*Co esponding au ho : Kané Fako
Copy igh © 2025 Au ho (s) e ain he copy igh o his a icle. This a icle is published unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion Liscense 4.0.
Le els o mine als and ace elemen s in lea es o cul i a ed “Long lea mo pho ypes“
o Lippia mul i lo a and hei ans e o in usions
Kané Fako 1, *, B ou Ko i Siméon 2 and Maniga Wohi 3
1 Labo a o y o Bioca alysis and Biop ocesses, Depa men o Food Science and Technology, Nangui ABROGOUA Uni e si y,
Abidjan - Cô e d'I oi e.
2 Labo a o y o Food Biochemis y and T opical P oduc Technology, Depa men o Food Science and Technology, Nangui
ABROGOUA Uni e si y, Abidjan - Cô e d'I oi e.
3 Depa men o Biochemis y-Gene ics, Pele o o Gon COULIBALY Uni e si y, Ko hogo, Cô e d’I oi e, BP 1328 Ko hogo.
GSC Biological and Pha maceu ical Sciences, 2025, 33(01), 031-038
Publica ion his o y: Recei ed on 22 Augus 2025; e ised on 30 Sep embe 2025; accep ed on 03 Oc obe 2025
A icle DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.30574/gscbps.2025.33.1.0378
Abs ac
Lippia mul i lo a Moldenke lea es a e used o he p epa a ion o ea in usions in adi ional medicine. In his s udy, he
mine al composi ion o he lea es o he long-lea mo pho ype o Lippia mul i lo a, collec ed om di e en ci ies o
I o y Coas , and hei in usions we e de e mined by A omic Abso p ion Spec oscopy (AAS). The esul s showed ha
calcium (8231.17±0.5-10823.66±0.02 mg.kg-1), po assium (2740.00±0.2-7949.87±0.41 mg.kg-1), magnesium
(3414.33±0.15-4731.00±0.15 mg.kg-1) and sodium (1046.76±0.45-1190.33±0.4 mg.kg-1) we e he mos p edominan
mac oelemen s in he lea es, compa ed o he mic oelemen s Fe (62.50±0.0-142.00±0.0 mg. kg-1), Mn (21.67±0.0-
54.33±0.02 mg.kg-1), Zn (30.17±0.00-41.33±0.00 mg.kg-1) and Cu (16±0.00-32.17±0.0 mg.kg-1). In he in usions, he
o de o magni ude o he mine als was: Na > K > Ca > Mg > P > Zn > Mn > Cu > Fe. Howe e , he mine al con en s o he
in usions we e e y low compa ed o hei espec i e daily doses ecommended by he Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion; hus
demons a ing a sa e consump ion o his he bal ea.
Keywo ds: Mine al con en s; In usions; Longlea mo pho ype; Lippia mul i lo a
1. In oduc ion
Tea is he mos consumed be e age a e wa e , due o i s e eshing and mildly s imula ing e ec s [1]. I is p epa ed
om he lea es o a sh ub, Camellia sinensis [2]. Abou 75 % o he app oxima ely 2.5 million ons o d ied ea ha es ed
wo ldwide each yea is p ocessed in o ea [3]. One kilog am o ea is consumed on a e age pe pe son pe yea , and an
a e age consume d inks 2 o 3 cups o ea pe day [4]. Howe e , besides he Camellia sinensis ea plan , se e al o he
medicinal plan s a e used o he p epa a ion o e eshing d inks. Among hem we ha e he plan Lippia mul i lo a,
commonly known as sa annah ea o Gambia ea. Lippia mul i lo a Moldenke belongs o he Ve benaceae amily, which
includes abou 200 known species o small ees, sh ubs, and g asses. I is gene ally ound in opical egions o Wes
A ica, Cen al Ame ican coun ies, and Sou h Ame ican coun ies [5]. I is an a oma ic and pe ennial plan wi h mo e
o less woody s ems eaching 2.7 o 4.0 m in heigh [6]. I s ae ial and unde g ound pa s a e commonly used by
adi ional heale s in Cô e d'I oi e and o he A ican coun ies o he ea men o heal h p oblems such as
hype ension, en e i is, lympha ic cleansing, ches pain, diabe es, colds, gas oin es inal diso de s, s omach aches,
jaundice, cough, e e , nausea, b onchial in lamma ion, conjunc i i is, mala ia and ene eal diseases [7,8].
Many s udies ha e ocused on he phy ochemical [9], bo anical [10] and medicinal [11] aspec s o he plan . F om a
biochemical poin o iew, au ho s ha e epo ed ha he lea es o Lippia mul i lo a a e e y ich in essen ial mine als
GSC Biological and Pha maceu ical Sciences, 2025, 33(01), 031-038
32
(po assium, calcium, magnesium, i on, manganese, zinc and phospho us) and bioac i e compounds [12], bu da a on
he composi ion o hei in usions a e sca ce. Indeed, hei decoc ions and in usions cons i u e he main o ms o use o
Lippia mul i lo a lea es. Howe e , s udies ha e shown ha some mine als a e essen ial o he unc ioning o he human
body, bu hei de iciencies and some imes hei excesses can lead o se ious consequences o humans [13], and o he s
a e ha m ul, e en in small quan i ies [14]. In hese condi ions and gi en he signi ican consump ion o he bal eas made
om Lippia mul i lo a lea es, i is impo an o de e mine hei mine al composi ion, in o de o assess i s possible
e ec s on he heal h o he consume . I is in his con ex ha we conduc ed his s udy wi h he aim o analyzing and
compa ing he mine al composi ion o lea es om h ee egions, as well as ha o hei in usions, in o de o de e mine
whe he hey could con ibu e o he daily mine al nu i ional needs o consume s.
2. Ma e ial and me hods
2.1. Ma e ial
The lea es we e ha es ed in Sep embe 2018 om he b oad-lea ed a ie y o Lippia mul i lo a (Figu e 1), g own in
he cen e , no h and no heas locali ies o Cô e d'I oi e, namlely Béoumi (7°42’28’’N ; 5°35’50’’O), cha ac e ised by a
Baouléan clima e and desa u a ed e ali ic soil; Ko hogo (9°23’23’’N ; 5°48’49’’O), cha ac e ised by a Sudanese clima e
and Cambisols soil and Bondoukou (8°06’43’’N ; 2°42’23’’O), cha ac e sed by a Baouléen clima ie, cambisol.
Figu e 1 Longlea mo pho ype o Lippia mul i lo a
3. Me hods
3.1. Lea es ha es ing me hod
The lea es we e ha es ed using he ine picking me hod desc ibed by [15], which consis s o emo ing he bud (pekoe)
and he wo lea es below i . The samples collec ed we e d ied in he labo a o y a oom empe a u e (37 °C) un il hei
weigh s abilised. The d ied lea es we e pul e ised using a Blende FAR BL514X Cl mixe and he esul ing powde s
we e s o ed in ai igh plas ic boxes o biochemical analysis.
3.2. P epa a ion o in usions
The ex ac s we e p epa ed acco ding o he me hod desc ibed by [16]. Fo each sample, 20 g o powde was weighed
using a Me le Type A 100 p ecision balance in a 500 ml beake , hen 1000 mL o boiling wa e was added and he
mix u e was in used o exac ly 5 minu es. The suspension was s i ed pe iodically wi h a glass od o p omo e
maximum ex ac ion o soluble compounds om he lea es. A he end o he allo ed ime, he solu ions we e il e ed
using il e pape and he il a e was s o ed in he e ige a o o analysis.
3.3. Mine al Analysis o lea es and in usions
Mine al analysis we e pe o med in lea es powde and ex ac s acco ding he me hods o [17]. The analysis in ol ed
de e mina ion o he con en o 9 elemen s (Na, K, Ca, Mg, Zn, Cu, Fe, P and Mn in mine alised ea samples (n = 3) and
GSC Biological and Pha maceu ical Sciences, 2025, 33(01), 031-038
33
ex ac s (n = 3). The con en s o he elemen s we e de e mined in he ea lea es (2 g o he bal ma e ial) a e
incine a ion in a mu le u nace a 450 °C. The ashes ob ained we e solubilised in c ucibles using spec ally pu e
hyd ochlo ic acid a 6 mol l−1 (POCH, Poland). Na and K we e analysed using a Flame A omic Emission Spec oscope
(FAES) wi h a lame pho ome e a wa eleng hs o λ = 589.0 and λ = 766.5 nm, espec i ely. The concen a ions o Ca,
Mg, Zn, Cu, Fe, P and Mn we e de e mined using A omic Abso p ion Spec oscopy (AAS) wi h a SOLAAR 939/959
spec opho ome e . Calcium was de e mined a λ = 422.7 nm, magnesium a λ = 285.2 nm, zinc a λ = 213.9 nm, coppe
a λ = 324.8 nm, i on a λ = 248.3 nm and manganese a λ = 279.5 nm. The Na and K de e mina ions we e made by adding
caesium chlo ide o he s anda ds and samples as an ionisa ion bu e a a concen a ion o 0.2 % w/ . Ca and Mg we e
analysed by adding 0.4 % w/ lan hanum oxide as a co ec ion bu e o bind he analysed elemen o he ma ix. The
pe cen age ex ac ion o elemen s om he lea es du ing b ewing was also de e mined.
3.4. Da a analysis
Da a we e exp essed as means ± s anda d de ia ion. The da a we e subjec ed o analysis o a iance (ANOVA) and
means we e sepa a ed by Duncan mul iple ange es s a P < 0.05 signi ican le els.
4. Resul s
The anges o o al elemen con en s in he d ied lea samples and he elemen concen a ions in he in usions analyzed
in his s udy a e summa ized in Tables 1 and 2, espec i ely. The mean elemen concen a ions in he lea es and in he
ea in usion di e ed signi ican ly (ANOVA, P = 0.05). The amoun o a speci ic mine al he e o e a ies om one locali y
o ano he , e ealing a unique mine al p o ile o he samples om each locali y. Analysis o he da a in Table 1 e eals
ha lea es om Ko hogo a e iche in mos mine als, including Mg (4731.00±0.15), K (7949.87±0.41), Na
(1190.33±0.4), Cu (32.17±0.0) and Mn (54.33±0.02) ; while hose om Béoumi yielded he highes le els o P
(250.00±5.00) and Fe (187.02±0.01); in con as , lea es collec ed a Béoumi con ain mo e Ca (10823.66±0.02) and Zn
(41.33±0.00) han o he locali ies. I is also e iden ha he d ied lea es and he co esponding in usions exhibi
di e en mine al p o iles.
In he d ied sa annah ea lea es (Table 1), he mos abundan mac onu ien was calcium, ollowed bypo assium,
magnesium, sodium, and phospho us. Among he ace elemen s es ed, Fe was he mos abundan , ollowed by Zn, Mn,
and Cu. Howe e , Na, a non-essen ial alkali me al, was mo e abundan han Zn.
The concen a ions o elemen s in he in usions Table 2, we e de e mined in o de o assess he ac ual exposu e o hese
elemen s when consuming hese d inks. In usions showed signi ican di e ences om he lea es in e ms o he o de
o magni ude o he concen a ions o he elemen s in Table 2, which we e as ollows: Na > K > Ca > Mg > P > Zn > Mn >
Cu > Fe.
Table 1 Mine al composi ion o d y lea es o Lippia mul i lo a
Locali ies
Mine als mg.kg-1
Bondoukou
Beoumi
Ko hogo
Calcium (Ca)
10823.66±0.02
8231.17±0.5c
8796.17±0.5d
Po assium (K)
4396.67±0.2e
2740.00±0.2b
7949.87±0.41
Magnesium (Mg)
4247.67±5.0d
3414.33±0.15b
4731.00±0.15e
Sodium (Na)
1083.67±0.4b
1046.76±0.45a
1190.33±0.4d
Phospho us (P)
248.33±5.0a
250.00±5.00a
248.33±5.0a
Coppe (Cu)
20.67±0.00d
16±0.00b
32.17±0.0
I on (Fe)
142.00±0.0e
187.02±0.01
62.50±0.0a
Manganese (Mn)
38.67±0.8c
21.67±0.0a
54.33±0.02d
Zinc (Zn)
41.33±0.00e
39.00±0.0d
30.17±0.00c
Value wi h di e en supe sc ip le e s in columns a e s a is ically signi ican (p<0.05)
GSC Biological and Pha maceu ical Sciences, 2025, 33(01), 031-038
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Table 2 Mine al composi ion o in usion
Locali ies
Mine als mg.kg-1
Bondoukou
Beoumi
Ko hogo
Calcium (Ca)
44,96±0,76b
54,04±0,60c
50,10±3,06c
Po assium (K)
81,99±0,03c
103,46±3,91d
97,78±1,46c
Magnesium (Mg)
27,41±3,26bd
18,80±6,51ab
34,33±4,07cd
Sodium (Na)
143,01±8,30bd
116,29±1,57a
156,03±4,84d
Phospho us (P)
3,09±0,18b
3,77±0,13b
3,46±0,04b
Coppe (Cu)
0,002±0,00a
0,072±0,09a
0,090±0,11a
I on (Fe)
0,003±0,00a
0,001±0,00a
0,001±0,00a
Manganese (Mn)
0,13±0,01a
0,17±0,00a
0,27±0,05b
Zinc (Zn)
0,13±0,17a
0,75±0,15a
0,28±0,23a
Value wi h di e en supe sc ip le e s in columns a e s a is ically signi ican (p<0.05)
The ex ac ion a es o mine als in he in usions a e p esen ed in Table 3. These esul s show a e y signi ican
a iabili y o solubili y o me als in he in usion. The highes a e age ex ac ion a es we e obse ed o sodium wi h
an a e age ex ac ion a e anging om 11.11 o 13.20 %, ollowed by K (1.23-3.77 %) and P (1.24-1.51 %). Mine als
such as Mg (0.55-0.73 %), Mn (0.33-0.78 %), Cu (0.009-0.45 %), and Fe (0.0005-0.002 %) ga e ex ac ion yields below
1%. Fo all he mine als, Fe wi h an ex ac ion a e anging om 0.0005 o 0.002% was he leas soluble mine al. Taking
in o accoun hei solubili ies in in usions, he mine als o Lippia mul i lo a lea es can be classi ied in he ollowing
o de : Na > K > P > Zn > Ca > Mg > Mn > Cu > Fe
Table 3 Ex ac ion a es o mine als om lea es o in usions
T ans e a es (%)
Mine als
Bondoukou
Beoumi
Ko hogo
Calcium (Ca)
0.42
0.66
0.57
Po assium (K)
1.96
3.77
1.23
Magnesium (Mg)
0.64
0.55
0.73
Sodium (Na)
13.20
11.11
13.10
Phospho us (P)
1.24
1.51
1.39
Coppe (Cu)
0,009
0.45
0,28
I on (Fe)
0,002
0,0005
0.0016
Manganese (Mn)
0,33
0.78
0.50
Zinc (Zn)
0,31
1.92
0.93
In o de o assess he mine al in ake o sa ana ea, he amoun o mine als a ailable in a cup we e calcula ed om he
da a in Table 2, using a con e sion ac o o 1 mg/kg = 0.0025 mg/cup, assuming ha 1 g o ea lea es is used o 100
ml o boiling wa e a home and ha a cup con ains 250 ml o liquid. Table 4 p esen s he con en s o mine al elemen s
in a 250 mL cup o ea. The esul s show ha a cup o Lippia mul i lo a in usion con ains e y low amoun s o Na (29.07-
39.01 mg/250 mL), K (20.50-25.86 mg/250 mL), Ca (11.24-13.51 mg/250 mL), P (0.77-0.94 mg/250 mL), Mg (4.70-
8.58 mg/250 mL), Cu (0.00-0.02 mg/250 mL), Mn (0.03-0.07 mg/250 mL), Fe (0.00-0.01 mg/250 mL) and Zn (0.00-
0.23 mg/250 mL). Sodium, a e aging 34.61 mg pe 250 mL, is he mos abundan mine al in a cup o Lippia mul i lo a
in usion, ollowed by po assium (23.60 mg/250 mL), calcium (12.42 mg/250 mL), and magnesium (6.51 mg/250 mL).
I on, zinc, coppe , and manganese a e almos nonexis en in he cup o ea. Compa ing he con en o each mine al wi h
i s ecommended daily in ake (RDI) e eals a e y signi ican di e ence.
GSC Biological and Pha maceu ical Sciences, 2025, 33(01), 031-038
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Table 4 Mine als con en o a Cup o ea and Recommended Daily In ake (RDI)
Locali ies
Mine als
mg/250 mL
Bondoukou
Beoumi
Ko hogo
A e age
RDI (mg/J)
Ca
11.24
13.51
12.52
12.42
1000
K
20.50
25.86
24.45
23.60
4700
Mg
6.25
4.70
8.58
6.51
400–420
Na
35.75
29.07
39.01
34.61
1500
P
0.77
0.94
0.87
0.86
700
Cu
0.00
0.02
0.02
0.01
900
Fe
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
8-18
Mn
0.03
0.04
0.07
0.05
1.8-2.3
Zn
0.03
0.19
0.07
0.09
8-11
RDI : Recommanded Daily In ake
5. Discussion
The con en s o Ca (8231.17±0.5–10823.66±0.02 mg/kg), K (2740.00±0.2–7949.87±0.4 mg/kg), Mg (3414.33±0.15–
4731.00±0.15 mg/kg), Na (1046.76±0.45–1190.33±0.4 mg/kg), P (248.33±5.0–250.00±5.00 mg/Kg), Cu (16±0.00–
32.17±0.0 mg/Kg), Fe (62.50±0.0–187.02±0.01 mg/kg), Mn (21.67±0.0–54.33±0.02 mg/kg) and Zn (30.17±0.00–
41.33±0.00 mg/kg) ounded in his s udy a e signi ican ly low compa ed o hose ound in Lippia mul i lo a lea es by
[18]. Fu he mo e, ou alues ound o po assium (K) and manganese (Mn) a e subs an ially iden ical o he
concen a ions o K (152.52±47.36-10029.62±48.1 mg/kg) and Mn (31.15±3.68 and 60.61 ± 0.73 mg/kg) ound by [19],
in young lea es o Lippia mul i lo a. Howe e , ou alues a e highe han he con en s o Ca (20911.54 o 49979.44
mg/kg), Mg (5087.42 o 6027.12 mg/kg) and Fe (130.21 o 272.24 mg/kg) epo ed by hese au ho s. On he o he
hand, ou con en s o Na (401.22 o 503.61 mg/kg) and Cu (8.11 o 13.46 mg/kg) a e highe han hose o [19]. The
di e ences be ween ou alues and hose o [18], could be ela ed o he me hods o lea collec ion and he age o he
lea es ha es ed. Indeed, acco ding o Kané e al [20] and Ekissi e al [19] he con en s and mine als o he lea es a y
acco ding o he ha es ing me hod and he s age o ma u i y o he lea es. The a ia ion in he concen a ions o each
mine al acco ding o he o igin o he lea es is in ag eemen wi h he esul s o [19] and [12]. Indeed, hese au ho s
ha e shown ha he mine al con en o he lea es o wild plan s and cul i a ed plan s o L. mul i lo a ha es ed in
di e en locali ies. This a ia ion in he concen a ions o mine al elemen s in he lea es o Lippia mul i lo a could be
linked o he composi ion o he soil as epo ed by [21]. High concen a ions o mac onu ien s in Lippia mul i lo a
lea es make hem an impo an sou ce o die a y supplemen s. Indeed, he K/Na a io was 4.95, 2.62 and 6.68 in lea es
om Bondoukou, Beoumi and Ko hogo espec i ely. This indica es a majo nu i ional ad an age, since he highe
in ake o K compa ed o Na has been linked o a lowe incidence o hype ension [22].
Fu he mo e, he main use o he plan 's lea es in u al and u ban a eas is he p epa a ion as he bal eas (in usion and
decoc ion).
Analysis o he in usions showed ha he mine al elemen s ounded in he lea es a e also p esen in he in usions bu
a lowe s concen a ions. The dec ease in he concen a ion o elemen s in in usion compa ed o he d y lea could be
explained by hei ixa ion o he annic acid and annins in he lea es which exude hem du ing he in usion o
decoc ion. The p ecipi a ion o hese chela es leads o a no able dec ease in he concen a ion o me als in he in usion
ex ac [3]. Indeed S ee e a [23] epo ed ha in eas wi h lowe annin con en , he e is a be e leaching o he
elemen s in he in usion.
In he in usion, he mos abundan mac oelemen is sodium, ollowed by po assium, calcium, magnesium and
phospho us. Rega ding ace mine als, Zn is he mos p edominan mine al in he in usion. Ou esul s a e consis en
wi h hose o [24], who ound Na and Zn as majo mac oelemen and mic oelemen espec i ely in he in usion o
di e en s ypes o ea. Howe e , ou esul s di e om hose o Oli ie e al [25] and Malick e al [26] who ound K as
GSC Biological and Pha maceu ical Sciences, 2025, 33(01), 031-038
36
he majo mac oelemen in g een ea in usions. The di e ence be ween ou esul s and hose o hese au ho s could be
ela ed o he me hod o p epa a ion o he in usions [27] bu also o he na u e o he lea es used and hei biochemical
composi ions. Indeed, acco ding o Rusinek [28] and Py lakowska e al [29], he a e o ex ac ion o mine als in he
in usion is modi ied by se e al ac o s, including he in usion ime, he ype o plan used, he composi ion o he ea in
annins and oxalic acid.
Al hough con aining low mine als amoun s, consuming Lippia mul i lo a lea ea can help mee nu i ional needs o
se e al essen ial elemen s. Indeed, some mac onu ien s, such as po assium, calcium, sodium, magnesium, i on, and
manganese, among o he s, play impo an oles in he human body [25], and hei de iciency o imbalance can lead o
physiological diso de s. Fo example, calcium and magnesium a e he main mine al componen s o bones and a e
necessa y o no mal g ow h and physiological unc ion [30].
Sodium and po assium a e essen ial o many egula o y sys ems in he body. The minimum daily in akes o Na and K
a e 2.4 g and 3.5 g, espec i ely [31].
Phospha e is essen ial o a ious cellula p ocesses, such as ATP p oduc ion, in acellula signal ansmission, bone
mine aliza ion, cell memb ane o ma ion, and DNA and RNA syn hesis [32,33]. High die a y phospha e in ake can
p ecipi a e diseases such as ype 2 diabe es [34]. The Recommended Die a y Allowance (RDA) o phospho us is
app oxima ely 700 mg/day [35].
Al hough poo ly p esen in in usions compa ed o mac oelemen s, ace elemen s ha e bo h a cu a i e and p e en i e
ole in he igh agains diseases [36], and hei de iciencies can lead o se ious consequences. Fo example : I on is an
in eg al componen o hemoglobin, ound in ed blood cells, which anspo s oxygen h oughou he body o ene gy
me abolism [13]. Manganese is a key componen o he an ioxidan enzyme supe oxide dismu ase (SOD) ; i plays a ole
in blood clo ing and hemos asis; i ac s as a co ac o o a ious enzymes [13]. Zinc is necessa y o he p oduc ion o
p o eins and gene ic ma e ial and plays a ole in as e pe cep ion, wound healing, no mal e al de elopmen , spe m
p oduc ion, no mal g ow h and sexual ma u a ion, and immune sys em heal h [13]. Coppe is impo an o many
enzymes in ol ed in i on me abolism [13]. Coppe de iciency can cause anemia and neu openia, a ec ing oxygen
anspo and immune unc ion, and zinc de iciency may con ibu e o complica ions du ing p egnancy and childbi h
[37]. Sodium is he mos ex ac able ion in he lea o Lippia mul i lo a, wi h an ex ac ion a e o 13 %, which explains
i s high con en in he in usion. Ou esul s a e simila o hose o Soa es e al [37] who epo he high ex ac abili y o
sodium compa ed o o he ions p esen in he lea es o Ve bena minu i lo a.
Conside ing he concen a ion o di e en mine als in in usions, i is clea ha hey do no eally con ibu e o
signi ican ly co e ing human mine al needs. The low concen a ions o po en ially ha m ul mine als in in usions
compa ed o hei ecommended daily in ake can be conside ed an ad an age. Fo example, sodium, al hough
p edominan in in usions, i s con en is e y low compa ed o i s equi ed daily in ake. This highe sodium con en
compa ed o po assium, could he e o e no be conside ed as cons i u ing a heal h isk [38].
6. Conclusion
The lea es o he "long lea " mo pho ype o Lippia mul i lo a a e ich in essen ials elemen s o humans. The majo s
mac onu ien s we e Ca, K, Mg, and Na, compa ed o he ace elemen s Fe, Mn, Zn, and Cu. The o de o magni ude o
hese mine als is as ollows:
Ca > K > Mg > Na > P > Fe > Zn > Mn > Cu. The in usions con ain he same ypes o essen ial mine als, bu in smalle
quan i ies, wi h an o de o magni ude : Na > K > Ca > Mg > P > Zn > Mn > Cu > Fe. Thus, consump ion o lea ea can help
compensa e o de iciencies in ce ain nu ien s. Fu he mo e, excessi e consump ion o his he bal ea does no pose
any isk o poisoning, as he concen a ion o all essen ial elemen s is well below he ecommended daily in ake.
Howe e , he locali y o Ko hogo, which p o ided he lea es iches in mos mine als, seems o be he mos sui able
a ea o cul i a ion i we wan o bene i om he nu ien s o his plan .
Compliance wi h e hical s anda ds
Disclosu e o con lic o in e es
No con lic o in e es o be disclosed.
GSC Biological and Pha maceu ical Sciences, 2025, 33(01), 031-038
37
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