Intersectionality and Feminism in the Indian Context

In e na ional Jou nal o Managemen and Humani ies (IJMH)
ISSN: 2394-0913 (Online), Volume-12 Issue-3, No embe 2025
34
Re ie al Numbe : 100.1/ijmh.B121805021225
DOI: 10.35940/ijmh.B1218.12031125
Jou nal Websi e: www.ijmh.o g
Published By:
Blue Eyes In elligence Enginee ing
& Sciences Publica ion (BEIESP)
© Copy igh : All igh s ese ed.
In e sec ionali y and Feminism in he Indian
Con ex
Lakshi a Singh
Abs ac : The concep o in e sec ionali y changes ou
unde s anding o eminism by examining how social iden i ies,
including cas e, gende , class, and eligion, in e sec o shape he
expe iences o women om di e en communi ies [1]. When he
e m was in oduced in 1991, in e sec ionali y exposed many gaps
in he adi ional concep o eminism, which always a ou ed
whi e eminis ideology [1], highligh ing he need o engage wi h
mul iple, in e locked sys ems o opp ession aced by di e en
women's communi ies. Wi hin he Indian con ex , he cas e sys em
plays a i al ole in deepening he al eady exis ing gende
inequali y, [7] which whi e eminis schola s ha e o en igno ed.
This pape c i ically examines he expe iences o Dali eminism
in India in ela ion o Black eminism in he Uni ed S a es [8],
explo ing hei dis inc his o ical expe iences while also analysing
how he in e sec ion o a ious ac o s opp esses bo h
communi ies, and he collec i e e o s o esis his sys em o
opp ession. The ac ha in e sec ion no only applies o eminism
bu also o he masculine s udies. Looking a a ious case s udies,
such as he 2014 Badaun case and he ho i ic example o
Anannyah Kuma i Alex (a ansgende woman) [27], hese s udies
e lec how iolence ope a es as a esul o inc easing social
exclusion. I also s udies he sidelining o ansgende people and
non-bina y indi iduals om mains eam eminis discou se,
ad oca ing o g ea e inclusi i y as necessa y o eminism o
achie e g ea e equali y wi hin i s own amewo k. This pape
unde sco es he need o b ing o wa d he ma ginalised oices,
pa icula ly he Dali women, ansgende indi iduals and o he
mino i ies, i “ eminism” is o ealise i s ull po en ial inclusi ely
[1]
Keywo ds: In e sec ionali y, Dali Feminism, T ansgende
Righ s, Cas e Opp ession, Women's Empowe men , Gende
Jus ice, Indian Feminism
Nomencla u e:
Dali : Membe s o Cas es in India His o ically Rega ded as
"Un ouchable"
NFDW: Na ional Fede a ion o Dali Women
NCRB: Na ional C ime Reco ds Bu eau
NFIW: Na ional Fede a ion o Indian Women
LGBTQ+: Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, T ansgende , Quee , and o he
Sexual and Gende Mino i ies
NALSA: Na ional Legal Se ices Au ho i y
SHG: Sel -Help G oup
PRIA: Pa icipa o y Resea ch in Asia
I. INTRODUCTION
The concep o in e sec ionali y has signi ican ly shaped
schola ly discou se on eminism [1].
Manusc ip ecei ed on 03 Oc obe 2025 | Re ised Manusc ip
ecei ed on 25 Oc obe 2025 | Manusc ip Accep ed on 15
No embe 2025 | Manusc ip published on 30 No embe 2025.
*Co espondence Au ho (s)
Lakshi a Singh*, S uden , Depa men o His o y, Daula Ram
Uni e si y, Uni e si y o Delhi. Email ID: Lakshi [email protected],
ORCID ID: 0009-0001-0616-9304
© The Au ho s. Published by Blue Eyes In elligence Enginee ing and
Sciences Publica ion (BEIESP). This is an open-access a icle unde he
CC-BY-NC-ND license h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
when Kimbe le C enshaw, in he essay "Mapping he
Ma gins”, o mula ed he e m “in e sec ionali y”, she
analysed ha he opp ession and expe iences o Black women
on acial lines could no be unde s ood in isola ion [1]. These
ac o s wo k oge he o c ea e di e en o ms o opp ession.
C enshaw's amewo k sugges s ha social indica o s such as
cas e, class, ace, and o he o ms o iden i y canno be
s udied in isola ion; ins ead, hey in e ac , gene a ing laye s
o opp ession. I has become essen ial o go beyond he
simple e m o “womanhood” and acknowledge he
s e eo ypes and disad an ages ha di e en ially shape
women’s li es acco ding o hei social se ing wi hin he
eminis amewo k.
An in e sec ional app oach makes eminism mo e inclusi e,
esponsi e, and genuinely ans o ma i e, capable o
add essing he di e se issues aced by di e en g oups o
women a he han assuming ha all women sha e he same
expe iences [1]. Mains eam Wes e n eminism has
his o ically ocused on he expe iences o whi e, middle-class
women, which esul s in he ma ginalisa ion o women om
o he backg ounds [2]. Schola s ha e e med his as "social
amnesia", in which he dis inc iden i ies and li ed
expe iences o ma ginalised women a e igno ed and he
dominan g oup in e es s ake he cen e s age in eminis
discou se [3]. Such igno ance means ha he di e en
expe iences o women o colou , wo king-class women, and
women in o he egions ha e usually been le in isible o
subo dina ed wi hin mains eam eminis con e sa ions.
In e sec ional hinking p eda es 1991 in he Indian con ex .
Sa i ibai Phule was conside ed he i s woman eminis o
use C enshaw's e minology, ye she ecognised ha gende
opp ession and cas e opp ession we e insepa able. When she
es ablished schools o gi ls du ing he nine een h cen u y,
she was no only o e ing educa ion bu speci ically picking
ou gi ls om lowe cas es, ecognising ha hei opp ession
was dis inc based on hei cas e. She es ablished 17 schools
o p o ide educa ional access o women om ma ginalised,
lowe -cas e communi ies. Phule demons a ed an
unde s anding ha women belonging o lowe cas es aced
di e en ba ie s based on he in e sec ion o hei gende
wi h hei cas e s a us, and ha achie ing jus ice equi ed
add essing bo h he p oblems oge he [6]. O he igu es
inspi ed by he , such as Ramabai Ambedka , also con ibu ed
o social e o ms while unde s anding he concep o
in e sec ionali y long be o e i exis ed.
II. METHODOLOGY
This s udy includes a quali a i e and in e sec ional
me hodology p epa ed o c i ically examine how
in e connec ed and o e lapping
iden i ies, including ace, cas e,
gende , sexuali y, and class,
a ec he li es o women in
In e sec ionali y and Feminism in he Indian Con ex
35
Re ie al Numbe : 100.1/ijmh.B121805021225
DOI: 10.35940/ijmh.B1218.12031125
Jou nal Websi e: www.ijmh.o g
Published By:
Blue Eyes In elligence Enginee ing
& Sciences Publica ion (BEIESP)
© Copy igh : All igh s ese ed.
di e en ways and ope a e o ein o ce s uc u al opp ession
ac oss a ious domains o hei social li e [1]. The
me hodology comp ises analy ical dep h a he han
s a is ical da a. This s udy uses mul iple p ima y and
seconda y sou ces o conduc he esea ch. C enshaw’s
ounda ional wo ks ha e se ed as a heo e ical backbone,
alongside pe sonal na a i es and au obiog aphies by Dali
women and o he schola s, who ad oca e o an in e sec ional
app oach o adi ional eminis discou se and ideology.
Go e nmen da a, Census o 2011 da a, and legal
amendmen s, such as he 73 d Amendmen o India’s
cons i u ion, p o ide egional con ex and legisla i e
amewo ks ha shape women’s expe iences, espec i ely
[47]. Va ious schola ly li e a u es include he wo ks o
Pa icia Hill Collins on Black eminis hough , as well as
hose o Sha mila Rege and Gopal Gu u on Dali eminism.
By compa ing he Dali women’s mo emen in India wi h he
Black women’s mo emen s, he esea ch highligh s bo h
di e ences and pa allels [2][5][14][8].
This compa a i e app oach shows how con ex ma e s
g ea ly; he s uc u es o acism in Ame ica di e om he
s uc u es o cas eism in India, ye bo h show pa allels in he
way di e en aspec s like ace and cas eism add a a ie y o
laye s o opp ession o hei exis ing backwa dness. This
compa a i e me hodology highligh s how o he communi ies
o ma ginalised women ha e de eloped dis inc
unde s andings o opp ession and c ea ed inno a i e
s a egies o collec i e esis ance [10], e en as he speci ic
his o ical and social s uc u es hey ace di e signi ican ly.
III. BLACK FEMINISM AND DALIT FEMINISM IN A
COMPARATIVE CONTEXT
Feminis his o y shows a signi ican momen when whi e
eminis schola s conside hei in ellec ual and poli ical
dominance wi hin eminis mo emen s as dec easing; hey
a gue ha gende should be s udied as a ca ego y en i ely
sepa a e om ace, cas e, and o he social aspec s, a he o ical
mo e ha con enien ly main ained he dominan posi ion
ha hei heo ies had p e iously held [2]. This occu ed
p ecisely as Black women ad oca ed ha , unde s anding hei
li es equi ed s udying how ace and gende ope a ed as
in e wined, insepa able o ces [2]. Bo h Black eminism
wi hin he Uni ed S a es and Dali eminism wi hin India ha e
de eloped as dis inc ye pa allel esponses o in e connec ed
o ms o opp ession [9]. Howe e , he social s uc u es ha
gene a e such opp ession di e signi ican ly ac oss hese
geog aphical and cul u al con ex s.
The c i ical in e sec ion in India in ol es cas e and gende
a he han ace and gende [9]. Bo h Black eminism and
Dali eminism eme ged in esponse o his eali y: gende
opp ession canno be sepa a ed om acial opp ession in
Ame ica, no can i be sepa a ed om cas e s a us in India [9].
The na u e o hese opp ession sys ems di e s. Black women
in Ame ica ace acism- a sys em based upon acial hie a chy
[2]. Dali women in India ace cas eism- a sys em based upon
concep s o i ual pu i y and pollu ion ha ha e pe sis ed o
millennia [7]. Ye he expe iences a e simila :
ma ginalisa ion wo ks on mul iple g ounds simul aneously.
Dali women hemsel es began c ea ing inclusi e spaces
o hemsel es du ing he 1990s [10]. In e sec ionali y has
long been a deba ed opic, bo h an in ellec ual and a poli ical
p oblem. As we look wi hin he Indian con ex ,
in e sec ionali y eme ges based on wo p ima y axes o
opp ession, which a e cas e and gende ; he e o e, Dali
women ace he highes deg ee o disc imina ion. Schola s
collec i ely desc ibe his as “B ahmanical Pa ia chy” [7].
This shows how powe in he o m o pa ia chy ein o ces
no only male domina ion bu is deeply connec ed wi h cas e
hie a chies ha gi e an uppe hand o he uppe cas e men
while making Dali women ulne able o double opp ession.
O ganisa ions such as he Na ional Fede a ion o Dali
Women (NFDW), which was ounded in 1992 and he All
India Dali Women’s Fo um, es ablished in 2006, eme ged
om he ealisa ion ha Dali women equi ed pe sonal
spaces whe e hey can exe cise hei au ho i y and aise hei
oices and conce ns, and whe e hei expe iences a e
genuinely aken in o conside a ion and alued [10].
Black eminism has ocused p ima ily on he
in e connec ed e ec s o ace, class and gende on he
exis ence o Black women [2][19]. Dali eminism simila ly
ocuses on he mul iple axes, such as cas e s a us, gende
iden i y and economic dep i a ion, which combine and gi e
shape o he disc imina ion and iolence expe ienced by hese
women [10]. Bo h eminis sys ems challenge he deeply
oo ed inequali ies ha s uc u e hei espec i e socie ies and
highligh he necessi y o mul iple app oaches o empowe
hese communi ies [9]. Thei sha ed bond eme ges clea ly in
he his o ical o igins o hese mo emen s, in hei collec i e
e o s a he han indi idual ac i ism, and in he cen al ole
ha li e a y and a is ic exp essions ha e played in shaping
iden i y and esis ing opp ession [19]. Schola s like Mangala
Sub amaniam ha e w i en abou how he o al adi ions o
Dali women compelled mains eam eminism o ake
se iously he ques ions o di e ence and plu ali y [13]. Dali
women w i e s and ac i is s such as Baby Kamble exposed
he “Sa a na la ou ” (mains eam women's mo emen
p ima ily consis ing o uppe cas e women) o mains eam
eminism and showed how biases wi hin hese mo emen s
a e igno ed, and ha o en uppe cas e women bene i om
hei cas e p i ilege [7]. Simila ly, R. Mano ama has played
a i al ole in ad oca ing o Dali women’s igh s and
ampli ying hei oices on na ional pla o ms [12].
In India, socially oo ed belie s based on eligion abou
cas e iden i y con inue o ein o ce he sys em o exclusion
and s igma, po aying he social s a us o hose conside ed
“un ouchable” [7]. In his case, he Dali s a e deemed o be
pollu ed and un ouchable, making hem unp o ec ed agains
iolence. Acco ding o India’s Census o 2011, Dali
popula ion concen a ion is highe in some pa icula s a es,
wi h U a P adesh and Tamil Nadu ha ing high
concen a ions whe e hey a e called Scheduled Cas es [14].
Punjab’s sha e o he Dali popula ion is 32% o he s a e’s
o al popula ion. The 1990s saw a signi ican ise in
o ganised, poli ically mo i a ed ac i ism, especially among
Dali ac i is s. This demog aphic in o ma ion is essen ial
because i shows whe e women ace hese s uggles mo e and
whe e in e en ion is needed [14].
A. Case S udy: The Badaun Gang Rape and Mu de
(2014)
The 2014 gang ape and
mu de o wo Dali eenage gi ls
In e na ional Jou nal o Managemen and Humani ies (IJMH)
ISSN: 2394-0913 (Online), Volume-12 Issue-3, No embe 2025
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Re ie al Numbe : 100.1/ijmh.B121805021225
DOI: 10.35940/ijmh.B1218.12031125
Jou nal Websi e: www.ijmh.o g
Published By:
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in Badaun, U a P adesh, shows how cas e, gende , po e y,
and ins i u ional neglec can combine o cause de as a ing
ha m [15]. The gi ls li ed in a illage wi h poo sani a ion, so
hey had o go ou in o he ields a nigh o elie e
hemsel es. This le hem highly ulne able. Thei
expe ience highligh s he s uc u al na u e o in e sec ional
opp ession. Wi hou access o household oile s, a basic need
s ill denied o many u al amilies, especially hose om
lowe cas es, he gi ls we e o ced in o unsa e and isola ed
si ua ions.
When he gi ls wen missing and hei amilies epo ed i
o he police, he o ice s—who belonged o dominan
cas es— e used o in es iga e. The case mo ed o wa d only
a e communi y membe s ound he bodies. This agedy
clea ly shows se e al kinds o disc imina ion, including
cas e-based ha ed, denial o basic se ices, gende -based and
sexual iolence, and ins i u ional indi e ence. I highligh s
how he s a e ailed o p o ec hem om injus ice. This case
shows how cas e disc imina ion, gende iolence, and
ins i u ional ailu es a e connec ed [15]. The gi ls’ po e y
and cas e le hem highly ulne able. Because hey we e
gi ls, hey aced sexual iolence. The police, in luenced by
cas e bias, did no p o ec hem. This is a eal example o
in e sec ional iolence.
B. Case S udy: In e sec ional Opp ession in Tamil Nadu
In Tamil Nadu, which has one o he la ges Dali
popula ions in India, women expe ience o e lapping o ms o
opp ession, [14] much like Black women in he Uni ed S a es.
They ace economic exploi a ion h ough o ced labou ,
ongoing gende -based iolence, and cas e disc imina ion ha
a ec s all pa s o hei li es [16]. Dali s a e o en assigned
manual sca enging wo k, which is looked down upon in
socie y. The heal h isks and loss o digni y ha come wi h
his wo k a e equen ly o e looked.
"Kakkoos” (a Tamil language documen a y ilm), which is
he Tamil wo d o oile s, p o ides he iewe s wi h an
example o he li ed eali ies and also p o ides hem wi h an
insigh in o he e e yday expe iences o Dali women, who
eel comple ely helpless and a e compelled by economic
needs in o doing manual sca enging. Dali women
h oughou Tamil Nadu ha e di ec ed hei expe iences and
esis ance in o di e en o ms o cul u al p oduc ion, namely
Tamil li e a u e, poe y, au obiog aphical na a i e, and
isual a , which unc ion as powe ul ools o coun e
dominan cas e na a i es ha ei he igno e Dali women
en i ely o ep esen hem h ough humilia ing s e eo ypes.
Li e a y wo ks such as K. A. Gunaseka an's "The Sca "
(2009) show his cul u al esis ance, esis ing agains a Tamil
media landscape ha has his o ically excluded Dali oices
[17]. This use o li e a u e and a is ic exp ession as ools o
esis ance and awa eness is closely akin o he way Black
women w i e s and a is s in he Uni ed S a es ha e
his o ically employed c ea i e wo k o esis acial
opp ession [19].
C. Single-Axis Poli ics and i s Limi a ions
Theo ies and poli ical amewo ks cons uc ed based on a
single axis o opp ession ha e aced signi ican c i icism
om in e sec ional heo is s and schola s [1]. Kimbe le
C enshaw cha ac e izes such single-axis app oaches as
examples o “ ulga cons uc i ism”, a guing ha “ he
undamen al p oblem wi h iden i y poli ics is no ha i ails
o anscend di e ence, bu a he ha i equen ly o e looks
and ende s in isible he di e ences ha exis wi hin iden i y
g oups hemsel es” [1]. When di e ences wi hin he g oup
a e igno ed, he uppe hand is gi en o he mos p i ileged
membe s. The concep o “di e ence” gained p ominence in
Wes e n eminis heo y h ough he in e en ion o he Black
eminis schola s who wan ed o challenge he whi e eminis
heo y abou womanhood as an undi e en ia ed ca ego y
sha ed equally by all women [2]. Black eminis s a gue ha
his no ion o womanhood, which is expe iencing uni o m
pa ia chal opp ession, is misleading and o en igno es he
eali y o di e en e hnic and acial g oups o women [2].
Theo e ical amewo ks o single-axis iden i y poli ics ha e
a ac ed c i icism om in e sec ional schola s, who a gue
ha hese app oaches assume ha opp ession ope a es
h ough dis inc , sepa able aspec s. S ill, in eali y, hese
aspec s in e ac and o m a laye o subo dina ion. Maxine
Baca Zinn, a socialis , a gued in he in luen ial wo k ha he
li ed eali ies o many women a e no shaped by a single
hie a chy bu by mul iple, in e sec ing hie a chies ha
simul aneously shape hei expe iences om a ious
di ec ions [18]. These hie a chies a e based on se e al
ac o s, such as geog aphy and e hnici y, which a ec A ican
Ame ican, La ina, and Asian Ame ican women di e en ly, as
well as he axes o age, sexuali y, and geopoli ical loca ion.
This shows ha hei opp ession is no solely because o hei
gende iden i y bu also a ious o he ac o s.
Black eminis s ha e highligh ed how ma ginalisa ion no
only occu s om dominan g oups bu also om wi hin one’s
own g oup [19]. In many cases, black male leade s and
ac i is s ha e insis ed on iewing black women h ough he
lens o ace, only denying hem ecogni ion o gende speci ic
needs. Wi hin India, simila pa e ns ha e eme ged ega ding
Dali women. The Na ional Fede a ion o Dali Women
(NFDW) s a ed in hei 2009 cha e , saying: “We ace h ee
opp essions: gende , om pa ia chy; class, om po e y and
ma ginaliza ion; and cas e, om being un ouchable” [11].
These a e insepa able p oblems which ope a e oge he . A
woman who is a Dali , lowe cas e, poo , and acing gende
inequali y would ace mo e ma ginalisa ion because o hei
inabili y o do some hing, as hey lack access o esou ces and
has his o ically aced s e eo ypes and subo dina ion in he
social se ing hey li es in.
IV. TRANSGENDER INCLUSION IN FEMINISM
The ela ionship o sex and gende has been a ho ly
con es ed opic wi hin eminis discou se. Schola s ha e long
di e en ia ed be ween sex, unde s ood as biological ea u es
associa ed wi h ep oduc ion, and gende , unde s ood as a
socially cons uc ed no m o a beha iou ha shapes an
unde s anding o wha i means o be a man o a woman [22].
Bu his bina y amewo k has la gely excluded people who
do no con o m o hese cons uc ed no ms. Many indi iduals
do no iden i y hemsel es wi hin hese bina y gende oles,
ins ead hey de elop and claim di e en iden i ies ha socie y
doesn’ ecognises because o dominan social o de s ha has
been unc ioning his o ically and
hei unde s anding o hese
bina y oles.
In e sec ionali y and Feminism in he Indian Con ex
37
Re ie al Numbe : 100.1/ijmh.B121805021225
DOI: 10.35940/ijmh.B1218.12031125
Jou nal Websi e: www.ijmh.o g
Published By:
Blue Eyes In elligence Enginee ing
& Sciences Publica ion (BEIESP)
© Copy igh : All igh s ese ed.
The ise o hi d-wa e eminism in he la e wen ie h
cen u y ga e ise o ans eminism as a dis inc heo e ical
and poli ical amewo k. T ans eminis s ha e insis ed upon
ecognising ansgende iden i ies as dis inc om a di e en
communi y, emphasising ha inclusi e eminis heo ies and
p ac ice mus de elop an unde s anding o hese iden i ies
beyond he e ono ma i e bina ies [20]. To inco po a e a uly
inclusi e lens in eminis s udies, i is necessa y o se iously
engage wi h eminism as i comp ises gende and sex, he
e y concep o he eminis heo e ical co e. Ye mains eam
eminism has esis ed his inclusion. Ce ain aspec s o
second-wa e eminis heo y ha ea all gende ed beha iou
as sexis a e challenged by eminis s like Judi h Bu le , who
ad oca es ha male o emale doesn’ de e mine beha iou .
Ins ead, i is de e mined by he ac s o pe o mances people
play o i in o socie y, known as “gende pe o ma i i y”
[20]. His o ically, eminism belongs exclusi ely o cisgende
women, whose iden i y aligns wi h he sex a bi h [23]. This
ejec s he ansgende women’s iden i ies, claiming hei
iden i ies a e inau hen ic.
This has gene a ed a ious ha m ul e ec s on ansgende
women and has o en been pushed o he ma gins o b oade
eminis mo emen s. This ma ginalisa ion has been oo ed in
how o de ine “womanhood”, he pe sis en endency o
mains eam eminism o p io i ise he expe ience o cisgende
women while igno ing o he s and he p ac ice o ansphobia
wi hin speci ic eminis spaces and o ganisa ions. Radical
eminism has adi ionally implied he no ion o womanhood
oo ed in speci ic biological cha ac e is ics, a amewo k
which igno es ans women's iden i ies as illegi ima e [23].
T ans eminism in esponse has con inuously asked o
inclusi i y, espec o hei communi ies and ca e ul analysis
o how gende opp ession in e sec s wi h and is shaped by
o he o ms o disc imina ion, including acism, cas eism,
classism and ableism [20]. Founda ional ex s like Sandy
S one’s “The Pos anssexual Mani es o” and Julia Se ano’s
“Whipping Gi l” ha e p o en signi ican in b inging
ans eminism and hei expe iences o he cen e o eminis
discou se [20][21]. They ad oca e o a undamen ally
b oade , genuinely inclusi e eminism ha alida es he
legi ima e eali ies o ansgende and non-bina y people
[20].
V. TRANSGENDER IDENTITIES AND
EXPERIENCES
Clinical schola s Te y Al ilio and Shi ley O is-G een ha e
poin ed ou ha a pe son’s gende iden i y is o en di e en
om he sex hey we e assigned a bi h [24]. People who
choose medical ansi ions o ma ch hei bodies wi h hei
gende iden i y a e usually called anssexual indi iduals. The
b oade e m “ ansgende ” includes a wide ange o people
whose iden i ies go beyond adi ional ideas o eminini y o
masculini y [25]. This g oup p o ides d ag pe o me s,
ans es i es, in e sex people, and o he s whose appea ance
o beha iou di e s om wha is conside ed ypical o hei
cul u e [25]. Because hey do no con o m o hese no ms,
hey o en ace many o ms o exploi a ion and opp ession
ha go beyond gende [29]. This opp ession is connec ed o
acism, cas eism, and class-based disc imina ion. T ans
heo y challenges s ic ca ego ies used o sepa a e people and
ins ead encou ages new ways o hinking, possible alliances,
and new communi ies [30].
VI. THE HIJRA COMMUNITY IN INDIA
In India, he Hij a communi y holds a dis inc i e posi ion
wi hin i s cul u al and legal landscape [26]. Legally
ecognised as he hi d gende unde he coun y’s
cons i u ional and s a u o y laws, mos Hij as a e assigned
male a bi h bu de elop eminine iden i ies o e ime [26].
This ans o ma ion is e iden in hei gende ed beha iou s,
clo hing, manne isms, and social oles in Indian socie y. They
o en d aw inspi a ion om Hindu philosophical and
my hological adi ions, no ably he images o
A dhana esh a a—a dei y ep esen ing he union o
masculine and eminine ene gies as hal Shi a and hal
Pa a i—and Shi -Shak i, symbolizing he dynamic uni y o
masculine and eminine cosmic o ces.
The “Hij a” is de i ed om he U du wo d “hij ”, meaning
o lea e one’s kin o ibe, showcasing depa u e om
con en ional gende oles and expec a ions [26]. They also
occupied an honou able s a us in Hindu and Mughal con ex s.
Though hey we e e med “napumsaka” (li e ally, “wi hou
ep oduc i e capaci y”), hey s ill held ecognised posi ions
in socie y, especially in i ual and spi i ual con ex s, whe e
hei spi i ual powe and abili y o bes ow blessings we e
alued.
The li ed expe iences o hese ansgende indi iduals ha e
been e y ha sh and economically e y di icul . Based on
esea ch conduc ed by Abhina Ahe o Mumbai,
app oxima ely 80% o ansgende indi iduals in India
su i e economically h ough sex wo k o begging [28]. They
eso o hese op ions because sys emic and s uc u al
disc imina ion and lack o economic oppo uni ies lea e hem
wi h ew choices. Along wi h inancial ha dships, hey ace
o he kinds o iolence oo- esea ch li e a u e documen s ha
e bal use is he mos aced by hese people. Such e bal
ha assmen includes many de oga o y wo ds and language
happening no only in public spaces bu also wi hin
ins i u ional en i onmen s ha a e specially c ea ed o se e
people’s needs, like schools, hospi als, police s a ions, e c
[29]. Apa om e bal abuse, ansgende people also
expe ience physical iolence a an inc easing pace [30]. This
iolence anges om ough handling and physical abuse
in lic ed by heal hca e wo ke s o in ima e pa ne iolence
wi hin ela ionships o done by s ange s in public se ings.
They ace deep- oo ed social and cul u al s igma and
exclusion ha shape hei daily li es and ac i i ies [27]. The
ulne abili y is eno mous o he o al o 4.9 lakh ansgende
people li ing in India, acco ding o he 2011 census, ou o
which only 38% a e wo king in
compa ison o 46% o he
gene al popula ion [14].
In e na ional Jou nal o Managemen and Humani ies (IJMH)
ISSN: 2394-0913 (Online), Volume-12 Issue-3, No embe 2025
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A. Case S udy: The Dea h o Anannyah Kuma i Alex
(2021)
[Fig.1: This Is Gene a ed by Napkin. AI by he Da a
Taken om Va ious Digi al Sou ces and Su eys.: PIB,
Minis y o Social Jus ice, The Na ional Uni e si y o
Aus alia, Undp.O g]
The li e and he agic dea h o Annanyah Kuma i Alex
s and as a de as a ing example o he ulne abili y and
neglec o ansgende people in India, e en when hey ha e
achie ed conside able isibili y legally. Annanyah was
Ke ala’s i s ansgende adio jockey and an ambi ious
poli ical candida e p epa ing o un o he assembly
elec ions, ep esen ing a a e example o a ans woman in
poli ical isibili y in Indian public li e. She died by suicide
a e a ca eless gende a i ma ion su ge y, exposing se ious
medical gaps, negligence, and he lack o sa e and a o dable
gende a i ming heal hca e a ailable in India. He dea h
highligh ed he pain ul u h ha e en hose who ha e
achie ed public p ominence a e s ill ulne able o sys emic
ailu es and ins i u ional negligence. The public eac ion was
ull o ou age, and demands o imp o ed medical egula ion
and o e sigh inc eased [28].
VII. TRANSFEMINISM AS RESPONSE AND
CONTESTED DEBATES WITHIN FEMINISM
Resis ing hese iolen s uc u es and deg ees o
ma ginalisa ion, he eme gence and de elopmen o
ans eminism as an in ellec ual and poli ical o ien a ion
shows a ans o ma ion in eminis ideologies ha
adi ionally exclude hem [20]. Philosophe Naomi Scheman
has done signi ican wo k s udying how no ma i e sys ems
main ain hemsel es by p oducing wha she calls “abjec ed
o he s”, people whose e y exis ence is essen ial o de ining
wha is “no mal”, bu s ill who a e con inuously le in isible.
Scheman c i iques he na a i e o ei he assimila ing and
e asing onesel o i in o dominan no ms o accep ing
pe manen exile and exclusion. Ins ead, she emphasised he
need o e ocus on he needs o hose who ha e always been
ma ginalised by socie y. This app oach mo es o wa d wi h
he con ic ion ha ma ginalised li es a e no genuinely li ed
wi h dep h and meaning bu a e also aluable and wo hy o
ecogni ion and p o ec ion [31].
The con lic s ha a ise om he inclusion o ansgende
indi iduals in o he eminis mo emen ha e gene a ed
hea ed deba es wi hin eminis ac i is ci cles [20]. While
some a gue ha including gende sel -iden i ica ion would
comp omise sex based legal p o ec ions ha he ea lie
eminis mo emen ough o es ablish, ans inclusi e
eminis s coun e his by saying ha such objec ions usually
hide he unde lying ansphobia [20] and con ibu e
sys ema ically o social exclusion and ma ginalisa ion o
ansgende people. Key a eas o con en ion include ensu ing
ansgende indi iduals' equal igh s and sa e y, he same as
ha o cisgende women, e en in spo s (as hey belie e ha
hey would ha e mo e in luence i gi en he same igh s as
men in spo s, and ha would be un ai o o he women), and
a ious o he social a enas. Some adical eminis s gi e a
iewpoin known as ans-exclusiona y adical eminism,
which a gues ha sex is biological and immu able, and
gende iden i y is an opp essi e cons uc . They iew gende
iden i y as an in alid concep and ha i unde mines
biological sex [23]. In India, eminis s ha e e ained mainly
om excluding ans people om he ca ego y o “woman.”
[7] Since he 1980s, he concep o “woman” has been open-
ended and inclusi e. A na ional women's con e ences ac oss
he na ion, any singula na a i e abou womanhood is
con inually challenged [7]. Janaki Nai shows in he wo k
(Women and Colonial Law: A Feminis Social His o y, 2025)
ha women in India ha e always been di e en ia ed by cas e,
class, egion, and o he ac o s. Cul u al his o ians also
highligh how ans iden i ies a e no shaped by he s a e in
India bu by he egional cul u es and p ac ices. As Gaya i
Reddy ells in he wo k (Wi h Respec o Sex, 2005), abou
how hij a iden i y in Sou h India canno be conside ed as he
“ hi d gende ”. Many o hem pe cei e hemsel es h ough
mo al conside a ions o izza , which includes honou ,
eligious signi icance, and hei pas ole a he omb o he
P ophe Mohammed.
The e is a need o de elop a nuanced unde s anding o an
inclusi e app oach and include people who don’ con o m o
adi ional eminis ideologies [20][21]. Mo eo e , hey ha e
a igh o li e as human beings; hey should be en i led o
digni y and p o ec ion. I is ime o de elop a comp ehensi e
eminis p axis, pu sue collec i e ac ion o igh gende
inequali y, include he ma ginalised in he g ow h and
de elopmen o all, and c ea e a be e socie y o li e in, wi h
ha mony and peace [46]. The in e sec ion o he a ious
o ms o disc imina ion hese g oups ace shall be p e en ed
h ough con inuous ad ocacy and awa eness. Di e en and
inclusi e spaces shall be c ea ed o hese g oups so ha hei
oices can be hea d and e e yone is ensu ed equal igh s.
VIII. ACHIEVEMENTS OF FEMINIST MOVEMENTS
IN INDIA
Feminism s a ed in India long be o e his e m was
in en ed. I da es back o he nine een h cen u y, when
Sa i ibai Phule, conside ed he i s woman eminis and
social e o me , dedica ed he li e o women’s igh s and
educa ion. She was India’s i s emale school eache and
ounded 17 schools du ing ha ime. She ocused on helping
gi ls om ma ginalised communi ies. Inspi ed by Phule’s
wo k, e o me s like Ta abai Shinde and Ramabai Ranade
also challenged pa ia chy and
ough o women’s igh s [32].
Du ing he 19 h cen u y, male
social e o me s also con ibu ed

In e sec ionali y and Feminism in he Indian Con ex
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o his cause, hough wi h a di e en pe spec i e. Figu es like
Raja Ram Mohan Roy (linked wi h he B ahmo Samaj
mo emen ) and Ishwa chand Vidyasaga wo ked o elimina e
social e ils such as sa i (widow bu ning) and p omo ed
widow ema iage, challenging igid eligious o hodoxies
and pa ia chal sys ems [33].
A. The Independence Mo emen and A e wa ds
Many p ominen women con ibu ed o he eedom
mo emen du ing India’s s uggle o independence while
also ad oca ing o women’s igh s and digni y. A una Asa
Ali gained p ominence as a woman ac i is h ough he
pa icipa ion in he eedom mo emen and he hos ing o he
Indian lag a Gowalia Tank Maidan in Mumbai du ing he
Qui India Mo emen o 1942, demons a ing ema kable
cou age and becoming a symbol o women’s poli ical agency.
She also ounded he Na ional Fede a ion o Indian Women
in 1954, an o ganiza ion dedica ed o jus ice and equal igh s
o women [34].
B. Second-Wa e Feminism (1970s-1980s)
The pe iod om he 1970s o he 1980s is ecognised ac oss
Sou h Asia as he e a o second-wa e eminism in India. I
was ma ked by inc eased ac i ism agains gende -based
iolence, ha assmen in wo kplaces, disc imina ion, and
demands o genuine poli ical ep esen a ion and
pa icipa ion. A signi ican u ning poin was he 1972
Ma hu a ape case, which spa ked widesp ead in ellec ual
and poli ical deba e and led o legal e o ms. By 1983,
amendmen s o c iminal law add essed issues o sexual
iolence, ape, and abuse by police o ice s.
Du ing his ime, eminis schola s and ac i is s began
conduc ing mo e sophis ica ed analyses o pa ia chy,
iewing i no jus as an abs ac ideology bu as deeply
embedded in ins i u ions such as he legal sys em, he amily,
he media, and he bu eauc acy [35].
C. Thi d Wa e (1990s Onwa ds)
As India en e ed he 1990s, indi idualism and iden i y
poli ics gained p ominence [10]. Voices om ma ginalized
communi ies—including Adi asi, Dali s, LGBTQ+, and
eligious mino i ies—became mo e isible in eminis
discou se [10]. A landma k case was NALSA . Union o
India in 2014, which ecognised ansgende indi iduals as a
cons i u ionally p o ec ed hi d gende and a i med hei
igh o sel -iden i y, ejec ing he need o con o m o gende
based on sexual cha ac e is ics [36].
This judicial miles one was ollowed by he 2019
T ansgende Pe sons (P o ec ion o Righ s) Ac and he 2020
implemen a ion ules, which p ohibi ed disc imina ion
agains ansgende people in employmen , educa ion,
heal hca e, and public spaces [37]. O he cou decisions,
such as A un Kuma s IGR (2019) and Vyajan i Mogli s
Telangana (2023), ex ended p o ec ions o ma iage, o icial
documen s, wel a e bene i s, and a i ma i e ac ion’s
[38][39].
Despi e hese ad ances, policy implemen a ion emains
weak. Da a om India’s Na ional C ime Reco ds Bu eau
show only 236 c iminal cases in ol ing ansgende ic ims
in 2020, wi h numbe s dec easing in subsequen yea s. This
sugges s many c imes, including se e e o ences like ape
and assaul , go un epo ed. Fac o s include ins i u ional
negligence, social s igma, lack o awa eness, and cul u al
insensi i i y among o icials [40]. This hi d wa e o
eminism emphasized in e sec ionali y and was dis inc om
ea lie mo emen s ocused mainly on uppe cas e women’s
conce ns. Key achie emen s include he adop ion o he
Vishakha Guidelines in 1997, which es ablished s anda ds o
add essing sexual ha assmen in he wo kplace [41]. This
pe iod also saw he es ablishmen o an in e nal complain s
commi ee in wo kplaces, he o mula ion o he Domes ic
Violence Ac in 2005, which p o ided speci ic p o ec ion and
emedies o women expe iencing abuse wi hin he amily
se ing [42]. The c i ical cons i u ional amendmen s o his
e a, pa icula ly he 73 d and 74 h amendmen s in 1992,
manda ed a 1/3 ese a ion o women in local go e nmen
bodies, enhancing oppo uni ies o women and gi ing hem
a oice in in luencing local go e nmen decisions [5]. Ye in
many places, hese p ac ices look good only on pape , and
when i comes o implemen a ion, he e a e loopholes in he
sys em i sel ; people bypass hese policies, and hese a e
usually no implemen ed well, which sus ains pa ia chy
anyhow.
D. Mahila G am Sabhas: Inno a ion in Women's
Pa icipa ion
Se e al Indian s a es ha e aken addi ional s eps o enhance
women’s in ol emen in g ass oo s go e nance. S a es like
Ka na aka, Maha ash a, Odisha, and Madhya P adesh ha e
in oduced he inno a i e ins i u ion o mahila g am sabhas,
dedica ed women’s illage assemblies c ea ed o p o ide a
space o women’s poli ical pa icipa ion and oice [4]. The
inno a ion o mahila g am sabhas i s eme ged wi hin
Maha ash a s a e, whe e women’s sel -help g oups and local
women o ganised collec i e ga he ings o p o es communi y
ha ms. Ini ially, hey we e o ganised on he issue o
alcoholism and i s des uc i e e ec s on amilies. As ime
passed, hese women-cen ed mee ings e ol ed o add ess a
a ie y o o he p oblems a ec ing women’s li es and
wellbeing. Topics ha we e egula ly discussed in hese
sabha include ma e nal heal h, domes ic iolence, emale
in an icide, p ac ice o child ma iage and economic
empowe men h ough li elihood de elopmen p ojec s,
which also include go e nmen ini ia i es like Be i Bachao-
Be i Padhao, Janani Su aksha Yojana ( inancial incen i es o
below po e y line p egnan women), e c.
Despi e hese ins i u ional inno a ions, esea ch indica es
ha women's ac ual pa icipa ion in g am sabha mee ings
emains low. This gap e lec s ongoing social ba ie s such as
deeply in e nalised pa ia chal s uc u es, limi ed awa eness
o women abou hei igh s, household-le el cons ain s on
women’s mobili y and ime. A 2018 esea ch s udy conduc ed
by he Pa icipa o y Resea ch in Asia o ganisa ion in
Rajas han ound e y low le els o pa icipa ion, wi h some
women ne e a ending g am sabha mee ings and showing
e y li le in e es in engaging wi h local go e nance
s uc u es. These indings show how social a i udes and
s uc u al ba ie s impac women’s li es and p e en hem
om asse ing hei oices [43].
E. Fou h Wa e: Digi al
Ac i ism and #MeToo
The la es phase o eminis
ac i ism in India, known as he
In e na ional Jou nal o Managemen and Humani ies (IJMH)
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DOI: 10.35940/ijmh.B1218.12031125
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ou h wa e, has been signi ican ly shaped by digi al
echnology and social media, which enable awa eness-
aising, ampli ying oices, and collec i e o ganisa ion. A key
aspec o his wa e was he global dissemina ion o he
#MeToo mo emen , highligh ing issues o sexual ha assmen
and misconduc ac oss academic ins i u ions, wo kplaces,
and public li e. These pla o ms ha e allowed indi iduals o
sha e pe sonal expe iences o iolence, exposing co up and
in luen ial igu es and os e ing public accoun abili y in
spaces whe e i was p e iously lacking. These digi al
campaigns ha e succeeded no only in holding indi iduals
accoun able o misconduc bu also in mo i a ing
policymake s o adop p e en i e measu es and s onge
p o ec ions [44].
IX. LEGISLATIVE VICTORIES
Th oughou his ime, India’s legisla i e and cons i u ional
landscape has unde gone a p o ound ans o ma ion. The
enac men o laws o he p o ec ion o ansgende people
and he Dali s- he SC/ST (p e en ion o a oci ies) Ac , 1989,
he aboli ion o “un ouchabili y” h ough A icle 17 o he
Cons i u ion, and a ious legal aids p o ided o such
communi ies ha e imp o ed he condi ions o he Dali
communi y. Howe e , hey s ill ace challenges and iolence
based on hei case. Fo example, in Tamil Nadu, scheduled
cas es ace disp opo iona e cus odial iolence, making up o
38.5% o de ainees despi e being only 20% o he popula ion
in he s a e, and he si ua ion o women is wo se and goes
unno iced [14]. None heless, India’s successi e eminis
mo emen s ac oss mul iple wa es ha e expanded spaces o
women’s empowe men , gene a ed employmen and
li elihood oppo uni ies and con ibu ed o g adual shi s in
legal and policy amewo ks. Despi e pe sis en cul u al and
eligious esis ance o eminis objec i es, hese mo emen s
ha e di ec ly challenged pa ia chal ins i u ions.
A ecen example o his p og ess is he Women's
Rese a ion Bill, passed in 2023, which ecei ed unanimous
suppo . This legisla ion equi es ha women cons i u e 33%
o membe s in he Lok Sabha (India’s Na ional Pa liamen ),
s a e assemblies, and he Delhi legisla i e assembly, ma king
a signi ican and long-awai ed mo e owa d inc easing
women’s ep esen a ion and oice in go e nmen ins i u ions
[45].
X. CONCLUSION
Ac oss a ious his o ical pe iods and geog aphical
con ex s, eminis mo emen s ha e played an impo an ole
in ede ining women's social posi ion and achie ing women's
empowe men and digni y. Ye achie ing an inclusi e
eminism can only happen i i uly add esses he mul iple
axes o disc imina ion h ough which opp ession ope a es, as
he cen al a gumen o in e sec ionali y holds [1].
A uly ans o ma i e eminism should o e come
monoli hic Wes e n-de i ed models. I should be, a oiding
he assump ion ha any single model can ully add ess he
di e se needs and conce ns o all women globally [3].
Women’s expe iences a e di e se and shaped by o e lapping
ac o s such as cas e, class, ace, sexuali y, geog aphy,
disabili y, and o he social iden i ies. In India, gende
opp ession canno be sepa a ed om cas e-based
disc imina ion and socio-economic ma ginaliza ion.
Mains eam eminism, his o ically domina ed by uppe -cas e
whi e women, needs a comp ehensi e e ision o include
ma ginalized oices and be uly inclusi e. Wi hou sel -
e lec ion and s uc u al change, eminism isks ein o cing
he hie a chies i aims o disman le. To become genuinely jus
and equi able, eminism mus o e haul i s in e nal s uc u es
o p omo e inclusi i y, emb ace di e si y, implemen
in e sec ional analysis, and shi ocus om uni e salism o
plu alism. Unde s anding di e se gende iden i ies, women's
di e en li ed expe iences, and in e sec ional opp ession will
make eminism mo e inclusi e, ensu ing ha e e y oice is
hea d, all expe iences a e acknowledged, and no one is
excluded om he pu sui o jus ice. Only h ough emb acing
in e sec ionali y and inclusion can eminism ealize i s goal
o os e ing a mo e jus socie y wo ld.
DECLARATION STATEMENT
The e e ences ci ed, pa icula ly hose men ioned wi h
da es (C enshaw, Se ano, Collins), a e olde wo ks
published mo e han en yea s ago and a e explici ly
acknowledged as such. None heless, hese wo ks emain
essen ial and ounda ional o he cu en s udy, as hey a e
pionee ing con ibu ions o in e sec ional eminism, Black
eminis hough , ansgende heo y, and Indian women's
e o m mo emen s. Thei heo e ical amewo ks con inue o
in o m con empo a y schola ship and canno be eplaced by
mo e ecen wo ks wi hou comp omising he in ellec ual
in eg i y o his analysis.
Some o he e e ences ci ed a e olde , no ed explici ly,
such as [1], [2], [5], [6], [7], [8], [9], [11], [12], [13], [14],
[15], [16], [17], [18], [19], [20], [21], [22], [23], [24], [25],
[31], [32], [33], [34], [35], [36], [41], [42] and [47]. Howe e ,
hese wo ks emain signi ican o he cu en s udy, as hey
a e pionee ing in hei ields.
I mus e i y he accu acy o he ollowing in o ma ion as
he a icle's au ho .
▪ Con lic s o In e es / Compe ing In e es s: Based on
my unde s anding, his a icle has no con lic s o
in e es .
▪ Funding Suppo : This a icle has no been unded by
any o ganiza ions o agencies. This independence
ensu es ha he esea ch is conduc ed wi h objec i i y
and wi hou any ex e nal in luence.
▪ E hical App o al and Consen o Pa icipa e: The
con en o his a icle does no necessi a e e hical
app o al o consen o pa icipa e wi h suppo ing
documen a ion.
▪ Da a Access S a emen and Ma e ial
A ailabili y: The adequa e esou ces o his a icle a e
publicly accessible.
▪ Au ho ’s Con ibu ions: The au ho ship o his a icle
is con ibu ed solely.
REFERENCES
1. C enshaw, K. (1991). Mapping he ma gins: In e sec ionali y, iden i y
poli ics, and iolence agains women o colou . S an o d Law Re iew,
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42
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DOI: 10.35940/ijmh.B1218.12031125
Jou nal Websi e: www.ijmh.o g
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& Sciences Publica ion (BEIESP)
© Copy igh : All igh s ese ed.
Indian Jou nal o Gende S udies, 7(1), 33–45.
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AUTHOR’S PROFILE
Lakshi a Singh is an unde g adua e s uden o His o y a
Delhi Uni e si y, India, wi h a deep academic in e es in
gende s udies, his o y, and ma ginalized his o ies. As a
passiona e and cu ious esea che , she equen ly w i es
esea ch a icles and essays ha c i ically engage wi h
hemes o in e sec ionali y, cas e, eminism, and policy.
Lakshi a has been associa ed wi h he Impac and Policy Resea ch Ins i u e
(IMPRI), New Delhi, whe e she u he honed he analy ical and w i ing
skills h ough policy-o ien ed esea ch. A dedica ed Ci il Se ices aspi an
and an AI en husias , she has wo ked as a p omp enginee . She has in e es s
in a ious ields o ul il he cu iosi y and lea n some hing new e e y ime.
She combines academic igou wi h a commi men o public se ice, aiming
o con ibu e meaning ully o social ans o ma ion and inclusi e
go e nance. He wo k e lec s a g ounded unde s anding o con empo a y
issues shaped by his o ical con ex s, and a d i e o ampli y he oices o en
le unhea d.
Disclaime /Publishe ’s No e: The s a emen s, opinions and
da a con ained in all publica ions a e solely hose o he
indi idual au ho (s) and con ibu o (s) and no o he Blue
Eyes In elligence Enginee ing and Sciences Publica ion
(BEIESP)/ jou nal and/o he edi o (s). The Blue Eyes
In elligence Enginee ing and Sciences Publica ion (BEIESP)
and/o he edi o (s) disclaim esponsibili y o any inju y o
people o p ope y esul ing om any ideas, me hods,
ins uc ions, o p oduc s e e ed o in he con en .