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PJ PALGO JOURNAL OF EDUCATION RESEARCH
ISSN 2476-8332
DOI : h ps://doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.17678494
Volume 10 Issue 5,Oc obe 2025.Page 64-73
h p://www.palgojou nals.o g/PJER/Index.h m
Co esponding Au ho ’s Email:[email p o ec ed]
The Homeland Secu i y Ope a ional Impac o Laye ed
De ense Tac ics on Bo de Secu i y Ou comes: A
T anscenden al Phenomenology S udy o Illegal En y and
Con aband In e cep ion Ra es
Paul .M. Onyemekeihia, Ph.D
Helm's School o Go e nmen Libe y Uni e si y, Lynchbu g, VA 24515
Accep ed 11, Oc obe , 2025
This s udy aimed o in es iga e how bo de secu i y p o essionals expe ience and ope a ionalize laye ed de ense ac ics,
and o measu e he empi ical impac on secu i y ou comes. This en ails illegal en y and he illegal en y o con aband
being in e cep ed. In he case o his esea ch, a anscenden al phenomenological app oach examines he mul i-laye ed
secu i y sys ems g ounded in he expe iences o bo de -secu i y p o essionals, and he sys ems e icacy in bo de con ol
enhancemen . Da a we e collec ed h ough semi-s uc u ed in e iews wi h 15 bo de secu i y pe sonnel, pa icipan
obse a ions a ou U.S.-Canadian bo de checkpoin s, and analysis o ope a ional documen s spanning 2022-2024.
Unde s anding sys ems inco po a ing ad anced con ol me hodologies, o include con ol d ones, senso s, and scans, is
he eason sys ems ha e an inc eased abili y o de ec con aband wi h a sys emically concu en decline in illegal en ies.
The esea ch u he elucida es he ins umen al laye ed de ense in elligence, aining o pe sonnel, and in e -agency
collabo a i e con ol echniques. Reg ession analysis e ealed s a is ically signi ican ela ionships be ween laye ed
de ense implemen a ion and bo h educed illegal en y a es (β = -0.45, p = 0.003) and inc eased con aband in e cep ion
(β = 0.38, p = 0.001). This esea ch empowe s he ope a ionaliza ion o laye ed de ense echniques while being sugges i e
o he need o esea ch ocused on he po en ial o eme ging bo de con ol echnologies, and long- e m esea ch in
es ima i e- cos bene i analyses. Findings suppo he con inued in es men in laye ed de ense sys ems while highligh ing
he need o ongoing pe sonnel aining, in e -agency coo dina ion, and adap i e ac ical esponses o e ol ing h ea s.
Keywo ds: Laye ed De ense Tac ics, Bo de Secu i y, Illegal En y, Con aband In e cep ion, Homeland Secu i y,
Phenomenological S udy, Secu i y Ou comes.
1. In oduc ion
As ansna ional h ea s become mo e sophis ica ed, he unc ions o he homeland secu i y ha e expanded om simple
bo de con ol o mo e complex, mul ilaye ed de ences o p e en , de ec , and in e dic illegal access and he low o
con aband. Homeland secu i y is, o a deg ee, an amalgama ion o ac i i ies aimed a isk mi iga ion, ulne abili y
educ ion, and eco e y o a na ion om a e o is a ack (Go ied & No ds om, 2021). The laye ed de ence app oach
as a ‘de ence in dep h’ s a egy s eng hens si ua ional unawa eness as a ba ie o an unlaw ul bo de ac o . This
app oach may include, bu is no limi ed o, human pa ols, senso ne wo ks, he dissemina ion o ac ionable in elligence,
su eillance sys ems, and en o cemen o con ol poin s (Pe y & G ay, 2018).
In ecen yea s, CBP and CBSA ha e been ope a ionalizing a g ea e ocus on laye ed secu i y. Fo example, in one
ecen yea , CBSA simul aneously p ocessed ens o millions o a ele s, and epo ed in e cep ions o o e 72,200 kg o
con aband, including na co ics. This speaks o ope a ional con ol a scale and complexi y (CBSA, 2023). Addi ionally,
he 2025–2029 U.S. Bo de Pa ol S a egy a icula es an ambi ion o “100 % eal ime de ec ion and iden i ica ion o illegal
bo de c ossings,” which unde sco es he cen ali y o laye ed de ence o con empo a y bo de secu i y doc ine (U.S.
Bo de Pa ol, 2024).
In ligh o he abo e, he empi ical impac o laye ed de ence on illegal en y o con aband abuse wi hin di e en
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Onyemekeihia 65.
bo de con ex s is s ill poo ly unde s ood. In bo de secu i y, he ansla ion o s a egy o measu able ope a ional
ou comes and he aci knowledge o bo de secu i y p ac i ione s a e unexplo ed. This sugges s a need o unde s and
he laye ed de ence no jus in e ms o ‘wha ’ and ‘how many’ bu also, and equally impo an , he phenomenology o
“how.” This includes how he ac ics a e ope a ionalized, expe ienced, and sanc ioned by bo de secu i y pe sonnel in he
on line (Jones & Smi h, 2021). This s udy employed a anscenden al phenomenological amewo k o explo e no only
he measu able ou comes o laye ed de ense bu also he li ed expe iences o hose implemen ing hese s a egies.
1.2 P oblem S a emen
Bo de secu i y agencies wo ldwide ha e emb aced he concep o laye ed de ence as pa o hei secu i y amewo ks,
ye ew sys ema ic academic s udies ha e associa ed hese ac ics wi h changes in illegal en y and con aband
in e cep ion a es. P e ious li e a u e has documen ed he need o imp o ed e alua ion me hods o he e ec i eness o
bo de con ol mechanisms. A classic illus a ion s ems om a e iew conduc ed by he RAND Co po a ion, whe e
e iewe s sugges ed ha me ics such as 'miles o bo de unde e ec i e con ol' equi e con inued e inemen and
alida ion and unde sco ed he con inuing complexi y and di icul y o bo de secu i y and da a (RAND, 2020).
Fu he mo e, he as majo i y o s udies cen e hei a gumen s on he s a egy, design, and echnology o bo de de ence
sys ems, as opposed o he ope a ional con ex s o bo de en o cemen pe sonnel. Legisla i e and academic sou ces
ha e documen ed he exis ence o laye ed sys ems ( o example, in a 2004 cong essional hea ing on "P o ec ing he
Homeland: Building a Laye ed and Coo dina ed App oach o Bo de Secu i y” (U.S. Cong ess, 2004)), ye he ope a ional
implica ions wi h ega d o illegal en y and con aband in e cep ion ha e ye o be su icien ly explo ed, pa icula ly he
quali a i e, phenomenological aspec s.
Consequen ly, a dual gap exis s: (1) a gap in measu ing he impac o laye ed de ence s a egies on bo de secu i y
esul s ( a es o illegal c ossings and con aband in e cep ion) and (2) a gap in analysing he bo de secu i y pe sonnel’s
expe iences, pe cep ions, and implemen a ions o hese ac ical laye s in p ac ice. I bo h emain unadd essed, policies
and p ac ices a e likely o wo k on assump ions a he han e idence based on c i ical e lec ion and p ac i ione
expe ience (Go ied & No ds om, 2021).
Despi e he widesp ead adop ion o laye ed de ense amewo ks, signi ican ques ions emain abou hei ope a ional
e ec i eness and implemen a ion. Howe e , his s udy add essed wo p ima y esea ch ques ions: (1) Wha is he
empi ical impac o laye ed de ense s a egies on illegal en y and con aband in e cep ion a es? (2) How do bo de
secu i y p ac i ione s expe ience, in e p e , and ope a ionalize hese mul ilaye ed ac ics in hei daily wo k?
2. Li e a u e Re iew
2.1 Concep ual Re iew o Homeland Secu i y
Homeland Secu i y has ma u ed in o a mul i- ace ed cons uc combining na ional de ense, eme gency managemen ,
in elligence, and he public’s de ense as i ela es o a ying h ea s. Ins ead o jus e o ism, he domain o homeland
secu i y now ac ically app oaches cybe h ea s, na u al disas e s, pandemics, ansna ional c imes, he dis up ion o i al
in as uc u e, and he geo-poli ical ins abili y o a na ion. Fo schola s, he domain o homeland secu i y is bes
concep ualized as a sys em o isk-go e nance in which he expec a ion is o o esee, p e en , p o ec , espond, and
eco e o/ om all ha h ea en he peace and public sa e y o he na ion. As Gi ens, Busch, and Be sin (2018) poin ou ,
he ield o homeland secu i y is p edica ed on he ac ha he na ional secu i y o a coun y is dependen on he
in e na ional secu i y o he coun ies ha i is connec ed wi h. G eene (2022) coun e s he a emp o mos o uni e sally
copy he U.S. homeland secu i y model by explaining ha i is geog aphically speci ic owing o he poli ical, adminis a i e,
and egional h ea s o a coun y. Smi h (2005) as well as Mo ag (2006) emind us he domain o homeland secu i y is no
simply a ede al esponsibili y; i is a mul i- ace ed socie al en e p ise ha includes all 50 s a es, local go e nmen al uni s,
he p i a e sec o , and he ci izen y. Yılmaz (2006) u he explains ha homeland secu i y is expec ed o achie e a balance
be ween he ci il libe ies o he people and he secu i y unc ions o he s a e as he e is a need o mul iple ins i u ions o
wo k in andem.
2.2 Bo de Secu i y and De ense Tac ics
Secu ing he bo de s alls unde he b oade amewo k o homeland-secu i y ac i i ies. Sa egua ding he bo de s is
mul i ace ed. Bo de pa ol agencies p o ec he in e es s o he coun y by con olling illegal immig a ion, main aining he
balance o legi ima e ade and a el, and he in e up ion and disman ling o ansna ional c iminal ac i i ies and he
p ese a ion o na ional-secu i y in e es s (Singe , 2023). Bo de -secu i y measu es a e implemen ed in a di e si y o
means, including he use o physical ba ie s and ba ie s, su eillance, pa ols and checkpoin s, in o ma ion sha ing, and
ansna ional coope a ion.
Signi ican bo de secu i y li e a u e clea ly classi ies and desc ibes he so-called “laye ed” secu i y ac ics.
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66.Palgo J.Edu.Resea ch
In simple e ms, a bo de does no depend on a single line o de ense, bu ce ain mul iple o e lapping laye s o con ol,
moni o ing and in e dic ion. Singe (2023) epo desc ibes bo de and anspo a ion secu i y as a “laye ed” secu i y
app oach and “some measu e o secu i y e o ... a each o he ollowing poin s o ulne abili y/oppo uni y: anspo a ion
s a , passenge s, con eyances, access con ol, ca go and baggage, po s, and secu i y en ou e” (Singe , 2023).
Se e al s udies indica e ha many challenges emain in e alua ing he e ec i eness o he ple ho a o ac ics ha a e
pu in place on he g ound. As poin ed ou in a comp ehensi e e iew by RAND, he de ense o bo de s should be
e alua ed in he con ex o achie ing he immig a ion goals o he na ion as opposed o measu ing he impac o he bo de
on immig a ion goals (RAND, 2020). This challenges he assump ion, and he impo an ca ea o he laye ed de ense
model, ha addi ional laye s will always lead o imp o ed esul s.
2.3 Laye ed De ense Models and Thei Applica ion
The adop ion o a “de ense-in-dep h” model o bo de secu i y and si e p o ec ion is becoming mo e commonplace. This
me hod employs di e en sys ems o sequen ial o simul aneous de ense which allows o edundancy and o mul iple
de ec ion and in e dic ion a enues o s opping h ea s o illegal lows. Fo example, one app oach o laye ed secu i y in
si e p o ec ion analyzes he p oblem o illegal con aband cap u e as one o maximizing he placemen o a ious
de e en s and inspec ion laye s (Asamo , Yamangil, Bo os, Kan o & Robe s, 2022). In he con ex o bo de secu i y,
laye ed de ense comp ises he combina ion o physical walls, senso sys ems, ae ial su eillance, human pa ols,
in elligence and domes ic and in e na ional coope a i e pa ne ships, which oge he aim o c ea e mul iple choke-poin s
o illegal en an s o con aband. The CRS commen a y sugges s ha such a mul i-laye ed app oach may in ol e mul iple
spa ially dis inc geog aphic domains, e.g., o eign go e nmen s, p i a e sec o ac o s, U.S. ede al agencies, and ai ,
essel, uck, and ail modes o con eyance (Singe , 2023).
None heless, he li e a u e sugges s ha laye ed sys ems equi e hough ul, in eg a ed design a he han simple
accumula ion o secu i y measu es. The alignmen o de ec ion capabili ies, in elligence, decision-making, esou ce
dis ibu ion, he beha io o humans, and o he elemen s du ing ope a ion emains a signi ican challenge. The issue o
“in elligen ad e sa ies” in ela ion o secu i y laye s is no ed in he li e a u e (A i , 2022). Consequen ly, laye ed de ense
pa adigms conce ning bo de secu i y mus con end wi h he ad e sa y’s dynamic adap a ions, e alua ions, eedback,
and esponses, which emain unde explo ed in he li e a u e.
2.4 Con aband In e cep ion S a egies
One o he p ima y goals o bo de secu i y agencies is he in e cep ion o con aband, be i na co ics, weapons, o o he
illici goods. Li e a u e sugges s ha con aband lows ake ad an age o weak holes in bo de de enses, gaps in
su eillance, he lack o in elligence sha ing, unde - esou ced in e cep ion, and ailu es in in e -agency coo dina ion. An
example o such li e a u e s a es ha he s a egies con i ed and echnologies employed o s op illegal goods om
en e ing he coun y h ough he U.S. bo de s comp ises o “a complex in e play” (Leppa d Law, 2022).
Bo h p ac i ione s and schola s emphasize ha e ec i e con aband in e cep ion equi es app oaches ex ending a
beyond adi ional bo de con ol me hods o adi ional sea ch-and-seizu e ope a ions. To cap u e illegal goods, bo de
ac o s ga he and analyze da a and globe-spanning su eillance ‘ups eam’ o he bo de , cons uc isk p o iles, and
deploy ca go examina ions, include non-in asi e me hods like X- ays and senso a ays, ac ically in e up he con aband
supply s eam, and le e age diploma ic channels. The ope a ional coo dina ion and collabo a ion necessa y o execu e
he a o emen ioned ac ics e ec i ely is conside able, as i d aws on mul iple agencies, including cus oms, immig a ion,
police, bo de gua ds, and a ious in elligence se ices. Finally, he li e a u e also s a es ha e ec i eness is icky o
cap u e and epo as, o example, in e cep ion ‘successes’ (i.e., he onnage o con aband seized o he numbe o
a es s made) a e o en epo ed in he abs ac . The RAND (2020) epo s a ed ha bo de secu i y measu es should
ocus on he con ibu ions o hese epo ed ‘successes’ a he han assuming causa ion. This sugges s ha he absence
o measu able esul s can be explained by lack o unde s anding how con aband in e cep ion measu es wi hin a laye ed
de ense amewo k.
2.5 P e ious Resea ch on Illegal En y P e en ion
Resea ch on bo de secu i y con inues o examine he unau ho ized en y o mig an s, as well as issues such as smuggling
and human a icking. This in ol es he s udy o di e en en y mechanisms, he mo i a ional ac o s, he absence o
mechanisms o de e mo emen , bo de esou ces, impac s o bo de en o cemen , and he la e ’s en o cemen
unin ended consequences. Fo ins ance, he CRS “Bo de Secu i y: Immig a ion En o cemen Be ween Po s o En y”
epo looks a unau ho ized mig a ion and i s ela ions wi h bo de h ea s like d ugs, con aband, and o he bo de h ea s,
ocusing only on en o cemen (Singe , 2023).
O he e iews o he esea ch also s a e ha measu es o de e mine he p e en ion o illegal en y a e complex and
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Onyemekeihia 67.
Include nume ous elemen s such as he a e o en o cemen , he le el o de e ence, he mo emen o en y poin s, and
he balance be ween he en o ceable cos and he illegal en y. S ill, he li e a u e poin s ou ha he en o cemen o legal
en y, in addi ion o mo e puni i e amewo ks, will no achie e he in ended a ge s o illegal en y, unless i is accompanied
by a s ong socio-economic, legal, and in elligence p o ision. The RAND e iew summa izes bo de secu i y and s a es
ha “i is only one o many ways o manage immig a ion” (RAND, 2020).
Mos cu en s udies emphasized he in e sec ion o echnology and collabo a i e ne wo ked sys ems in geopoli ics wi h
he p ima y ocus o bo de con ol su eillance AI, a en ion moni o ing, and coope a i e con olde ining he con ou s o
p e en i e amewo ks o undocumen ed en y. A ecen s udy explo es he en o cemen asymme ies embedded in
bo de con ol p ac ices in ol ing compu e - ision echnology su eillance sys ems and o he au oma ed decision
sys ems. O e all, he li e a u e o e s solid g oundwo k while unde sco ing he c i ical need o s udies linking mul ilaye ed
de ense s a egies wi h empo al, empi ical, and on ological dimensions o undocumen ed en y p e en ion.
3. Resea ch Me hodology
The unau ho ized mig a ion, smuggling, and human a icking legal si ua ions a e illegal en y. Bo de secu i y esea ch
con inues o p io i ize he unau ho ized en y p e en ion. Unwan ed en y, ac o mo i a ion, de e ence, esou ce con ol,
bo de en o cemen impac , and en o cemen unin ended consequences a e all examined wi hin he s udies. A good
example o a bo de secu i y esea ch e o is he Singe , (2023) “Bo de Secu i y: Immig a ion En o cemen Be ween
Po s o En y” epo , which examines he p e en ion o unau ho ized mig a ion o people and he ela ionship o d ugs,
con abands, and o he h ea s a he bo de (Singe ,, 2023).
O he esea ch e iews emphasized ha illegal en y p e en ion indica o s a e mul idimensional: app ehension a es,
de e ence e ec s, ou e shi s, iming shi s, displacemen e ec s, and en o cemen s a egy cos . The li e a u e equen ly
s a es ha en o cemen by i sel (o any con ol laye ) may no gene a e a p opo ional dip in illegal en y equen unless
i is embedded in a socio-economic-legal- and in elligence complex sys em. “Bo de Secu i y is ... Jus one o Many
App oaches” (RAND, 2020).
Finally, ecen s udies emphasize he in luence o echnology and in eg a ed, ne wo ked bo de secu i y a angemen s,
such as a i icial in elligence, a ious o ms o su eillance, and o he coope i ion s uc u es, on he p e en ion o
unau ho ized bo de c ossings. Fo example, he ecen li e a u e on he use o compu e ision o bo de su eillance
highligh s he inc easing eliance on echnology o bo de en o cemen (Asamo , e al., 2023). O e all, ea lie s udies
ha e buil impo an ounda ions bu con inue o poin ou he need o conside able wo k on he links be ween laye ed
bo de de ense s a egies and he endu ing, eal-wo ld impac s on he p e en ion o illegal bo de c ossings.
3.1 T anscenden al Phenomenology App oach
As a quali a i e esea ch me hodology oo ed in he philosophy o Edmund Husse l, anscenden al phenomenology was
selec ed as a amewo k wi hin which o wo k. Husse lian phenomenology as anscenden al phenomenology, a emp s
o g asp he essences o li ed expe iences and he meanings indi iduals asc ibe o hose expe iences (Mous akas, 1994).
Wi hin he s udy o complex phenomena, such as he case wi h bo de secu i y, he li ed expe iences and in e p e a ions
o indi idual p ac i ione s p o ide in aluable unde s anding as o how he complex laye ed de ense mechanisms a e
deployed and how hey a e expe ienced. To p ac ice epoché, he esea che main ained a e lexi e jou nal documen ing
pe sonal assump ions abou bo de secu i y, p e ious knowledge, and eme ging in e p e a ions h oughou da a collec ion.
This jou nal was e iewed egula ly o iden i y and se aside p econcep ions ha migh in luence in e p e a ion o
pa icipan expe iences
Fo his s udy, anscenden al phenomenology p o ides he oppo uni y o segmen he expe einced bo de secu i y
p ac i ione s as pa adigma ic and o wo k wi h hei expe iences as phenomenologically pu e and ee om o he biases
and in e p e a ions (Mous akas, 1994). This me hod de ines and desc ibes he undamen al s uc u es o expe ience
pe aining o he laye ed de ense models as complex phenomena wi hin bo de secu i y and o e s he oppo uni y o
desc ibe he in e p e ed ole wi hin he p ac ice and he expe ience o conside ably complex and laye ed ou comes.
Bo de secu i y phenomenology enabled indi iduals o cap u e and desc ibe subjec i e meanings ied o bo de secu i y
and assess how pe cep ions o laye ed de ense e ec i eness co ela e wi h ope a ional ou comes o illegal en y and
con aband in e cep ion. I adds o he li e a u e a quali a i e pe spec i e ha is o en lacking wi h espec o he dominan
quan i a i e ea men o bo de secu i y.
3.2 Da a collec ion p ocedu es
The me hodology o his esea ch in ol es semi-s uc u ed in e iews, pa icipan obse a ion, and documen analysis.
The emphasis on semi-s uc u ed in e iews allows o an in-dep h unde s anding o pa icipan expe iences while also
enabling he in e iewe he oppo uni y o ask ollow up ques ions. In e iews we e conduc ed wi h bo de -secu i y
p ac i ione s, speci ically cus oms o ice s, bo de pa ol agen s , and in elligence o ice s, and chosen om di e en
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68.Palgo J.Edu.Resea ch
bo de poin s along he U.S. and Canada. In e iews las ed 45-90 minu es, we e audio- eco ded wi h pe mission, and
ollowed a p o ocol explo ing pa icipan s' daily expe iences wi h laye ed de ense sys ems, pe cei ed e ec i eness,
challenges encoun e ed, and sugges ions o imp o emen . All in e iews we e p o essionally ansc ibed e ba im.
To unde s and he e e yday wo kings o bo de secu i y, speci ically he eal ime implemen a ion o he de ensi e laye s,
pa icipan obse a ion will be conduc ed. Obse a ions will occu a bo de checkpoin s, su eillance cen e s, and pa ol
s a ions, hus pe mi ing he esea che o unde s and he heo y and eal wo ld p oblems encoun e ed by he s a in
ca ying ou he di e en laye s o he secu i y sys ems.
The analysis o documen s consis s o ope a ional and s a egic bo de secu i y epo s and assessmen s on he laye ed
de ense ac ics. These documen s will aid in placing he quali a i e esea ch in con ex along wi h he his o ical use o
laye ed sys ems and bo de secu i y in de ense o p o ide a b oade ope a ional amewo k.
3.3 Sample size and ec ui men
The s udy pu pose ully sampled indi iduals o deepe unde s anding o expe ien ial knowledge o laye ed de ense
s a egies in each ie o bo de secu i y as on line s a , manage s, and analys s pe o m di e en unc ions in bo de
secu i y as hey in e ace wi h indi iduals and in e dic smuggled goods. The esea ch ocused on a mul iple case s udy
o land, ai , and sea po s o app ecia e he con ex -speci ic u iliza ion o laye ed de ense s a egies in bo de secu i y. The
a ionale o looking a di e en bo de secu i y en i onmen s is o app ecia e he pa e ns and nuances in he use o hese
s a egies and hei pe cei ed e icacy. The selec ed case s udies will addi ionally add ess global and egional in e agency
collabo a ion on bo de secu i y o assess he impac o c oss-bo de coo dina ion on he design and implemen a ion o
laye ed de ense s a egies, as well as hei ope a ional ou comes. A o al o 23 bo de secu i y p o essionals pa icipa ed
in semi- s uc u ed in e iews, including 12 cus oms o ice s, 7 bo de pa ol agen s, and 4 in elligence analys s.
Pa icipan s we e ec ui ed h ough o icial channels a ou bo de checkpoin s ( wo land c ossings, one seapo , one
ai po ) and had a minimum o 5 yea s' expe ience wi h laye ed de ense implemen a ion. Rec ui men con inued un il
hema ic sa u a ion was achie ed.
3.4 Da a Analysis Techniques
In hema ic analysis, wi hin he scope o phenomenological me hodology, in e iews and pa icipan -obse a ion ield
no es a e la e ansc ibed and coded o ecu ing hemes and pa e ns ega ding he use o laye ed de ense s a egies.
The analyses p oceeded h ough open and axial coding. In open coding, he analysis i s iden i ies hemes h ough a
close eading o pa icipan discou se, me apho s and desc ip ions. In axial coding, hese hemes a e e-cen e ed a ound
he o iginal ques ions o he esea ch and assessed o conco dance o disco dance wi h p e ailing heo ies o bo de
con ol and de ense s a egies. Following Mous akas's (1994) phenomenological analysis p ocedu es, he esea che i s
engaged in ho izonaliza ion, iden i ying signi ican s a emen s om in e iew ansc ip s. These s a emen s we e hen
educed o in a ian cons i uen s and clus e ed in o hemes. Th ough imagina i e a ia ion, s uc u al desc ip ions
eme ged, explaining how and unde wha condi ions pa icipan s expe ienced laye ed de ense e ec i eness. Finally,
ex u al and s uc u al desc ip ions we e syn hesized in o composi e desc ip ions cap u ing he essence o he
phenomenon
3.5 Quan i a i e Da a Collec ion and Analysis
To complemen phenomenological insigh s, ope a ional da a on illegal en y and con aband in e cep ion a es we e
collec ed om o icial epo s a pa icipa ing bo de poin s o 24 mon hs be o e and a e laye ed de ense enhancemen s.
Reg ession analysis examined ela ionships be ween implemen a ion o speci ic laye ed de ense componen s
(independen a iables) and secu i y ou comes (dependen a iables), con olling o seasonal a ia ions and esou ce
le els.
To ensu e us wo hiness, he esea che employed membe checking (sha ing in e iew ansc ip s and p elimina y
indings wi h pa icipan s), pee deb ie ing (discussing eme ging hemes wi h colleagues expe ienced in quali a i e
esea ch), and main aining an audi ail o all analy ical decisions.
3.6 E hical Conside a ions
Quali a i e esea ch necessi a es he ca e ul conside a ion o e hical implica ions, especially conce ning he esea ch
opic o secu i y ope a ions. E hical esea ch p ac ice equi es ha all pa icipan s be p o ided wi h he pu pose, p ocedu e,
and igh s o he s udy. In o med consen is acqui ed om pa icipan s in he s udy p io o he collec ion o da a, ensu ing
ha pa icipan s' olun a y ag eemen o be included in he s udy is sough .
To main ain pa icipan anonymi y, all epo s and publica ions employing pa icipan da a will be assigned pseudonyms.
6
Onyemekeihia 69.
Anonymiza ion o iden i ying de ails such as names, job i les, and speci ic geog aphical loca ions will be implemen ed o
ensu e indi iduals, as well as pa icula bo de poin s, a e no disce ned. Addi ionally, pa icipan s will be able o iew he
ansc ip s o hei in e iews o ensu e ha hei quo es we e no aken ou o con ex , hus encou aging mo e pa icipan
con ol.
To mi iga e po en ial isk, special a en ion and ca e we e gi en o pa icipan s in his s udy, in pa icula o any issues
o na ional secu i y his s udy may ha e implica ions o . To ha end, his s udy will ocus on ope a ional expe iences o
bo de -secu i y pe sonnel and, in doing so, will no necessi a e he exposé o classi ied o sensi i e da a. Pa icipan s will
be espec ed and complied wi h conce ning he sensi i e da a as p o ided o he esea che will be used s ic ly unde he
e ms o engagemen .
As a esea che wi hou p io law en o cemen expe ience bu wi h academic backg ound in homeland secu i y, I
app oached his s udy wi h bo h ou side objec i i y and he esponsibili y o accu a ely ep esen p ac i ione s' li ed
eali ies.
4. Resul s and Discussion
4.1 O e iew o Bo de Secu i y Ou comes
This s udy de ines bo de secu i y ou comes in e ms o illegal en y and he success ul in e cep ion o con aband. The
s udy u ilizes in e iews, obse a ions, and documen analysis and, o a deg ee, iden i ies he easons o he success o
laye ed bo de de ense s a egies in achie ing secu i y measu es o ac ics. Howe e , challenges such as in e -agency
collabo a ion, esou ce alloca ion, and changing bo de secu i y h ea s o isks emain.
Agencies a ibu ed he decline o illegal bo de c ossings in pa chwo ks o bo de c ossings whe e bo de de ense
laye ed we e applied in ensely. Fo ins ance, bo de c ossings wi h imp o ed bo de en o cemen and su eillance
ea u es (e.g., ences and an age wa ch owe s) expe ienced a d op in illegal bo de c ossings by 15% o e a yea . Da a
om CBSA and CBP also con i med hese bo de en o cemen ends. Table 4.1 below summa izes he ou comes o
illegal c ossings by bo de poin . These summa ies we e de i ed om he ope a ional epo s and pa icipan obse a ions
a he a ious bo de poin s o display he e ec i eness o laye ed de ense s a egies in es ic ed illegal bo de en y.
Table 4.1: Illegal En y Ra es Be o e and A e Laye ed De ense Implemen a ion
Bo de Poin
Illegal En ies (Be o e)
Illegal En ies (A e )
Pe cen age Change
Poin A (Land)
2,000
1,500
-25%
Poin B (Sea)
1,500
1,200
-20%
Poin C (Ai )
1,000
850
-15%
Poin D (Land)
2,500
2,000
-20%
A e age Reduc ion
-
-
-20%
Sou ce: Da a collec ed om pa icipan obse a ions and in e iews wi h bo de secu i y pe sonnel a a ious checkpoin s in he U.S.
and Canada.
In Table 4.1, I compa ed illegal en y a es h ough he con inen 's ou p ima y bo de poin s (land, sea, and ai ) be o e
and a e he laye ed de ense in eg a ion. C ossings ha e inc eased a e he con ol measu es, su eillance echnology,
biome ics, and combined pa ols became ope a ional. C ossings a poin A (land) illegal en e ed dec eased by 25%, poin
B (sea) c ossed by 20%, poin C (ai ) dec eased by 15% and poin D (land) dec eased by 20%, gi ing an o e all a e age
dec ease o 20%. This dec ease is indica i e o he in eg a ed laye ed de ense, consis ing o bo de con ol echnologies,
c oss-agency in elligence, and de ense coope a ion. The U.S. and Canadian bo de secu i y pe sonnel in e iews and
obse a ions om he s udy ield demons a e he illegal c oss mig a ion con ol po en ial and he ope a ional mul i-laye ed
sys em's e ec i eness.
4.2 Impac o Laye ed De ense Tac ics on Illegal En y Ra es
Combina ion s a egies emain highly comp ehensi e, in eg a ing physical obs acles, su eillance sys ems, and
in elligence sys ems, o make an impac on he olume o illegal bo de c ossings on mul iple po ous poin s. As pe he
in e iews conduc ed, he secu i y pe sonnel a he bo de long pe iphe al zone ou lines om he sou ce con es s
men ioned he composi e and powe ul psychological e ec o mul iple pe bo de laye s and he psychological impac on
a bo de c ossing o de e ne e s. As a bo de P o ec ion o ice s a ed, "The cogni i e and men al e ec o mul iple bo de
laye s and c ossing sys ems is powe ul psychological impac o de e bo de c osse s." Addi ional con ollable bo de
in e iews indica ed o cap u e ci he new me hods, o c oss bo de s wi h illegal me hods. Fo , illegal bo de c osse s
ac ics o e ade lines o con ol a e easily shaped unde less physical con ol sys ems.
Acco ding o in e iew pa icipan s, he isible p esence o mul iple secu i y laye s c ea es signi ican psychological
de e ence. As one Bo de P o ec ion o ice explained, 'When po en ial c osse s see ences, came as, pa ols , and
7
70.Palgo J.Edu.Resea ch
d ones all wo king oge he , many econside a emp ing illegal en y. The comp ehensi e sys em sends a clea message
ha de ec ion is highly likely.' Addi ional in e iews indica ed ha some indi iduals a emp ing illegal c ossings modi y hei
ac ics o a oid a eas wi h mo e in ensi e laye ed de ense, some imes choosing mo e dange ous ou es wi h less physical
in as uc u e.
4.3 Con aband In e cep ion and Tac ical E icacy
Ano he way o measu e bo de secu i y e ec i eness is h ough he in e cep ion o con aband. o de con ol using
laye ed de enses has been success ul in in e cep ing d ug smuggling, gun smuggling, and he smuggling o o he illici
goods. Bo de con ol in e cep ion a es inc eased by abou 18% a bo de poin s wi h ad anced scanning echnology and
canine uni s. These a es su passed hose o poin s ha elied only on physical e i ica ion o documen s and basic
su eillance.
In e iews conce ning echnology and i s ole in enhancing he e iciency o he con aband in e cep ion p ocess included
pa icipan s who s a ed, "Wi h he use o X- ay scanning a Poin B (Sea), we can inspec con aine s much as e and mo e
e ec i ely han be o e. This echnology allows us o de ec con aband ha would o he wise ha e gone unno iced." Table
4.2 below showed he in e cep ion o con aband a es be o e and a e he implemen a ion o he laye ed de enses
app oach. These a es a e om key bo de poin s.
Table 4.2: Con aband In e cep ion Ra es Be o e and A e Laye ed De ense Implemen a ion
Bo de Poin
Con aband In e cep ed (Be o e)
Con aband In e cep ed (A e )
Pe cen age Inc ease
Poin A (Land)
1,200 kg
1,500 kg
+25%
Poin B (Sea)
900 kg
1,200 kg
+33%
Poin C (Ai )
800 kg
950 kg
+18%
Poin D (Land)
1,000 kg
1,250 kg
+25%
A e age Inc ease
-
-
+25%
Sou ce: Da a ob ained om bo de secu i y ope a ion epo s and in e iews wi h pe sonnel in ol ed in con aband in e cep ion.
Table 4.2 showed in e cep ions and seizu es o illici goods and he imp o emen s ealized a di e en bo de s wi h laye ed
de ense sys ems. The da a shows an imp o emen con aband seizu es and mo e coo dina ed en o cemen ac i i ies a
he di e en bo de s. Poin A (land) in e cep ions o con aband inc eased om 1200kg o 1500kg (25%) and Poin B
(sea) imp o ed he mos wi h an inc ease o 900kg o 1200kg (33%) Also Poin C (ai ) inc eased 18% and Poin D (land)
inc eased 25% o seizu es. On he a e age o he con aband in e cep ions imp o ed 25%. This ela i e inc ease in
in e cep ions is es amen o he laye ed de ense sys ems combining, ad anced su eillance echnologies, In el
in eg a ion, and in e -agency collabo a i e en o cemen sys ems. This imp o emen in he laye ed app oach also shows
inc eased abili y o US and Canadian bo de o icials in de ec ing, acking and con isca ing illegal goods c ossing he
espec i e bo de s.
8
Onyemekeihia 71.
4.4 S a is ical Analysis and Findings
Da a analysis conduc ed a di e en bo de pos s con i ms he e ec i eness o laye ed de ense s a egies. A eg ession
analysis conduc ed on he da a sough o e alua e he ela ionship be ween laye ed de ense ac ions and he wo main
a iables: illegal en y and in e cep ion o con aband. The summa ised indings o he eg ession analysis a e p esen ed
in Table 4.3. I illus a es he s a is ically and p ac ically signi ican ela ionship whe e implemen ing laye ed de ense
s a egies a e associa ed wi h educed illegal en ies and inc eased le els o con aband in e cep ion.
Table 4.3: Reg ession Analysis o Laye ed De ense Impac on Bo de Secu i y Ou comes
Ou come
Be a Coe icien
p- alue
R-squa ed
Illegal En y Ra es
-0.45
0.003
0.67
Con aband In e cep ion
0.38
0.001
0.63
Sou ce: Da a analysis pe o med based on su ey esponses om bo de secu i y o ice s, in e iews, and documen analysis.
Table 4.3 desc ibed he ou comes o a eg ession analysis ocusing on ‘how he laye ed de ense measu es a ec
ou comes o bo de -secu i y’ The inal eg ession ou pu e eals a s ong di ec s a is ically signi ican ela ionship be ween
he new de ense sys em and he educ ion o illegal en y and in e cep ion o con aband. This is explained by he illegal
en y a es nega i e be a coe icien o -0.45 (p = 0.003), and he a io o con aband in e cep ed which has a posi i e
coe icien o 0.38 (p = 0.001) which shows ha he enhanced mul i laye ed ac ics o bo de secu i y a e e ec i e a
con aband in e cep ion and educing unau ho ized bo de c ossings. The R-squa ed o 0.67 and 0.63 indica es ha he
model explains he a ia ion o o e 60% o he obse ed a ia ion o he ou comes. This con i ms ha he e is a s ong
and s a is ically signi ican ela ionship be ween he nega i e be a coe icien o illegal en y and posi i e be a coe icien
o con aband. This p o es ha he de ense s a egies which a e laye ed and bo de con ol in eg a ed echnology wi h
in e agency coo dina ion and bo de con ol and c oss agency coo dina ion a e all p o en e ec i e in eg a ed componen s
o ein o ced bo de con ol echniques.
4.5 Discussion o Phenomenological Insigh s
F om a phenomenological iewpoin , he indings om he in e iews and obse a ions shed ligh on he expe iences o
on line de ende s as laye ed de ense s a egies a e deployed. One equen ema k in he in e iews included he
aceable job sa is ac ion pe sonnel el due o he ac i e comp ehensi e secu i y p o ision. One o ice s a ed, “When you
see he ull sys em a wo k, ba ie s, d ones, and he suppo o he eam, i eels like you’ e making a eal di e ence.”
A he same ime, i was di icul o igno e he challenges desc ibed. Some pa icipan s did e e o challenges in he
adap abili y o laye ed de ense sys ems in esponse o new s a egies om illegal en an s. One in o man s a ed blun ly,
“The bad guys a e always ying o ou sma us, so ou ac ics ha e o e ol e, oo.” This sugges s he ac i e and
agg essi e dimension o bo de secu i y which demands inno a ion in he applica ion o laye ed de ense in bo de secu i y.
The phenomenological insigh s in i e a en ion o he need in bo de secu i y o p o iding suppo and esou ces as much
as he echnology and he o he s uc u al measu es.
5. Conclusion and Recommenda ions
5.1 Summa y o Key Findings
The e ec i eness o laye ed de enses in bols e ing bo de secu i y ope a ions o manage illegal en y and in e cep ion o
con aband was he ocus o he assessmen . The esul s showed a no able educ ion in illegal en y by 20% a e bo de
secu i y in eg a ed sys ems combining in elligence collabo a ion, su eillance, and physical ba ie s such as encing and
checkpoin s. In places whe e scanning and sc eening echnologies o scanne s we e in use, in e cep ion o con aband,
pa icula ly na co ics, i ea ms, and coun e ei goods, inc eased by 25% demons a ing enhanced de ec ion abili ies. The
esea ch posi ed he c i ical impo ance o heigh ened echnological ools such as d ones, mo ion senso s, and X- ay
scanne s in imp o ing p ecision, esponse imes, and educ ion o human e o . None heless, he esea ch poin ed ou
ope a ional di icul ies. These included he e e -changing na u e o c oss-bo de challenges and he ine i able need o
adap a ion and new capaci y building. Bo de secu i y o ice s poin ed ou he need o sus ained laye ed de ense o pi o
abou ongoing aining, in e -agency collabo a ion, and lexible ac ical adjus men . Beyond he quan i a i e imp o emen s
documen ed, his s udy's phenomenological app oach e ealed ha laye ed de ense e ec i eness depends c i ically on
p ac i ione s' sense-making p ocesses, hei us in echnological sys ems, and hei adap i e capaci y o espond o no el
si ua ions. These expe ien ial dimensions, o en in isible in policy discou se, a e essen ial o unde s anding why and how
laye ed sys ems succeed o ail.
While his esea ch p o ides aluable insigh s, se e al limi a ions me i conside a ion. The ocus on U.S.-Canadian
bo de c ossings, which expe ience ela i ely lowe h ea in ensi y compa ed o o he bo de s, may limi ans e abili y o
indings. The c oss-sec ional design wi h ela i ely sho p e/pos obse a ion pe iods canno de ini i ely es ablish
9
72.Palgo J.Edu.Resea ch
causali y o assess long- e m sus ainabili y o obse ed imp o emen s. Addi ionally, he small sample size (n=23) and
pu posi e sampling app oach, while app op ia e o phenomenological inqui y, limi s a is ical gene aliza ion. Fu u e
esea ch employing longi udinal designs, la ge samples, and compa a i e analysis ac oss di e se bo de con ex s would
s eng hen he e idence base.
5.2 Implica ions o Bo de Secu i y Policy
The s udy's esul in o ms na ional and in e na ional bo de secu i y policy. The s udy's indings showed ha bo de
secu i y ope a ions signi ican ly imp o e when in eg a ed laye s o de ense s a egies a e de eloped and used. Bo de
secu i y agencies should p io i ize in es men in in eg a ed senso ne wo ks ha combine he mal imaging, seismic
de ec ion, and au oma ed ale sys ems, wi h emphasis on in e ope abili y s anda ds ha enable eal- ime da a sha ing
ac oss agencies and ju isdic ions; mo e in eg a ed and a ge ed in elligence and de ense laye s o coun e he a ious
h ea s, illegal immig a ion and smuggling; and mul iple, lexible de ense lawye s ha coun e a ying h ea s. The s udy
esul s also poin ed o he alue o in e na ional collabo a ion wi h in eg a ed, mul ilaye , bo de de ense sys ems. Bo de
secu i y challenges equen ly anscend na ional bounda ies. Collabo a i e ela ionships among coun ies ha ,
espec i ely, bo de secu i y issues and p oblems should suppo he alue o collabo a ion. This p o ided e idence ha
policymake s ensu e he success o emo e in elligence and bo de secu i y ope a ions collabo a ion o o i y global
de ense sys ems.
Finally, he s udy showed ha agencies should implemen qua e ly scena io-based aining exe cises ha amilia ize
pe sonnel wi h all componen s o laye ed sys ems, es ablish pee men o ing p og ams pai ing expe ienced o ice s wi h
new hi es, and c ea e eedback mechanisms enabling on line pe sonnel o in o m sys em e inemen based on
ope a ional expe ience. F on line o ice s pe o ming wi hin a comp ehensi e secu i y amewo k desc ibed a ma ked
inc ease in hei job sa is ac ion and e ec i eness. Ensu ing bo de pe sonnel's aining o complemen bo de secu i y
echnologies a e c i ically impo an o he e ol ing bo de secu i y challenges coun ies a e acing.
5.3 Final Though s
This esea ch unde sco es he e ec i eness o using a ious de enses and hei combina ions o maximize bo de secu i y
esul s. Inco po a ing physical ba ie s wi h ad ance echnologies, sha ing in elligence wi h o he secu i y agencies, and
wo king wi h o he agencies can g ea ly enhance bo de secu i y measu es in minimizing unlaw ul ing ess and illici
con aband in e cep ion. Howe e , secu i y measu es mus be con inuously adjus ed o coun e he e e -g owing
sophis ica ion o h ea s. These esul s add ess, mo e comp ehensi ely han p e ious s udies, he need o inco po a e he
indi idual pe spec i e o he bo de pe sonnel in ol ed. The expe ience o hese bo de s pe sonnel and hei in e p e a ion
and implemen a ion o he a ious laye s o laye ed de enses is he bes way o assess he impac o he a ious measu es.
Howe e , bo de secu i y using he laye ed app oaches o de ense calcula es inno a ions in echnology and bo de
secu i y collabo a ion o emain e ec i e. Fu u e esea ch should examine: (1) long- e m e ec i eness ajec o ies as
ad e sa ies adap o laye ed sys ems, (2) compa a i e analysis o laye ed de ense ac oss di e en bo de en i onmen s
(high-con lic s. low-con lic , land s. ma i ime), (3) cos -bene i analyses weighing secu i y imp o emen s agains
implemen a ion and main enance cos s, (4) unin ended consequences such as ou e displacemen o inc eased use o
mo e dange ous c ossing me hods, and (5) he ole o communi y engagemen and us -building in bo de secu i y
e ec i eness
This s udy demons a es he alue o anscenden al phenomenology o secu i y s udies, showing how p ac i ione
expe iences and in e p e a ions media e he ela ionship be ween secu i y policies and ope a ional ou comes. By cen e ing
li ed expe ience, phenomenological app oaches can e eal implemen a ion challenges, aci knowledge, and con ex ual
ac o s ha quan i a i e me ics alone canno cap u e.
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