PEACE AND ORDER AS PERCEIVED BY BYSTANDERS IN DAVAO CITY

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PEACE AND ORDER AS PERCEIVED BY BYSTANDERS IN DAVAO CITY
Gaudencio Abellanosa
P o esso , College o De elopmen Managemen , Uni e si y o Sou heas e n Philippines,
Philippines
Chona B. Desie o
Daniel J. Median e
E angeline F. Repon e
Rea May V. Villo a
G adua e S uden s, College o De elopmen Managemen G adua e P og am, Uni e si y o
Sou heas e n Philippines, Min al Campus, Da ao Ci y
ABSTRACT
This s udy de elops a cons uc o peace and o de among bys ande s in Da ao Ci y. The esea che designed a
30-i em Like ques ionnai e adminis e ed o 150 bys ande s o cap u e iews on go e nance, e e yday mobili y
sa e y, p osocial oppo uni ies, gua dianship, and neighbo coope a ion. Explo a o y Fac o Analysis (EFA) was
conduc ed o unco e he la en dimensions; sampling adequacy and ac o abili y we e assessed, and a sc ee plo
guided ac o e en ion. Fi e ac o s we e iden i ied: ai and esponsi e go e nance, mobili y and ou e sa e y,
p osocial ecology and oppo uni y, gua dianship and con ac quali y, and collec i e communi y e icacy. These
dimensions indica e ha pe cep ions o peace and o de s eng hen when au ho i ies ac ai ly and communica e
clea ly, ou es a e sa e and well-li , you h and li elihood ac i i ies a e isible, encoun e s wi h o ice s a e
espec ul, and neighbo s wa ch ou o one ano he and epo p oblems. The esul ing amewo k in eg a es
ins i u ional pe o mance wi h communi y dynamics, o e ing p ac ical guidance o ba angay–PNP
coo dina ion, pa icipa o y p og ams, and place-based sa e y imp o emen s.
Keywo ds:
Peace and O de , Bys ande s Pe cep ion, Da ao Ci y, Explo a o y Fac o Analysis
INTRODUCTION
Pe cep ions o peace and o de shape how people mo e, coope a e wi h au ho i ies, and pa icipa e in
communi y li e. Globally, SDG 16 (Peace, Jus ice, and S ong Ins i u ions) emphasizes ha ci izen us and
e e yday sa e y a e essen ial ounda ions o inclusi e de elopmen . (Uni ed Na ions, 2024). Con empo a y
s udies show ha p ocedu al jus ice ha is ai , espec ul, well-explained ac ions builds legi imacy and
inc eases ac ual coope a ion (Kuen, 2024, Pé ez-Vincen & Puebla, 2024). Collec i e e icacy, mu ual us and
willingness o in e ene bene i s when public se ices a e esponsi e and us ed (Yesbe g, Cos i, Chan, &
B ad o d., 2024). Place-based ac o s om c ime p e en ion h ough en i onmen al design and ou ine ac i i y
pe spec i es; ligh ing, isibili y, main enance, and ou ine gua dianship educe he likelihood o c imes (Hoebe ,
Kullbe g, Op el ,Schoo l, Minnen, &An ypa, 2024; Le sch & Ha , 2023).
In he Philippine con ex , peace and o de a e co-p oduced by ba angays, police, and communi y olun ee s
(e.g., anod), consis en wi h he Local Go e nmen Code o 1991 de ol ed unc ions on public o de and
communi y pa icipa ion (O ega & Ace o, 2024). Da ao Ci y, a highly u banized cen e in Mindanao, is a
pe inen se ing o examine how bys ande s de ine as o dina y esiden s who equen ly obse e public spaces,
in e p e go e nance, mobili y sa e y, p osocial oppo uni ies, gua dianship, and neighbo ly coope a ion in daily
li e. This s udy add esses a local e idence gap by analyzing bys ande s’ pe cep ions o in o m p ac ical, a ea-
speci ic s a egies o sa e e e yday en i onmen s.
OBJECTIVES
This s udy examines bys ande s’ pe cep ions o peace and o de in Da ao Ci y and de elops an empi ically
g ounded amewo k o guide policy and p ac ice. Speci ically, i sough answe s o he ollowing:
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1. To de e mine he dimensions ha shape he pe cep ion o bys ande s ega ding he peace and o de in
Da ao Ci y.
2. To iden i y wha amewo k can be es ablished based on he indings o he s udy.
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Peace and O de in Da ao Ci y
Recen epo s and local s udies consis en ly desc ibe Da ao Ci y as a ela i ely sa e and o de ly u ban cen e ,
wi h c ime indica o s gene ally declining and peace-and-o de campaigns p ominen ly highligh ed in o icial
na a i es and media co e age. The 2024 Numbeo Sa e y Index, o example, anked Da ao Ci y as he hi d
sa es ci y in Sou heas Asia wi h a sa e y sco e o 72.5, based on use - epo ed c ime le els, police e iciency,
and pe cei ed sa e y (Numbeo, 2024; Palic e, 2025). Regional police da a likewise show ha “eigh ocus
c imes” in Da ao Region ell om 770 inciden s in 2024 o 659 in he i s hal o 2025, a 14.4% educ ion
a ibu ed o in ensi ied secu i y ope a ions (Palic e, 2025; F ancisque e, 2025). In addi ion, a Mindanao-wide
su ey by he Mindanao De elopmen Au ho i y epo ed a 92% public us a ing in he police and high sa e y
sco es o he Da ao Region, ein o cing he image o a locali y whe e peace-and-o de ins i u ions a e widely
us ed (Tamayo, 2023).
A he same ime, li e a u e on sa e y pe cep ions emphasizes ha o mal indica o s such as c ime a es,
ankings, and sa is ac ion su eys do no ully cap u e how secu i y is expe ienced in e e yday li e. The MinDA
su ey i sel de ines sa e y as he “public’s con idence ha no ha m comes hei way a any gi en ime and any
place,” poin ing ou ha eelings o sa e y a e ancho ed in pe sonal expe ience, no jus o icial da a (Tamayo,
2023). Residen s and bys ande s may he e o e in e p e peace and o de h ough mo e immedia e cues: how
sa e hey eel along hei daily ou es, how ai ly and espec ully hey a e ea ed by au ho i ies, and how
neighbo s and local p og ams suppo o ail o suppo in o mal con ol and mu ual ca e.
Fai and Responsi e Go e nance
Li e a u e on ai and esponsi e go e nance unde sco es ha people’s willingness o use o mal sys ems is
s ongly shaped by expec ed ea men and pe cei ed p ocedu al jus ice. Goodman-Williams, Volz, & Fishwick
(2023) demons a e ha su i o s o ha m o en a oid o mal epo ing because hey an icipa e seconda y
ic imiza ion, s igma, o ins i u ional inac ion, e en when mechanisms and se ices exis . Thei indings
highligh ha p ac ices which alida e indi iduals’ expe iences, p o ec con iden iali y, and clea ly explain
op ions can lowe hese ba ie s and inc ease epo ing, indica ing ha pe cep ions o ai ness a e oo ed as
much in how ins i u ions espond as in he ou comes hey deli e (Goodman-Williams e al., 2023).
Nie and Wang (2023) ex end his conce n wi h p ocess quali y in hei s udy o en i onmen al go e nance,
showing ha ci izen sa is ac ion is highes when go e nmen agencies p o ide imely, ac ion-o ien ed esponses
ha include conc e e emedial measu es and clea explana ions. In con as , pe unc o y eplies o me e e e als
unde mine con idence and con ibu e o pe cep ions o indi e ence o a oidance (Nie & Wang, 2023). Taken
oge he , hese s udies suppo he heme o ai and esponsi e go e nance in his esea ch: bys ande s a e mo e
likely o pe cei e peace and o de posi i ely when au ho i ies handle complain s and conce ns in ways ha a e
p o ec i e, anspa en , and isibly ollowed h ough, no me ely symbolic o p ocedu al.
Mobili y and Rou e Sa e y
Resea ch on mobili y and ou e sa e y emphasizes ha peace and o de a e expe ienced in he o dina y ac o
mo ing h ough he ci y. Delos Reyes, Gamboa, and Ri e a (2020) a gue ha na ional u ban policies mus
s eng hen he capaci y o local go e nmen s o p o ide sa e, inclusi e, and well-managed en i onmen s,
emphasizing ha oad design, pedes ian access, ligh ing, and public anspo sys ems di ec ly shape people’s
pe cep ions o e e yday sa e y. When hese physical and ins i u ional a angemen s a e weak, esiden s may
con inue o eel unsa e and cons ained, e en in a eas wi h ela i ely low eco ded c ime (Delos Reyes e al..,
2020).
A he local scale, Pancho and Be cilla (2025) show ha consis en ba angay-le el ac ions such as egula pa ol
isibili y and e ec i e complain esolu ion a e cen al in ein o cing us and peace-and-o de pe cep ions
along s ee s and pa hways, because esiden s ead hese ecu ing signs as p oo ha au ho i ies a e ac i ely
wa ching o e hei spaces. This logic esona es wi h pe o mance amewo ks such as he Seal o Good Local
Go e nance o Ba angay (SGLGB), which, h ough ins umen s like Execu i e O de No. 21, Se ies o 2020,
se s benchma ks in accessibili y, sa e y, and ci izen pa icipa ion o ba angays. In his s udy, he heme mobili y
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and ou e sa e y cap u es bys ande s’ e alua ions o peace and o de h ough he sa e y o hei daily ou es and
he isible eliabili y o ba angay and ci y esponses in hose spaces (Pancho & Be cilla, 2025).
P osocial Ecology and Oppo uni y
The li e a u e on p osocial ecology and oppo uni y ocuses on how go e nance can os e e e yday se ings
whe e posi i e ac i i ies and in e ac ions a e isible and suppo ed. Khanal, Gup a, and Bha a ai (2022) a gue
ha good local go e nance is ancho ed in anspa ency, accoun abili y, and ci izen pa icipa ion, and ha hese
pilla s di ec ly in luence how people judge peace and o de . When communi ies ha e access o in o ma ion,
oppo uni ies o pa icipa e, and mechanisms o hold o icials accoun able, hey a e mo e likely o ega d hei
su oundings as sha ed spaces ha hey ha e a s ake in p o ec ing, enabling you h p og ams, li elihood p ojec s,
and ci ic ac i i ies o ake oo in public a eas (Khanal e al., 2022).
Simila ly, Cas illo and Gab iel (2020) emphasize ha anspa ency and accoun abili y mechanisms in local
go e nmen uni s such as public disclosu es, ci izen cha e s, and pa icipa o y eedback channels ein o ce
public us and peace-and-o de ou comes when ci izens a e empowe ed o moni o and engage wi h local
ini ia i es. Thei wo k sugges s ha when people can see and ques ion how decisions a e made and
implemen ed, hey become mo e con iden ha secu i y e o s se e he b oade communi y a he han na ow
in e es s (Cas illo & Gab iel, 2020). In his s udy, he heme o p osocial ecology and oppo uni y e lec s how
ba angay-le el p og ams in Da ao Ci y, especially hose making you h and li elihood ac i i ies isible in
communal spaces con ibu e o bys ande s’ sense o sa e y, inclusion, and social cohesion.
Gua dianship and Con ac Quali y
Gua dianship and con ac quali y encompass bo h he p esence o peace-and-o de ac o s and he na u e o hei
in e ac ions wi h esiden s. Osman, Denson, Ja ie , and Llan o (2024) a i m he cen al ole o he police in
main aining peace and o de , bu hey highligh ha e ec i eness depends on how o ice s ela e o he
communi ies hey se e. When policing is expe ienced as dis an , ha sh, o biased, esiden s may comply ou o
ea bu wi hhold us and coope a ion; when i is expe ienced as espec ul, communica i e, and p ocedu ally
ai , ci izens a e mo e likely o iew o ice s as legi ima e gua dians whose p esence enhances e e yday secu i y
(Osman e al., 2024).
Aguila , Manal, Rojo, and Gono (2024) complemen his pe spec i e by emphasizing p ac ical communi y
isibili y e o s such as egula pa ols, p esence a local e en s, and app oachable demeano in public spaces
as key d i e s o posi i e public us . Thei indings sugges ha isible and app oachable o ice s no only
de e w ongdoing bu also eassu e esiden s ha assis ance is nea and accessible, pa icula ly in high- a ic o
ulne able a eas (Aguila e al., 2024). The heme gua dianship and con ac quali y in his s udy he e o e
examines how bys ande s in Da ao Ci y in e p e he isibili y, beha io , and esponsi eness o police and
ba angay o icials as signals o peace and o de o , con e sely, as sou ces o unease.
Collec i e Communi y E icacy
The li e a u e on collec i e communi y e icacy s esses ha peace and o de a e co-p oduced by ins i u ions and
communi ies a he han deli e ed om he op down. Man i i and Siwi (2020) demons a e ha local
communi ies can be highly e ec i e in main aining peace and secu i y when hey a e ac i ely in ol ed in
decision-making p ocesses, a he han ea ed me ely as ecipien s o policy. When esiden s a e consul ed,
hei pe spec i es a e included, and hey see hei con ibu ions e lec ed in conc e e ini ia i es, hey de elop a
s onge sense o owne ship o e local sa e y and become mo e willing o in e ene in p oblems, epo issues,
and suppo neighbo s (Man i i & Siwi, 2020).
Man i i and Siwi (2020) also emphasize ha main aining peace and o de is a sha ed esponsibili y among
go e nmen , police, ba angay o icials, and communi y membe s; sus ained secu i y depends on collabo a ion
and pa icipa ion a mul iple le els. This aming unde pins he heme collec i e communi y e icacy in he
p esen s udy, which ocuses on bys ande s’ pe cep ions o whe he neighbo s wa ch ou o one ano he , engage
in communi y discussions, and pa icipa e in secu i y- ela ed ini ia i es. High pe cei ed e icacy sugges s a
social en i onmen whe e peace and o de a e no solely dependen on o mal gua dianship bu a e ein o ced
h ough e e y day, o ganized communi y ac ion.
METHODOLOGY
This s udy employed Explo a o y Fac o Analysis (EFA) using p incipal componen s ex ac ion wi h a imax
o a ion wi h su ey da a om 150 bys ande s in Da ao Ci y o iden i y he la en dimensions o pe cei ed
peace and o de . A esea che -designed 30-i em ins umen , u ilizing a 5-poin Like scale, cap u ed iews on
go e nance, e e yday sa e y, communi y ac i i y, gua dianship, and collec i e e icacy. Responses we e coded,
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allied, and analyzed using IBM SPSS S a is ics. Be o e ac o ex ac ion, sampling adequacy was assessed wi h
he Kaise –Meye –Olkin (KMO) measu e, and he sui abili y o he co ela ion ma ix was con i med wi h
Ba le ’s es o sphe ici y. The Sc ee plo /Sc ee es guided ac o e en ion by isualizing eigen alues ac oss
componen s (Sh es ha, Noo a, 2021).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This sec ion p esen s he ac o analysis indings om he 30-i em peace and o de pe cep ion su ey. Using
s a is ical echniques such as he Kaise -Meye -Olkin (KMO) measu e and Ba le ’s Tes o Sphe ici y. This
sec ion displays he analysis and in e p e a ion o da a.
KMO and Ba le 's Tes
Table 1 p esen s he Kaise –Meye –Olkin (KMO) measu e and Ba le ’s Tes o Sphe ici y o assess he
da ase ’s sui abili y o ac o analysis. Following Kaise 's guidelines, he KMO alue is 0.890, indica ing
“me i o ious” sampling adequacy and excellen common a iance among i ems. Ba le ’s es yielded an
app oxima ion Chi-Squa e = 3032.089, wi h d = 435 and Sig. = .000 (i.e., p < .001), ejec ing he null
hypo hesis ha he co ela ion ma ix is an iden i y ma ix. These esul s indica e ha he co ela ions among
a iables a e su icien ly signi ican and pa e ned, making ac o analysis an app op ia e me hod o unco e ing
he unde lying cons uc s in he da a.
Kaise -Meye -Olkin Measu e o Sampling Adequacy
0.890
Ba le ’s Tes o Sphe ici y
App ox. Chi-Squa e
3032.089
D
435
Sig.
0.000
Table 1. KMO and Ba le ’s Tes
Sc ee Plo
Figu e 01 shows he sc ee plo o he analysis. The sc ee plo displays he eigen alues o he 30 su ey
componen s, highligh ing he poin a which he explained a iance eaches a pla eau. The e is a e y sha p d op
om Componen 1 (≈12.5) o Componen s 2–3 (≈2.4 and ≈1.7), ollowed by a p og essi e le eling cu e. The
line begins o la en in o a shallow ail a e abou Componen 5, o ming an appa en “elbow” a Componen 5.
This pa e n indica es ha he i s i e componen s cap u e he subs an ial common a iance, whe eas
subsequen componen s con ibu e only ma ginally. Acco dingly, p io i izing pa simony and in e p e abili y, we
e ained i e p incipal componen s using a ixed- ac o ex ac ion (k = 5) guided by he sc ee es a he han he
s ic eigen alue c i e ion o g ea e han one.
Figu e 1. Sc ee Plo Ro a ed Componen Ma ix
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Analysis o Va iance Pe cen age
Table 2 shows he analysis o he a iance pe cen age. The able illus a es he analysis o he i e componen s
ex ac ed h ough p incipal componen analysis wi h a imax o a ion, which is consis en wi h he sc ee es 's
decision o e ain i e ac o s. As shown in he Ex ac ion Sums o Squa ed Loadings, he i s componen
accoun ed o 41.66% o he a iance (eigen alue = 12.50), ollowed by 7.90% (2.37), 5.40% (1.62), 4.46%
(1.34), and 3.84% (1.15) o Componen s 2–5, espec i ely. Cumula i ely, he i e ex ac ed ac o s explained
63.26% o o al a iance, indica ing ha he e ained solu ion cap u es a subs an ial sha e o common a iance.
A e a imax o a ion, a iance was edis ibu ed o enhance simple s uc u e and in e p e abili y. The o a ed
pe cen ages o a iance we e 23.09%, 12.35%, 9.88%, 9.11%, and 8.83% o Fac o s 1–5 ( o a ed SS loadings =
6.93, 3.71, 2.96, 2.73, 2.65), wi h a cumula i e a iance o 63.26%. This pa e n shows a mo e balanced
con ibu ion ac oss he i e ac o s, minimizing dominance by he i s ac o and suppo ing a mo e appa en
meaning o he ac o s.
Gi en ha esponden s we e bys ande s in Da ao Ci y, hese i e o a ed ac o s ep esen he dominan la en
dimensions in how bys ande s pe cei e peace-and-o de condi ions and go e nance in he ci y—cap u ing
nea ly wo- hi ds o he sha ed a iance in hei esponses. Coupled wi h s ong da a adequacy (KMO = .890)
and signi ican sphe ici y (Ba le χ² = 3032.089, d = 435, p < .001), he solu ion is bo h s a is ically sound
and subs an i ely meaning ul o his popula ion.
Componen
Ini ial
Eigen alues
Ex ac ion Sums o Squa ed
Loadings
Ro a ion Sums o Squa ed
Loadings
To al
To al
% o
Va iance
Cumula i e
%
To al
% o
Va iance
Cumula i e
%
1
12.50
12.50
41.66
41.66
6.93
23.09
23.09
2
2.37
2.37
7.90
49.56
3.71
12.35
35.44
3
1.62
1.62
5.40
54.96
2.96
9.88
45.32
4
1.34
1.34
4.46
59.42
2.73
9.11
54.43
5
1.15
1.15
3.84
63.26
2.65
8.83
63.26
Table 2. To al Va iance Explained
Ro a ed Componen Ma ix
Fai and Responsi e Go e nance. Table 3 e lec s p ocedu al jus ice and day- o-day esponsi eness o local
au ho i ies as pe cei ed by bys ande s. The s onges indica o s we e “Au ho i ies en o ce ules wi hou
disc imina ion” (λ = 0.758) and “Au ho i ies ea people wi h espec ega dless o backg ound”, which
ob ained he highes loading in his ac o (λ = 0.712). These a e closely ollowed by oice and anspa ency
i ems, “People like me a e lis ened o in ba angay decisions on peace and o de ” (λ = 0.706), “I o en see o
hea clea upda es om o icials abou peace-and-o de ac ions and esul s” (λ = 0.701), and “Cases a e
handled ai ly ega dless o who is in ol ed” (λ = 0.700). Ope a ional communica ion and coo dina ion a e also
salien : “The ba angay p o ides clea sa e y ad iso ies” (λ = 0.679) and “The ba angay and police conduc
join ac i i ies o add ess local p oblems” (λ = 0.678). Access and ollow- h ough loadings emain subs an ial.
“I is easy o each he ba angay (ho line, page, o o ice in pe son)” (λ = 0.626), “Au ho i ies ac on complain s
and ollow h ough” (λ = 0.600), and “Au ho i ies explain hei ac ions o decisions du ing inciden s” (λ =
0.591). Responsi eness o calls o help is simila ly ep esen ed: “Police o ba angay anod espond quickly” (λ
= 0.591) while epo ing sa e y is cap u ed by “People can epo issues wi hou ea o e alia ion” (λ = 0.516).
The con en emphasizes equal ea men , espec ul engagemen , accessible channels, and isible ac ion,
indica ing ha pe cep ions o peace and o de a e ancho ed in bo h ai p ocesses and imely, explained
esponses by local au ho i ies.

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Fac o
A ibu es
Loading, λ
Fai and
Responsi e
Go e nance
I em 27 - Au ho i ies en o ce ules wi hou disc imina ion.
0.758
I em 26 - Au ho i ies ea people wi h espec ega dless o backg ound.
0.712
I em 20 - People like me a e lis ened o in ba angay decisions on peace
and o de .
0.706
I em 17 - I o en see o hea clea upda es om o icials abou peace-and-
o de ac ions and esul s.
0.701
I em 7 - Cases a e handled ai ly ega dless o who is in ol ed.
0.700
I em 16 - The ba angay p o ides clea sa e y ad iso ies.
0.679
I em 18 - The ba angay and police conduc join ac i i ies o add ess local
p oblems.
0.678
I em 19 - I is easy o each he ba angay ( ia ho line, webpage, o o ice
in pe son).
0.626
I em 8 - I o en see o hea ha au ho i ies ac on complain s and ollow
h ough on hem.
0.600
I em 9 - Au ho i ies explain hei ac ions o decisions du ing inciden s.
0.591
I em 6 - When people call o help, police o ba angay anod espond
quickly.
0.591
I em 29 - People can epo issues wi hou ea o e alia ion.
0.516
Table 3: Ro a ed Componen Ma ix wi h G ouped A ibu es o Fai and Responsi e Go e nance
Ou indings e eal ha bys ande s in Da ao Ci y pe cei ed ai and esponsi e go e nance as g ounded in
impa iali y, espec , inclusion, communica ion, accessibili y, and p omp ac ion. They iew local au ho i ies
posi i ely when ules and egula ions a e en o ced wi hou disc imina ion, cases a e handled ai ly, and ci izens
a e ea ed wi h digni y ega dless o backg ound. Inclusi e decision-making and anspa en communica ion,
like being in o med o sa e y ad iso ies, s eng hen people’s sense o pa icipa ion and us . Likewise, he ease
o epo ing conce ns, he isibili y o police o ba angay esponse, and he assu ance o ac ion wi hou ea o
e alia ion enhance pe cep ions o accoun abili y and openness. Al oge he , his po ays a go e nance sys em
ha lis ens, explains, and ac s wi h ai ness and empa hy, whe e peace and o de a e sus ained no me ely
h ough au ho i y, bu h ough genuine pa ne ship be ween ci izens and hei local go e nmen .
This esul is consis en wi h he indings o Goodman-Williams e al. (2023) s udy, no ing ha su i o s o en
a oid o mal epo ing due o an icipa ed ha m and social consequences. P ac ices ha alida e oices, p o ec
con iden iali y, and ensu e ollow- h ough can he e o e inc ease epo ing and pe cei ed ai ness. Beyond
epo ing sa e y, empi ical wo k in en i onmen al go e nance demons a es ha imely, ac ion-o ien ed
esponsi eness by go e nmen agencies is posi i ely associa ed wi h ci izen sa is ac ion, ein o cing he link
be ween isible ollow- h ough and us in local au ho i ies (Nie & Wang 2023).
Mobili y and Rou e Sa e y. Table 4 cap u es bys ande s’ sense o sa e y while mo ing a ound hei
communi y. The s onges indica o is “I eel sa e walking in my a ea a nigh ” which ob ained he highes
loading in his ac o (λ = 0.776), ollowed by “I eel com o able using all he ou es I need in my a ea” (λ =
0.745) and “I eel sa e in he places I usually pass du ing he day” (λ = 0.714). These i ems highligh he
impo ance o ime-o -day and ou e-le el secu i y as co e o pe cei ed peace and o de , wi h nigh ime walking
sa e y se ing as a key ancho o he cons uc . A he same ime, com o ac oss usual ou es and day ime
spaces ein o ces a gene al clima e o sa e y ha suppo s e e yday mobili y.
Fac o
A ibu es
Loading, λ
Mobili y and Rou e
Sa e y
I em 2 - I eel sa e walking in my a ea a nigh .
0.776
I em 3 - I eel com o able using all he ou es I need in my a ea.
0.745
I em 1 - I eel sa e in he places I usually pass du ing he day.
0.714
Table 4: Ro a ed Componen Ma ix wi h G ouped A ibu es o Mobili y and Rou e Sa e y
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The indings highligh how bys ande s in Da ao Ci y expe ience peace and o de h ough e e yday mobili y.
Feeling sa e walking a nigh , na iga ing amilia day ime ou es, and using essen ial pa hs e lec s mo e han
in as uc u e; i signals us in local go e nance and a sense o communi y p o ec ion. Ba angays ha main ain
well-li s ee s, isible pa ols, and esponsi e eedback sys ems help os e his us , enabling esiden s o mo e
con iden ly and secu ely. These li ed expe iences a i m ha peace and o de , as pe cei ed by o dina y ci izens,
a e shaped by bo h spa ial accessibili y and he ela ional p esence o local ins i u ions, pa icula ly hose guided
by DILG Da ao Ci y.
Delos Reyes e al. (2020) explain ha na ional u ban policies should s eng hen he capaci y o local
go e nmen s o p o ide a a o able en i onmen . Pancho & Be cilla (2025) u he a gue ha consis en
ba angay-le el ac ions, such as pa ol isibili y and complain esolu ion, enhance public us and ein o ce
pe cep ions o peace and o de . These indings align wi h he Seal o Good Local Go e nance o Ba angay
(SGLGB), p omo ed by DILG Da ao Ci y and ins i u ionalized h ough Execu i e O de No. 21, Se ies o 2020,
which se s pe o mance benchma ks in accessibili y, sa e y, and ci izen pa icipa ion.
P osocial Ecology and Oppo uni y. Table 5 ou lines he ac o analysis esul s, iden i ying a suppo i e
p osocial en i onmen and access o oppo uni ies as key dimensions shaping pe cep ions o peace and o de .
The s a emen “I o en see you h engaged in spo s, a s, o skills ac i i ies a e school” leads his g oup, which
ob ained he highes loading in his ac o (λ = 0.774). This is ollowed by “The e a e sa e places and ac i i ies
o young people a e school o wo k” (λ = 0.758). The hi d i em, “I no ice ha a ailable jobs o li elihood
help educe local ouble” (λ = 0.623), highligh s he ole o economic openings. Ano he i em, “Volun ee s
(e.g., wa ch g oups, you h) a e ac i e”, (λ = 0.588), emphasizes collec i e pa icipa ion. Finally, “S ee s and
public spaces a e clean and well-main ained” (λ = 0.563), unde sco ing how isible main enance suppo s
e e yday o de .
Fac o
A ibu es
Loading, λ
P osocial Ecology and
Oppo uni y
I em 24 - I o en see you h in spo s, a s, o skills ac i i ies
a e school.
0.774
I em 21 - The e a e sa e places and ac i i ies o young people
a e school o wo k.
0.758
I em 25 - I no ice ha a ailable jobs o li elihood help educe
local ouble.
0.623
I em 14 - Volun ee s (e.g., wa ch g oups, you h) a e ac i e.
0.588
I em 22 - S ee s and public spaces a e clean and well-
main ained.
0.563
Table 5: Ro a ed Componen Ma ix wi h G ouped A ibu es o P osocial Ecology and Oppo uni y
Acco ding o ou s udy, bys ande s in Da ao Ci y pe cei e peace and o de h ough isible signs o communi y
i ali y. You h pa icipa ion in a e -school p og ams, ac i e olun ee g oups, and clean public spaces
con ibu es o a sense o sa e y and sha ed esponsibili y. These indica o s e lec a p osocial ecology whe e
peace and o de a e no me ely en o ced bu co-p oduced h ough inclusi e ac i i ies and e e yday in e ac ions.
Ba angays ha in es in you h de elopmen , public space main enance, and li elihood suppo os e
en i onmen s whe e esiden s eel secu e, connec ed, and empowe ed, a i ming he ole o local go e nance in
shaping pe cep ions o o de .
Simila indings a e epo ed by Khana e al. (2022), who emphasize ha good local go e nance is oo ed in
anspa ency, accoun abili y, and ci izen pa icipa ion, ac o s ha di ec ly in luence pe cep ions o peace and
o de . Complemen ing his, Cas illo and Gab iel (2020) a gue ha anspa ency and accoun abili y mechanisms
in local go e nmen uni s enhance public us and ein o ce peace and o de ou comes, especially when ci izens
a e empowe ed o pa icipa e in go e nance p ocesses. These indings p o ide a concep ual ounda ion o
unde s anding how Da ao Ci y’s ba angay-le el p og ams con ibu e o bys ande s’ sense o sa e y and social
cohesion.
Gua dianship and Con ac Quali y. Table 6 p esen s he o a ed componen ma ix o Gua dianship and
Con ac Quali y, iden i ying si ua ional sa egua ds and he one o police–ci izen encoun e s as a co e dimension
shaping bys ande s’ pe cep ions o peace and o de . Leading his ac o is “Visible pa ols o checkpoin s along
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my usual ou es make me eel sa e ”, which shows he highes loading (λ = 0.663). This is ollowed by “S ee
ligh ing wo ks well on he oads and pa hs I use” (λ = 0.608), unde sco ing he ole o eliable illumina ion as a
ou ine gua dian in public space. Las ly, “O ice s a e app oachable and espec ul du ing encoun e s” (λ =
0.569), highligh ing ha cou eous, espec ul con ac complemen s isible gua dianship. Taken oge he , hese
i ems indica e ha pe cep ions o sa e y a e ein o ced when gua dianship is p esen ( h ough pa ols and
ligh ing) and posi i ely expe ienced ( h ough espec ul encoun e s).
Fac o
A ibu es
Loading, λ
Gua dianship and Con ac
Quali y
I em 4 - Visible pa ols o checkpoin s along my usual ou es
make me eel sa e .
0.663
I em 5 - S ee ligh ing wo ks well on he oads and pa hs I use.
0.608
I em 10 - O ice s a e app oachable and espec ul du ing
encoun e s.
0.569
Table 6: Ro a ed Componen Ma ix wi h g ouped a ibu es o Gua dianship and Con ac Quali y
The esul s indica ed ha he ac o s o Gua dianship and Con ac Quali y, as pe cei ed by bys ande s in Da ao
Ci y, a e s ongly linked o a hea y police p esence h ough egula pa ols and checkpoin s, which in u n
co ela es wi h educed c iminal ac i i y and an enhanced sense o secu i y. Bys ande s epo ha isible police
pa ols con ibu e signi ican ly o hei eelings o sa e y. Addi ionally, imp o ed s ee ligh ing has been shown
o educe c ime inciden s. Well-main ained s ee ligh ing ins ills con idence in indi iduals o go ou and
na iga e public spaces a any hou wi hou ea o encoun e ing dange ous si ua ions. Bys ande s who pe cei e
police o ice s as ai and cou eous demons a e a g ea e willingness o coope a e du ing inciden s and ega d
law en o cemen as legi ima e p o ec o s o peace and o de in he communi y, he eby os e ing public us .
Fu he mo e, he beha io o law en o cemen has a posi i e in luence on public a i udes. O e all, police
isibili y, good public in as uc u e such as s ee ligh ing, and law en o cemen beha io posi i ely impac he
pe cep ion o peace and o de among bys ande s.
This a i ms he s udy o Osman e al. (2024), which emphasizes he c ucial ole o he police in main aining
peace and o de wi hin he communi y. Simila ly, in he s udy o Aguila e al. (2024), hey s essed ha police
gain posi i e us om he public h ough p ac ical communi y isibili y e o s. Thei p esence, he e o e,
signi ican ly imp o es sa e y and p o ides esiden s wi h a sense o secu i y.
Collec i e Communi y E icacy. Table 7 p esen s he o a ed componen ma ix, indica ing a la en dimension
o mu ual gua dianship and sha ed willingness o ac . Leading his ac o is “Neighbo s look ou o one ano he
in public spaces” wi h he highes loading (λ = 0.669), signaling e e yday in o mal su eillance. This is
ollowed by “People a e willing o ge in ol ed when ouble s a s” (λ = 0.651), highligh ing p oac i e,
collec i e in e en ion. Las ly, “People he e epo p oblems when hey see hem” (λ = 0.531), e lec ing
no ma i e epo ing beha io s. Toge he , hese i ems sugges ha bys ande s’ sense o peace and o de is
s eng hened when communi ies wa ch ou o one ano he , s ep in ea ly, and elay conce ns, embodying s ong
collec i e e icacy.
Fac o
A ibu es
Loading, λ
Collec i e Communi y
E icacy
I em 11 - Neighbo s look ou o one ano he in public spaces.
0.699
I em 12 - People a e willing o ge in ol ed when ouble s a s.
0.651
I em 13 - People he e epo p oblems when hey see hem.
0.531
Table 7: Ro a ed Componen Ma ix wi h G ouped A ibu es o Collec i e Communi y E icacy
Ou s udy e eals ha he pe cei ed collec i e communi y e icacy o bys ande s is high in a eas whe e people
a e no jus passi e membe s o he communi y bu a e ac i ely in ol ed as ca alys s o change, main aining
peace and o de . This implies ha people a e ac i ely awa e o hei en i onmen and willing o moni o and ge
in ol ed when needed as a sha ed social esponsibili y owa ds communal wellbeing. This is linked o he
bayanihan concep o he Filipinos. A unique cul u e whe e helping one ano he is au oma ic, wi hou expec ing
any hing in e u n, o achie e a common goal. Peace and o de a e mo e likely o be main ained in communi ies
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whe e ci izens ac i ely moni o , ac upon, and epo inciden s because hey eel accoun able o he
en i onmen in which hey li e. This implies ha he s udy a ea's bys ande s iew peace and o de as he esul
o cons an communica ion, collabo a ion, and igilance a he han jus he absence o c ime.
The esul s o collec i e communi y e icacy align wi h hose o Man i i & Siwi (2020), who demons a ed he
e ec i eness o he local communi y in main aining peace and secu i y. The communi y mus be in ol ed in he
decision-making p ocess ela ed o go e nance o engage hem be e and acknowledge hei oices, allowing
hem o be ac i e membe s o he communi y a he han me ely ecipien s o change. Main aining peace and
o de is a sha ed esponsibili y no jus by he go e nmen , police, o ba angay o icials, bu also o all,
including he communi y membe s. Pa icipa o y de elopmen , speci ically secu i y ini ia i es, is encou aged.
F amewo k Based on he Findings
Figu e 2 p esen s he amewo k de eloped om he s udy. The esea che s ound ha i e majo de e minan s
shape bys ande s’ pe cep ions o peace and o de in Da ao Ci y: (1) Fai and Responsi e Go e nance, (2)
Mobili y and Rou e Sa e y, (3) P osocial Ecology and Oppo uni y, (4) Gua dianship and Con ac Quali y, and
(5) Collec i e Communi y E icacy. These in e connec ed ac o s encompass ins i u ional a angemen s and
e e yday social dynamics, p o iding a holis ic pe spec i e on how communi ies pe cei e sa e y
Figu e 2. F amewo k De eloped Based on Findings
The amewo k isually emphasizes ha pe cep ions o peace and o de a ise om bo h in e nal/communi y
ac o s (collec i e e icacy, p osocial ac i i ies, willingness o epo , and espec ul encoun e s) and
ex e nal/s uc u al ac o s (equi able go e nance, accessible channels, ligh ing, isible pa ols, and sa e ou es).
I highligh s ha each ac o makes a meaning ul con ibu ion o pe cei ed sa e y. I sugges s ha du able
imp o emen s equi e mul i-sec o collabo a ion, including ba angay and police coo dina ion, anspa en
communica ion and accoun abili y, sus ained you h and li elihood p og ams, and eliable place-based
in as uc u e (e.g., ligh ing, checkpoin s, and explici ad iso ies). Toge he , hese elemen s enable communi ies
o ac con iden ly and sus ain e e yday o de .
CONCLUSION
The s udy indica es ha bys ande s’ pe cep ions o peace and o de in Da ao Ci y a e shaped by a combina ion
o ins i u ional e o s and communi y in ol emen , cen e ed a ound i e in e connec ed dimensions: (1) Fai
and Responsi e Go e nance, (2) Mobili y and Rou e Sa e y, (3) P osocial Ecology and Oppo uni ies, (4)
Gua dianship and Quali y o Con ac , and (5) Collec i e Communi y E icacy.