
ain all accumula ion (z) o he di e en e u n pe iods
and −lnn−ln1−1
To ollow a linea dis ibu ion when
conside ing a speci ic ain all accumula ion ime in e al
(Fig. 4). I is impo an o highligh ha he linea dis ibu-
ion was de i ed sepa a ely o each pixel. To de e mine he
e u n pe iod o he ain all du ing he Glo ia e en in each
pixel, we compa ed he obse ed maximum ain all o he
e en wi h he linea dis ibu ion. The e u n pe iod was as-
signed based on he e u n pe iod exceeded by each 1km es-
olu ion pixel (2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500 yea s). This
Na . Haza ds Ea h Sys . Sci., 25, 3483–3504, 2025 h ps://doi.o g/10.5194/nhess-25-3483-2025
N. Pan aleoni Reluy e al.: Insigh s om he 2020 Glo ia s o m in Ca alonia 3489
Figu e 4. Example o e u n pe iod es ima es o me eo ological
(con inuous line) and lu ial haza ds (dashed line). The illed do s
co espond o he Glo ia s o m e en . 48 h ain all accumula ion was
selec ed o he me eo ological haza d, and he obse ed discha ge
wa e le el a he Llob ega i e o he lu ial haza d.
app oach ollows c i e ia de ined wi h he Ca alan Me eo o-
logical Se ice, based on expe judgmen and hei classi i-
ca ion h esholds. Fo ins ance, wi h 123mm o ain all ac-
cumula ion o e 48 h du ing he Glo ia e en , he es ima ed
e u n pe iod is 29 yea s, bu i is assigned as 20 yea s as i
su passes he 20-yea h eshold (Fig. 4).
3.2.2 Flu ial haza d
Hyd ological da a includes (1) in-si u discha ge measu e-
men s and (2) discha ge e e ence le els co esponding o
e u n pe iod alues (Table 2). The da a co e 53 gaug-
ing s a ions dis ibu ed ac oss 6 in e nal basins in Ca alo-
nia ( om no h o sou h: Muga, Flu ià, To de a, Te , Besòs
and Llob ega i e basins, see Fig. 1). Only i e s o igina -
ing and lowing wi hin Ca alan wa e sheds a e moni o ed
by Ca alan Wa e Agency (ACA) s a ions, while hose be-
yond hese bounda ies all unde he Con ede ación Hid o-
g á ica del Eb o’s managemen . Fo consis ency and due o
a lack o discha ge e e ence da a o hese ex e nal i e s,
hey we e excluded om his analysis. The dis ibu ion o
gauging s a ions is as ollows: 19 along he Llob ega , 16
in he Te , 4 in he To de a, 7 in he Muga, 4 in he Flu-
ià, and 3 in he Besòs. O hese, 39 s a ions a e si ua ed on
non- egula ed i e b anches, wi h he emaining 14 on eg-
ula ed ones. In-si u discha ge eco ds, collec ed be ween 20
o 26 Janua y 2020, we e eco ded a a ying equencies:
40 s a ions p o ided 5min measu emen s, while 13 collec ed
15 min da a. S a ions wi h missing da a due o senso dam-
age caused by he Glo ia s o m we e excluded. Fo discha ge
e e ence le els, da a we e acqui ed co esponding o 5 e -
e ence e u n pe iod alues (2.33, 10, 50, 100 and 500 yea s).
All da a we e p o ided by he ACA and a e eely a ailable
upon eques .
Based on he assump ion o a Gumbel dis ibu ion, di -
e en linea eg essions we e i ed o each e e ence dis-
cha ge le el (Q) and −lnn−ln1−1
To o each speci ic
gauge s a ion (Fig. 4). To assess he e u n pe iod o lu ial
wa e discha ge du ing he Glo ia e en , obse ed maximum
discha ge da a is compa ed wi h he linea eg essions. Fo
ins ance, wi h a maximum Glo ia discha ge wa e le el o
1411 m3s−1obse ed o e he Llob ega i e , he e u n pe-
iod es ima ed om he linea eg ession is 12 yea s (Fig. 4).
3.2.3 Coas al haza d
The signi ican wa e heigh da a employed in his s udy con-
sis o nume ical modeling da a om he SIMAR-WANA
da abase (Gómez Lahoz and Ca e e o Albiach, 2005), p o-
ided by he Spanish po au ho i y (Pue os del Es ado). This
da abase me ges subse s om wo di e en compu a ional
models: SIMAR-44 and WANA. A mosphe ic and wa e con-
di ions in he Medi e anean we e simula ed using he WAM
model o he SIMAR-44 da abase, p o iding wa e da a om
1958 o 2000 (Pila e al., 2008). The da abase was la e ex-
ended wi h he WANA da abase, p o iding wa e da a om
2000 onwa d. The open-sou ce da a eposi o y o e s hou ly
signi ican wa e heigh da a, co e ing he pe iod om 1 Jan-
ua y 1958, o he p esen eely accessible online (Pue os del
Es ado, 2024). Fo he pu poses o his esea ch, signi ican
wa e heigh da a om 52 g id nodes along he coas line o
Ca alonia we e conside ed (Table 2). Among hese si es, 29
a e loca ed wi hin 5km o he Ca alan coas line and 23 a e
si ua ed app oxima ely 10 km om he coas .
To calcula e he e u n pe iod o he coas al haza d based
on his comp ehensi e signi ican wa e heigh da ase , he
classical Block Maxima (BM) app oach was employed o ex-
ac ex eme alues by pa i ioning ime se ies in o equal-
du a ion blocks (Coles e al., 1999). In his s udy, annual
maximum signi ican wa e heigh s we e ex ac ed o he
pe iod spanning om 1958 o 2023, esul ing in a da ase
comp ising 65 obse a ions. Gi en his ela i ely long ime
se ies, he BM me hod is app op ia e o cap u ing ex eme
e en s consis en ly o e ime. These ex eme alues, as-
sumed o be iden ically dis ibu ed and s ochas ically inde-
penden ac oss blocks, we e i ed using he GEV model. Pa-
ame e es ima ion o he GEV model was pe o med using
he maximum likelihood me hod, whe e he likelihood unc-
ion is maximized o de e mine he pa ame e s ha bes i
he obse ed da a (Myung, 2003). Fo he Glo ia e en , e-
u n pe iods o simula ed maximum signi ican wa e heigh
a each SIMAR g id node we e ob ained by in e ing he i -
ed GEV cumula i e dis ibu ion unc ion (Eq. 2). The con-
e gence quali y o he GEV dis ibu ion was e alua ed using
he Kolmogo o -Smi no es (Lucio, 2004), wi h a signi i-
cance le el o 5%.
h ps://doi.o g/10.5194/nhess-25-3483-2025 Na . Haza ds Ea h Sys . Sci., 25, 3483–3504, 2025
3490 N. Pan aleoni Reluy e al.: Insigh s om he 2020 Glo ia s o m in Ca alonia
3.3 Losses as unc ion o haza d occu ence
A gene al assessmen o losses as a unc ion o haza d oc-
cu ence p obabili y was de e mined. Losses we e calcula ed
by agg ega ing eco ded cos s a he municipal le el o each
asse and haza d ype (“Haza d iden i ica ion” and “A ec ed
elemen ”). Fo each municipali y, losses we e hen aligned
wi h a s anda dized e u n pe iod. Re u n pe iods we e de-
e mined using he median e u n pe iod o 48 h accumula ed
ain all wi hin each municipali y o me eo ological haza d,
he closes ups eam gauge s a ion o lu ial haza d, and he
nea es SIMAR poin o coas al haza d. The s anda diza-
ion was pe o med by no malizing e u n pe iods ela i e o
hei maximum alues. To isualize he ela ionship be ween
losses and haza d equency, we gene a ed sepa a e densi y
plo s o each haza d and asse ype.
4 Resul s
4.1 Di ec loss analysis
4.1.1 Loss compensa ion dis ibu ion
This sec ion p esen s how public compensa ion was dis-
ibu ed o co e a mul i-haza d e en ocusing on he eco-
nomic impac s o he Glo ia s o m in Ca alonia. Using a com-
p ehensi e da abase ca ego ized in o i e dis inc a ibu es,
we p esen he densi y dis ibu ion o all alloca ed compen-
sa ions (Fig. 5), and he gene al dis ibu ion and in e connec-
ions among a ibu es, highligh ing he en i ies in ol ed in
managing haza d- ela ed e en eco e y (Fig. 6).
The Glo ia s o m caused subs an ial inancial im-
pac s, wi h o al epai and ebuilding cos s eco ded a
EUR 264 301 110, based on he compiled da abase o pub-
lic loss compensa ions. As shown in Fig. 5, he median
damage cos o he en ies in he da abase was app oxi-
ma ely EUR 14 000, wi h he highes compensa ion exceed-
ing EUR 10 million, and he lowes eco ded as EUR28.
Fully public unds ypically co e ed mode a e cos s, wi h a
median compensa ion nea ly doubling ha o PPPs, which
spanned a wide ange including bo h la ge and smalle
amoun s. “Coas al” haza ds incu ed he highes median cos
(EUR 30 000), wi h a wide dis ibu ion sligh ly skewed o-
wa ds highe losses, and he uppe qua ile eaching up o
EUR 100 000. In con as , “Flu ial” haza ds, despi e being
esponsible o a la ge sha e o he damage, showed cos s
clus e ing a ound a median o EUR 20 000, sugges ing nu-
me ous smalle -scale damages o dis inc compensa ion c i-
e ia. “Me eo ological” haza d damages ecei ed he lowes
median compensa ion (a ound EUR 10 000), possibly due o
lowe o e all damages.
Bo h “En i onmen al” and “In as uc u e” i s -le el “a -
ec ed elemen ” ca ego ies ecei ed highe median loss com-
pensa ion amoun s (EUR 20 000). Addi ionally, he highes
compensa ion cos s we e obse ed o “Economic” and “In-
as uc u e”, whe e he uppe qua iles eached EUR 45000.
No ably, “En i onmen al” showed a na owe dis ibu ion,
wi h a EUR 6000 di e ence be ween he uppe and lowe
qua iles, and by con as “Economic” had a b oade dis i-
bu ion. This a iabili y in compensa ion was la gely d i en
by he di e en ypes o second-le el “a ec ed elemen ” in
each i s -le el. Fo example, in “In as uc u e”, high cos s
we e mainly a ibu ed o he “T anspo ” elemen , while in
“Economic”, compensa ion le els a ied be ween a ec ed
elemen ca ego ies like “Ag ibusiness”, which incu ed lowe
cos s, and “Indus y” and “T ade”, which we e cos lie . Ad-
di ionally, he cos compensa ion a iabili y could also ha e
s emmed om di e en compensa ion c i e ia, as seen and
sugges ed by he na ow dis ibu ion o he “En i onmen-
al” elemen .
The ollowing poin s desc ibe he indings ega ding he
dis ibu ion o damage, unding sou ces, and sec o -speci ic
eco e y e o s a e he Glo ia s o m (Fig. 6):
–The p ima y damage igge s we e “Flu ial” (43%) and
“Coas al” (39 %) haza ds, which oge he accoun ed o
o e 70 % o o al losses ac oss all examined “A ec ed
elemen ” i s -le el ca ego ies. Addi ionally, “Me eo-
ological” and “Landslide” haza ds each con ibu ed
9 % o o al losses. This di e ence u he e lec s
he lowe o e all cos o he damages as well as a
lowe p io i iza ion o “Me eo ological” and “Land-
slides” haza ds. None heless, he indings highligh Ca -
alonia’s signi ican exposu e and ulne abili y o coas al
and lu ial haza ds. Fo mos haza d ypes, ebuild-
ing and econs uc ion cos s we e e enly spli be ween
he wo unding sou ces, e lec ing a balanced sha ing
o inancial esponsibili ies. Howe e , landslide- ela ed
damages we e almos en i ely unded by ully public
sou ces, unde sco ing he di icul y o in ol ing PPP in
add essing hese speci ic e en s.
–By a ec ed elemen s, “In as uc u e” sus ained he
la ges losses (42%), ollowed by he “Economic”
(28 %) and “Social” (20 %), wi h “En i onmen al” and
“O he ” accoun ing o he emaining 10 %. The allo-
ca ion o unding om ully public and PPP sou ces
ac oss a ec ed elemen s highligh ed he a ge ed na-
u e o he eco e y p ocess. Fully public unds p e-
dominan ly suppo ed “In as uc u e” and “En i on-
men al” elemen s, while PPP unding was mo e p e a-
len o “Economic”, “Social”, and “O he ”. Fully pub-
lic unds median alue aligns wi h he dis ibu ion o
cos s in he “In as uc u e” and “En i onmen al” ca -
ego ies (Fig. 5), whe eas PPP unding co e ed a wide
ange o cos s, ma ching he dis ibu ion o losses in he
“Economic”, “Social”, and “O he ” elemen s.
–A deepe analysis o second-le el ca ego ies high-
ligh ed how compensa ions we e dis ibu ed among
“A ec ed elemen s”. Fully public unding played an es-
Na . Haza ds Ea h Sys . Sci., 25, 3483–3504, 2025 h ps://doi.o g/10.5194/nhess-25-3483-2025
N. Pan aleoni Reluy e al.: Insigh s om he 2020 Glo ia s o m in Ca alonia 3491
Table 2. Selec ed haza ds and in o ma ion on da ase .
Haza d Pa ame e Sou ce Type Spa ial and empo al Da a ime pe iod
esolu ion
Me eo ological Rain all CRAHI Es ima ion 1 km F om 19 o 23 Janua y 2020
Hou ly
IDF Llab és B us enga Es ima ion 1 km Re u n pe iod 2, 5, 10, 20, 50,
(2020) 100, 200 yea s o ain all
accumula ion o 1, 6, 12, 24, 48 h
Flu ial Discha ge ACA In-si u 53 s a ions F om 20 o 25 Janua y 2020
5 o 15 min
Discha ge e e ence le els ACA Es ima ion 53 s a ions Re u n pe iod 2.33, 10, 50, 100
o e u n pe iods and 500 yea s
Coas al Signi ican wa e heigh Pue os del Es ado Es ima ion 52 g id nodes F om 1 Janua y 1958 o
Hou ly
1 Janua y 2023
Figu e 5. Densi y dis ibu ions o public compensa ion alloca ions o di ec losses ac oss he a ibu es “Cos ”, “Sou ce”, “Haza d iden i ica-
ion” and “A ec ed elemen ” o he Glo ia s o m. Uppe pa is shown as a densi y plo and he lowe pa as a boxplo . Rega ding “A ec ed
elemen ”: The illed a eas co espond o he i s -le el ca ego ies (see Table 1) and he un illed a eas ep esen second-le el ca ego ies (see
legends a he igh ), ep esen ed solely by he uppe densi y plo .
h ps://doi.o g/10.5194/nhess-25-3483-2025 Na . Haza ds Ea h Sys . Sci., 25, 3483–3504, 2025
3498 N. Pan aleoni Reluy e al.: Insigh s om he 2020 Glo ia s o m in Ca alonia
Figu e 11. Densi y plo s o he loga i hmic cos o damage e sus s anda dized e u n pe iod ac oss di e en haza d ypes (“Me eo olog-
ical”, “Flu ial” and “Coas al”) and impac ed “A ec ed elemen ” (“Wa e ”, “En i onmen ”, “Cul u e and Rec ea ion”, “Ag ibusiness” and
“T anspo ”). Each plo shows he numbe o municipali ies analyzed (n). The colou scale e lec s he numbe o municipali ies, wi h da ke
blue indica ing a highe concen a ion o municipali ies and ligh e blue ep esen ing ewe municipali ies.
ca ego ies o mo e de ailed analysis also yielded limi ed in-
sigh s. The empo al a ia ion o exposu e and ulne abili y
is ano he key ac o ha in luences his co ela ion; howe e ,
i could no be conside ed in de ail in his s udy.
In conclusion, ully public compensa ions di e ed signi -
ican ly om hose o PPPs. The indings indica ed a dis inc
cos dis ibu ion, ypically co e ing mode a e expenses, wi h
a p io i iza ion based p ima ily on haza d ype, ollowed by
he a ec ed elemen . Addi ionally, hese unds did no ap-
pea o align wi h e u n pe iod calcula ions, e en when ac-
o s like exposu e and ulne abili y we e conside ed. Ins ead,
public compensa ion seemed o be guided by a s anda dized
o mal go e nmen p ocedu e, conside ing he a ec ed ele-
men s a egic impo ance, and he o e all need o eco -
e y. O he elemen s, such as a ailable unds, damage g ids,
and adminis a i e conside a ions, likely also played a ole in
shaping he inal dis ibu ion o eco e y esou ces.
5 Discussion and conclusions
This s udy highligh s he c i ical ole o he public sec o in
managing inancial losses ollowing mul i-haza d e en s, us-
ing S o m Glo ia as a case s udy. Da a on public inancial
suppo o pos -disas e eco e y, o en unde ep esen ed in
disas e analyses, is essen ial o unde s anding compensa-
ion o uninsu ed asse damages and e ining u u e eco e y
Na . Haza ds Ea h Sys . Sci., 25, 3483–3504, 2025 h ps://doi.o g/10.5194/nhess-25-3483-2025
N. Pan aleoni Reluy e al.: Insigh s om he 2020 Glo ia s o m in Ca alonia 3499
s a egies. To add ess his, we sys ema ically collec ed and
classi ied public-sec o compensa ion da a alloca ed o e-
pai ing and ebuilding di ec angible losses caused by S o m
Glo ia, selec ing i e en i ies o cha ac e ize hese inancial
impac s. The esul ing loss da abase, buil on es ablished
me hodologies, allows o lexible disagg ega ion and agg e-
ga ion o ca ego ies, ensu ing bo h adap abili y and s anda d-
iza ion. A pos -analysis o he selec ed a ibu es and ca e-
go ies con i ms hei adequacy in desc ibing he economic
impac o he haza d e en , based on ex ensi e documen col-
lec ion. Howe e , ou s udy aligns wi h p e ious esea ch,
such as De G oe e e al. (2013), which emphasizes he im-
po ance o inco po a ing addi ional a ibu es, such as geo-
g aphical and empo al haza d in o ma ion, as well as cha -
ac e is ics o a ec ed elemen s, beyond simply iden i ying
he e en i sel o imp o e impac assessmen s.
S o m Glo ia b ough se e e me eo ological, coas al,
and lu ial haza ds o Ca alonia, ma ked by i s excep-
ional in ensi y, p olonged du a ion, and mul i-haza d na-
u e. The s o m caused widesp ead damage ac oss he e-
gion, wi h documen ed epai and ebuilding cos s amoun -
ing o EUR 264 million, unde sco ing he s o m’s signi ican
inancial bu den. While comp ehensi e, ou da abase likely
e lec s only a po ion o he o al cos s, as i accoun s solely
o ac ual e i ied in es men s. The OCCC (2020) es ima ed
o al damages in Ca alonia o exceed EUR500 million, in-
co po a ing p elimina y and un e i ied sou ces, sugges ing
ac ual cos s we e signi ican ly highe . Among global pub-
lic disas e da abases, EM-DAT eco ded o al damages o
jus EUR270 000 o Spain (CRED, 2024), a below ou es-
ima es, while he DesIn en a Sendai da abase has no up-
da ed Spain’s da a since 2010, limi ing compa a i e analysis.
A main limi a ion o he p esen s udy is he lack o p io
esea ch on pos -s o m public compensa ion da a, highligh -
ing bo h he no el y and he impo ance o ou in es iga ion.
The e o e, collec ing public-sec o compensa ion da a p o-
ides a c ucial basis o u u e esea ch and should be ex-
ended o o he mul i-haza d con ex s o alida ion and e-
inemen .
Flu ial and coas al haza ds we e he dominan igge s,
accoun ing o o e 80 % o o al damages, while me eo-
ological and slope haza ds con ibu ed o he es . Gall e
al. (2009) no ed he challenge o “haza d bias” in da abases,
whe e ce ain haza d ypes may be o e - o unde ep esen ed.
In his s udy, i emains unclea whe he he lowe eco ded
losses om slope and me eo ological haza ds e lec genuine
lowe impac s, unde -p io i iza ion, o limi a ions in e alua-
ion me hods. P io esea ch in Ca alonia indica es ha lash
loods end o cause subs an ial angible losses and mo al-
i y (Gil-Gui ado e al., 2019; Llasa e al., 2013), wi h lu-
ial componen s causing signi ican ly highe losses han ma-
ine componen s (Rome o-Ma ín e al., 2024). Howe e , all
municipali ies expe ienced some le el o des uc ion om
me eo ological and slope haza ds, emphasizing he need o
comp ehensi e documen a ion o all losses. Repo ing biases
may also ex end o a ec ed elemen s, as speci ic damaged
ca ego ies may ecei e p e e en ial a en ion (“accoun ing
bias”). Conce ning he a ec ed elemen s, “In as uc u e”
sus ained he highes losses (42 %, p ima ily in “T anspo ”),
ollowed by “Economic” sec o (28 %, especially “T ade”)
and “Social” sec o (20%, pa icula ly “Residen ial”). Ge-
og aphically, damage appea s concen a ed in majo ci ies,
likely due no only o g ea e exposu e and ulne abili y
(Ga o e al., 2024) bu also o hei s onge adminis a i e
capaci y o apply o and manage public eco e y unds. Ad-
di ionally, di e ences in eco e y cos dis ibu ion, such as
hose o lu ial haza ds and en i onmen al impac s, sug-
ges ed a ia ions in compensa ion calcula ion o epo ing
me hods (“sys emic bias”).
Rebuilding and econs uc ion cos s o S o m Glo ia we e
e enly spli be ween ully public and public-p i a e pa ne -
ship unding, e lec ing a global balanced app oach o i-
nancial esponsibili y. Rega ding his aspec ou main ob-
se a ions include: (1) inancial esponsibili ies we e allo-
ca ed acco ding o sec o -speci ic eco e y needs, wi h ully
public unding p io i izing communi y asse s, public wel-
a e and c i ical in as uc u es; (2) ully public compensa-
ion ocused on haza d-dependen cos assessmen s and as-
se s, whe eas PPP unding a ge ed a ec ed elemen s ega d-
less o haza d ype and, (3) ully public compensa ion ol-
lowed s anda dized o mal go e nmen eco e y p ocedu es.
Repo ing on mul i-haza d isk managemen is no a
s aigh o wa d ask. As no ed by Kappes e al. (2012), a
common limi a ion o mos disas e da abases is hei single-
haza d ocus, o en neglec ing haza d in e ac ions. The e is
s ong e idence indica ing ha impac a ibu ion is mo e o -
en assigned o single haza ds a he han o mul iple haz-
a ds. Al hough ou da abase iden i ies municipali ies whe e
mul iple haza ds occu ed simul aneously bu does no es ab-
lish he cumula i e, cascading o compounding ac ion o all
con ibu ing p ocesses. Ne e heless, se e al municipali ies
we e iden i ied as po en ial mul i-haza d a eas, whe e o e -
lapping haza ds coincided wi h a highe numbe o a ec ed
elemen s and g ea e incu ed cos s.
Despi e he single-haza d p e alen app oach, mul i-
haza d e en s, which accoun o nea ly 59% o global eco-
nomic losses acco ding o EM-DAT (Lee e al., 2024) a e
c ucial o conside in disas e impac assessmen s. The mul i-
haza d map gene a ed om S o m Glo ia is he i s o i s
kind in Ca alonia a municipali y le el, co e ing ou di -
e en haza d ypes. Limi ed esea ch has been conduc ed
on mul i-haza d mapping in Ca alonia. Rome o-Ma ín e
al. (2024) applied an index-based amewo k o assess in e-
g a ed isk along he NW Medi e anean coas by agg ega -
ing majo hyd o-me eo ological and ma ine haza ds. Thei
indings iden i ied he highes compound isk in densely u -
banized coas al zones, such as he Eb o Del a and Ba celona,
whe e high exposu e, signi ican haza ds, and ulne abili y
in e sec , aligning wi h ou indings. Simila ly, An o ie e
al. (2025) mapped mul i-haza d exposu e a a pan-Eu opean
h ps://doi.o g/10.5194/nhess-25-3483-2025 Na . Haza ds Ea h Sys . Sci., 25, 3483–3504, 2025
3500 N. Pan aleoni Reluy e al.: Insigh s om he 2020 Glo ia s o m in Ca alonia
scale, examining ela ionships be ween asse s (popula ion
and esiden ial buil -up a eas) and a ious na u al haza ds,
including landslides, coas al looding, i e looding, ea h-
quakes, wild i es, and subsidence. Thei indings highligh
Ba celona and no he n Gi ona as mul i-haza d ho spo s o
esiden ial buil -up a eas, u he suppo ing ou esul s.
Analyzing public-sec o compensa ion da a e ealed no
clea co ela ion be ween haza d likelihood and eco ded
losses despi e mul iple analyses. No ably, coas al and lu ial
haza ds displayed consis en loss pa e ns ac oss a ying e-
u n pe iods, while me eo ological haza ds exhibi ed dis inc
clus e ing. Despi e gene ally lowe -cos damages, me eo o-
logical haza ds s ill caused signi ican des uc ion in sho e
e u n pe iods, highligh ing asse ulne abili y. Howe e , un-
ce ain ies and challenges a ose in linking losses o e u n
pe iods, pa icula ly due o limi a ions in haza d assessmen
calcula ions and he empo al and spa ial a iabili y o expo-
su e and ulne abili y. These complexi ies complica e public
loss compensa ion es ima es o ypically uninsu ed asse s,
pa icula ly in ex eme e en s like S o m Glo ia. S ill, he
lack o co ela ion be ween compensa ion and haza d le -
els u he unde sco es he unique app oach o ully public
unding in p io i izing eco e y e o s. Simila ly, Ri as e
al. (2022) examined oceanog aphic pa ame e s in luencing
s o m damage along he eas e n Can ab ian coas , inding no
di ec link bu emphasizing ha se e e coas al damage e-
sul s om a combina ion o c i ical condi ions, a conclusion
ully suppo ed by ou s udy.
In ecen yea s, Machine Lea ning (ML) algo i hms ha e
eme ged as a aluable ool o assessing he mul iplici y o
impac s ha may a ec a egion. These me hods e ec i ely
p ocess la ge olumes o he e ogenous da a and model com-
plex non-linea ela ionships among mul iple ac o s. Due o
he complexi y o mul i- isk sys ems, ML echniques a e in-
c easingly being used o in es iga e he connec ions be ween
na u al and human-d i en p essu es, helping o be e unde -
s and he consequences o hese in e ac ions. Fu u e esea ch
could build on his wo k by applying ML algo i hms o he
da ase de eloped he e, aiming o unco e new insigh s in o
how public compensa ion mechanisms unc ion in he con-
ex o mul i-haza d e en s.
This s udy p o ides signi ican insigh s in o public-sec o
compensa ion o disas e eco e y and shows ha e o s
mus be done o adequa ely ace he challenge o u u e
changes. As Jiménez e al. (2012) no ed, pas analyses o
ma ine s o m damage along he Ca alan coas e eal ha ,
e en wi hou inc eased s o m equency, ising exposu e le -
els and g owing coas al ulne abili y, exace ba ed by na ow-
ing beaches, ha e led o escala ing damages. Addi ionally, in-
c eased u baniza ion in lood-p one a eas, pe mi ed by local
adminis a ions in ecen decades, has signi ican ly shaped
cu en lood isk scena ios along he Spanish Medi e anean
coas and along Spanish i e s (Cáno as-Ga cía and Va gas
Molina, 2025; López-Ma ínez e al., 2020). These ac o s
highligh he need o imp o ed disas e p epa edness and
eco e y s a egies o mi iga e u u e isks e ec i ely. This
wo k aims o suppo a shi owa d mo e in eg a ed disas-
e isk managemen by encou aging g ea e conside a ion o
mul i-haza d app oaches in u u e s a egies.
Code and da a a ailabili y. The code and he da a can be p o ided
by he au ho s upon easonable eques .
Au ho con ibu ions. NPR, MH and NL concep ualized he p ojec
and i s me hodology. NPR pe o med he da a cu a ion, in es iga-
ion, o mal analysis, isualiza ion, w i ing he i s d a , e iew
and edi ing. MH and NL comple ed he in es iga ion, e iew and
edi ing.
Compe ing in e es s. The con ac au ho has decla ed ha none o
he au ho s has any compe ing in e es s.
Disclaime . Publishe ’s no e: Cope nicus Publica ions emains
neu al wi h ega d o ju isdic ional claims made in he ex , pub-
lished maps, ins i u ional a ilia ions, o any o he geog aphical ep-
esen a ion in his pape . While Cope nicus Publica ions makes e -
e y e o o include app op ia e place names, he inal esponsibil-
i y lies wi h he au ho s. Also, please no e ha his pape has no
ecei ed English language copy-edi ing.
Acknowledgemen s. This publica ion was de eloped wi hin he EU
PARATUS p ojec . The au ho wishes o acknowledge and ex-
p ess since e g a i ude o he pe sonal assis ance p o ided by Vi-
cen e Medina, Ma c Be engue and José An onio Jimenez. The au-
ho s ex end hei g a i ude o he UPC’s Cen e o Applied Re-
sea ch in Hyd ome eo ology (CRAHI), he Me eo ological Se ice
o Ca alonia, he Ca alan Wa e Agency and he Conso cio de Com-
pensación de Segu os o kindly p o iding da a.
Financial suppo . This esea ch has been suppo ed by he EU
Ho izon 2020 (g an no. 101073954 – HORIZON-CL3-2021-DRS-
01).
Re iew s a emen . This pape was edi ed by S en Fuchs and e-
iewed by wo anonymous e e ees.
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