*Co esponding au ho : Nonye em Joy Nnaji
Copy igh © 2025 Au ho (s) e ain he copy igh o his a icle. This a icle is published unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License 4.0.
An ischis osomal Ac i i y o he Aqueous Lea Ex ac o Ve nonia amygdalina on
Schis osoma haema obium In ec ion in Ra s
Nnaji Nonye em Joy *, William Is i anus Aliyu and Adamu Samaila Babayo
Depa men o Biological Sciences, Abubaka Ta awa Balewa Uni e si y, P.M.B 0248, Bauchi, Nige ia.
GSC Biological and Pha maceu ical Sciences, 2025, 33(01), 183-189
Publica ion his o y: Recei ed on 06 Sep embe 2025; e ised on 11Oc obe 2025; accep ed on 14 Oc obe 2025
A icle DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.30574/gscbps.2025.33.1.0394
Abs ac
Schis osomiasis emains one o he mos debili a ing Neglec ed T opical Diseases (NTDs), wi h P aziquan el being he
only d ug o choice. Howe e , dependence on a single d ug is h ea ened by limi ed access, high cos , and possible
esis ance. Hence, i is impe a i e o sea ch o cheape and locally a ailable al e na i es. This s udy e alua ed he
an ischis osomal ac i i y o he aqueous lea ex ac o Ve nonia amygdalina, a common Nige ian sh ub used bo h as
soup and cu e o s omach ailmen s. Bulinus globosus snails we e challenged wi h mi acidia ob ained om S.
haema obium eggs. Ce ca iae om in ec ed snails we e used o in ec 15 albino a s h ough a modi ied ail imme sion
me hod. The in ec ed a s we e di ided in o i e g oups o h ee a s each. Th ee g oups ecei ed100mg, 150mg, and
200mg doseso he ex ac , a ou h g oup was ea ed wi h P aziquan el and he las g oup was le un ea ed. A six h
g oup emained unin ec ed, o aling 18 a s. T ea men wi h V. amygdalina signi ican ly educed wo m load in a dose-
dependen manne , wi h he 200 mg g oup showing he g ea es educ ion. G oss pa hology e ealed ha he un ea ed
a s exhibi ed li e mo ling and hepa omegaly, which we e ma kedly educed a 200 mg. Clinical obse a ions showed
hai eg ow h, absence o haema u ia, and no mal g ooming compa able o he p aziquan el- ea ed g oup. Lowe
doses p oduced pa ial imp o emen s.O e all, he aqueous lea ex ac o Ve nonia amygdalinademons a ed po en
an ischis osomal ac i i y, and could se e as a p omising al e na i e he apy.
Keywo ds: Schis osomiasis; Ve nonia amygdalina; P aziquan el; E icacy
1. In oduc ion
Schis osomiasis also known as snail e e is one o he Neglec ed T opical Disease (NTD) a ec ing o e 200 million
people wo ldwide, pa icula ly in sub-Saha an A ica whe e po e y, poo sani a ion, and limi ed heal hca e access
p omo e ansmission (WHO, 2023). In Nige ia, Schis osoma haema obium emains endemic in many u al
communi ies, whe e po e y, poo sani a ion, and limi ed access o po able wa e inc ease ansmission isk Adeyemo
e al., (2025). Con ol o he disease la gely depends on chemo he apy, wi h p aziquan el (PZQ) being he only d ug o
choice. Al hough PZQ has signi ican ly educed mo bidi y, i s long- e m e ec i eness is h ea ened by issues o high
cos , limi ed a ailabili y in emo e a eas, and he po en ial eme gence o esis an s ains Oju ongbe e al., (2014). These
challenges emphasize he need o sea ch o al e na i e chemo he apeu ic agen ha a e locally a ailable, sa e,
a o dable and sus ainable in endemic se ings. One p omising app oach is he use o medicinal plan s, which a e
adi ionally employed in A ican communi ies o ea pa asi ic in ec ions. Plan based emedies a e o en locally
a ailable, cul u ally accep ed, and compa a i ely a o dable, making hem a ac i e candida es o in eg a ion in o
schis osomiasis managemen s a egies Acheampong e al., (2020). Among such plan s is Ve nonia amygdalina
(commonly known as bi e lea ), a pe ennial sh ub widely consumed as a ege able in Nige ia and o he pa s o A ica.
In addi ion o i s nu i ional ole, V. amygdalina has demons a ed a ious pha macological ac i i ies, including
an imala ial, an idiabe ic, an ioxidan , and an imic obial p ope ies Adewuyi e al., (2025). Howe e , gi en he p essing
GSC Biological and Pha maceu ical Sciences, 2025, 33(01), 183-189
184
need o a o dable he apeu ic op ions and he e hnopha macological ele ance o V. amygdalina, We epo he e he
an ischis osomal ac i i y o aqueous lea ex ac o V. amygdalina in in ec ed albino a s.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
2.1. Collec ion o lea es sample
F esh lea es o Ve nonia amygdalina we e ha es ed om a ms in Gwallamejie illage, Bauchi, Nige ia. The lea es we e
placed in a poly hene bag and we e anspo ed o he he ba ium sec ion o he Depa men o Biological Sciences in
Abubaka Ta awa Balewa Uni e si y o iden i ica ion and au hen ica ion.
2.2. P epa a ion o plan ex ac s
The aqueous ex ac o Ve nonia amygdalina lea es was p ocessed as desc ibed and modi ied by Okpoghono e al. (
2018). The lea es o Ve nonia amygdalina we e allowed o shade d y a oom empe a u e on he labo a o y bench o
7weeks ( owing o high humidi y du ing he ainy season) be o e being pul e ized o ine powde using a p es ige
blende model MJ-60BM01C. Two hund ed g am (200mg) o he lea powde was measu ed and hen soaked in 250ml
dis illed wa e in a 500ml ound bo om lask. The mix u e was le on an elec ic shake o 72 hou s so as o ensu e
p ope ex ac ion. The ex ac was il e ed using wha man No 5 il e pape and he il a e was concen a ed o a pas y
o m by allowing i o e apo a e a 50C on Julabo TW20 wa e ba h. The esul an aqueous ex ac was s o ed in an ai -
igh s e ile con aine in a e ige a o un il equi ed o use.
2.3. Pa asi e Sou ce and In ec ion o a s
Schis osoma haema obium eggs we e isola ed om in ec ed u ine samples collec ed om P ima y School child en in
Fi o, a known u ina y schis osomiasis endemic illage in Ganjuwa Local Go e nmen A ea o Bauchi s a e. Pa asi e ee
Bulinus globosus we e in ec ed wi h mi acidia ob ained om ha ched eggs and esul an ce ca iae we e ha es ed and
use in in ec ing 15 albino a s h ough he modi ied ail imme sion me hod.
2.4. Clinical obse a ion on in ec ed a s
Se e al clinical signs we e obse ed in he a s pos in ec ion. These included loss o u , haema u ia (blood in u ine),
inc eased u ina y equency, and beha io al changes ha became mo e p onounced as he in ec ion p og essed. While
all he 15 in ec ed a s had haema u ia, we pe ineal egion and weigh loss, only hal o ha numbe showed loss o u .
The o he clinical signs we e obse ed in ewe numbe s o in ec ed a s anging om 3-6.
2.5. Pe usion, wo m Reco e y and G oss pa hology
Adul wo ms we e eco e ed om in ec ed a s using he hepa ic pe usion echnique as modi ied by Viana e al.,
(2018). In ec ed a s we e sac i iced 9 weeks pos -in ec ion unde chlo o o m anes hesia. To minimize blood clo ing
du ing pe usion, aspi in was adminis e ed o ally be o e sac i ice. A cannula was inse ed in o he le en icle o he
hea , and no mal saline a oom empe a u e was gen ly pe used, un il he li e appea ed pale and he e luen was
clea . Wo ms lushed om he po al and mesen e ic eins we e insed in o Pe i dishes, and coun ed unde a dissec ing
mic oscope. G oss pa hological changes we e assessed in he li e and u ina y ac . The li e was examined o
hepa omegaly, mo ling, and discolo a ion, while he bladde and u e e s we e inspec ed o hickening, hemo hagic
lesions. These g oss indings we e used o assess he ex en o pa hology and he apeu ic e icacy o he aqueous lea
ex ac o Ve nonia amygdalina compa ed wi h p aziquan el and un ea ed con ols.
2.6. T ea men o a s wi h plan ex ac
A o al o 18 albino a s we e di ided in o six ea men g oups (A-F) o h ee a s each. G oups A, B and C we e ea ed
wi h 100mg, 150mg and 200mg o he ex ac s espec i ely as a single dose. In addi ion, g oup D was ea ed wi h
P aziquan el he cu en d ug o choice, while g oup E was le un ea ed as he nega i e con ol and g oup F was he
unin ec ed and also un ea ed g oup.
3. Resul s
3.1. Clinical obse a ions in S. haema obium in ec ed a s be o e ea men
Se e al clinical signs we e obse ed in he a s pos in ec ion. These included loss o u , haema u ia (blood in u ine),
inc eased u ina y equency, and beha io al changes ha became mo e p onounced as he in ec ion p og essed. These
GSC Biological and Pha maceu ical Sciences, 2025, 33(01), 183-189
185
a e se ou in able 1. While all he 15 in ec ed a s had haema u ia, we pe ineal egion and weigh loss, only hal o ha
numbe showed loss o u . The o he clinical signs we e obse ed in ewe numbe s o in ec ed a s anging om 3-6.
The a ious clinical signs obse ed du ing he s udy a e consis en wi h signs sys emic illness epo ed in
schis osomiasis models and ag ees wi h he epo o Acheampong e al., (2020) in hei wo k on schis osomicidal and
ce ca icidal ac i i ies o some selec ed medicinal plan s om Ghana. Al oge he , hese clinical indings p o ide e idence
o mo bidi y induced by S. haema obium in ec ion, and sugges ed he success ul es ablishmen o he expe imen al
model.
Table 1 Clinical obse a ions eco ded in S. haema obium in ec ed a s be o e ea men
Clinical Signs
Desc ip ions
Numbe o a s in ol ed N=15
Loss o u
Dull and ough coa
8
Pa chy hai loss
7
Abno mal beha io
Huddling
5
Poo eeding
6
Reduced g ooming
4
Reduced ac i i y
Weakness
3
P olonged inac i i y
5
Haema u ia
Passing o blood in u ine
15
We pe ineal egion
We ness a ound pe ineal egion
15
Weigh loss
Dec ease in weigh
15
3.2. G oss pa hological e ec s obse ed in schis osome in ec ed a s be o e ea men s.
Pos -mo em examina ion o he in ec ed un ea ed a s e ealed dis inc g oss pa hological signs associa ed wi h S.
haema obium in ec ion. The majo indings included hepa omegaly, li e mo ling, as well as mul iple g anuloma ous
lesions in he s omach, ileum, colon, and caecum. These pa hological signs a e shown in Table 2.
Table 2 G oss pa hological e ec s obse ed in schis osome in ec ed a s be o e ea men
Pa hological signs
o gan
Se e i y
Hepa omegaly
Li e
+++
Mo ling /discolou a ion
Li e
+++
Key: + = ace; ++ = Mode a e; +++ = se e e
3.3. Wo m Load
The in ec ed un ea ed con ol g oup eco ded an a e age wo m load o 56.1 wo ms, all o which we e ali e. This
ep esen ed he baseline wo m bu den in he expe imen al a s be o e ea men e ec s we e conside ed.
Table 3 Mean wo m load eco e ed om in ec ed un ea ed con ol a s
Wo m eco e y
Mean wo m coun
Wo ms eco e ed ali e
56.1
Wo ms eco e ed dead
0.0
To al wo m load (ali e +dead)
56.0
GSC Biological and Pha maceu ical Sciences, 2025, 33(01), 183-189
186
3.4. Clinical impac o di e en doses o ea men on in ec ed a s du ing he s udy
Table 4 shows he clinical impac o he ea men on in ec ed a s. I can be seen ha he 200 mg ea ed g oup showed
he bes eco e y, wi h all a s (3/3) exhibi ing comple e hai eg ow h, absence o haema u ia, and no mal g ooming
ac i i y, compa able o he p aziquan el g oup. A 150 mg, pa ial imp o emen s we e obse ed, wi h one a showing
hai eg ow h and educed haema u ia, while he 100 mg g oup showed only sligh changes in g ooming ac i i y and
he e was no hai eg ow h. In con as , he in ec ed un ea ed g oup had pe sis en haema u ia, no hai eg ow h, and
educed g ooming ac i i y, whe eas he unin ec ed g oup emained no mal.
Table 4 Clinical impac o di e en doses o ea men on schis osome in ec ed a s du ing he s udy
Clinical obse a ions
T ea men G oups
In ec ed un ea ed
+ e con ol
(n=3)
Unin ec ed
– e con ol
(n=3)
100 mg
(n=3)
150 mg
(n=3)
200 mg
(n=3)
P aziqan el
(n=3)
Haema u ia
3/3
2/3
0/3
0/3
3/3
0/3
Huddling
2/3
2/3
0/3
0/3
3/3
0/3
G ooming ac i i y
1/3
1/3
3/3
3/3
0/3
3/3
We pe ineal egion
2/3
1/3
0/3
0/3
3/3
0/3
Weigh gain
Minimal
Mode a e
Ma ked
Ma ked
poo
Hai eg ow h
0/3
1/3
3/3
3/3
0/3
3/3
3.5. E ec s o ea men wi h di e en doses o V amygdalina on wo m eco e y
The e ec o ea men wi h he V. amygdalina ex ac on wo m bu den in in ec ed a s is p esen ed in Table 5. The
in ec ed un ea edg oup (+Ve con ol) had he highes a e age numbe o wo ms eco e ed ali e o 56.1 (100%)
while he 200 mg ea ed g oup had he lowes numbe o wo ms eco e ed ali e being 8.7 (15.5% ). The leas e ec i e
ea men was obse ed in he 100 mg which had a li e wo m eco e y o 29.6 (52.8%). As compa ed o ea men wi h
p aziquan el which had a 13.2% li e wo m eco e ed.
Table 5 Wo m eco e y a e ea men wi h di e en doses o V amygdalina on in ec ed Ra s
Dosage
A e age Wo m Reco e y
E icacy (%)
(mg)
Wo ms Ali e
Wo ms Dead
100
29.6
26.5
47.2
150
22.8
33.3
59.4
200
8.7
47.4
84.5
Pz
7.4
48.7
86.8
In ec ed and un ea ed
56.1
100
N/A
Unin ec ed
0
0
N/A
Key: N/A= No applicable
3.6. E ec o ea men wi h di e en doses o V amygdalina on Li e mo ling
The e ec o ea men wi h a ying doses o V. amygdalina aqueous lea ex ac is shown in able 7. The esul show
ha he in ec ed un ea ed g oup had he highes li e mo ling sco e 19.3. In con as , he 200 mg ex ac ea ed g oup
showed a ma ked imp o emen wi h a low sco e o 5.6 ep esen ing a 70.9% educ ion in li e mo ling compa ed o
he + e con ol g oup. This implied ha ea men wi h 200 mg o he ex ac signi ican ly educed li e damage ela i e
o he un ea ed in ec ed con ol.
GSC Biological and Pha maceu ical Sciences, 2025, 33(01), 183-189
187
Table 6 Li e mo ling sco es a e ea men wi h a ying doses o V amygdalina aqueous lea ex ac
T ea men s (mg)
Li e mo ling sco es
Pe cen age educ ion in mo ling (%)
100
8.6
55.4
150
8.0
58.5
200
5.6
70.9
Pz
5.0
74.1
In ec ed and un ea ed
19.3
N/A
Unin ec ed
0
N/A
4. Discussion
The a ious clinical signs obse ed du ing he s udy a e consis en wi h signs o sys emic illness epo ed in
schis osomiasis models and ag ees wi h he epo o Acheampong e al., (2020) in hei wo k on schis osomicidal and
ce ca icidal ac i i ies o some selec ed medicinal plan s om Ghana. Al oge he , hese clinical indings p o ide e idence
o mo bidi y induced by S. haema obium in ec ion, and sugges ed he success ul es ablishmen o he expe imen al
model.
The pa hological signs obse ed in his s udy demons a e he ex ensi e o gan damage caused by S. haema obium
in ec ion in expe imen al a s. The li e changes hepa omegaly, mo ling, and discolo a ion e lec se e e hepa ic
in ol emen due o schis osome egg deposi ion and in lamma o y eac ions. This closely ag ees wi h he epo o
Acheampong e al. (2020) who simila ly obse ed hepa ic enla gemen , discolo a ion and mo ling in oden models o
schis osomiasis.
In his s udy, a mean wo m load o 56.1 wo ms pe a in he in ec ed un ea ed con ol g oup was obse ed. This inding
demons a ed he success ul es ablishmen o Schis osoma haema obium in ec ion in he expe imen al a s and
p o ided he baseline agains which he e icacy o Ve nonia amygdalina ex ac was e alua ed. The numbe o wo m
eco e ed om he expe imen al in ec ion in his s udy ag ees wi h he igu e ob ained in an ea lie wo k in Bauchi by
Adamu (2004) who eco e ed a o al o 57 wo ms om his in ec ed a model. This p obably shows he i ulence o he
local schis osome s ain in Bauchi s a e. Howe e , he o al numbe o adul schis osomes eco ded in his s udy was
much highe han hose epo ed by o he wo ke s like Ogboli e al., (2000) and Acheampong e al., (2020) who
eco e ed 2 and 14 adul wo ms espec i ely. These di e ences could be associa ed wi h he me hod hey adop ed in
in ec ing he a s whe e hey injec ed ce ca iae suspension in o he a s in ape i oneally o pe cu aneously. In his
s udy, in ec ion o a s was done h ough he ail imme sion me hod which is appa en ly a be e me hod o ensu ing
ha he a s models a e p ope ly in ec ed and a sizable numbe o adul wo ms could be ob ained
Thus, he clinical eco e y obse ed in he 200 mg ea men g oup o V. amygdalina highligh ed he po en ial o he
ex ac in amelio a ing schis osomiasis-induced mo bidi y. The ou come in his s udy ein o ces he he apeu ic alue
o V. amygdalina as an indigenous medicinal plan especially in he managemen o schis osomiasis.
The p esen inding is also compa able wi h he epo o Akinmoladun e al. (2019) who demons a ed ha Azadi ach a
indica lea ex ac signi ican ly educed wo m bu den and egg ou pu in schis osome in ec ed a s. This inding
co obo a es he epo o Abongwa e al. (2016), who demons a ed ha V. amygdalina ex ac s signi ican ly lowe ed
wo m and egg bu den in Schis osoma mansoni in ec ed mice, wi h imp o emen s in li e his opa hology.
This inding is consis en wi h ha o Olo unnisola e al. (2013) who demons a ed ha V. amygdalina possesses
an ioxidan and hepa op o ec i e p ope ies, capable o a enua ing li e damage induced by oxida i e s ess in
expe imen al models, As well as ha o Adedapo e al. (2014), who obse ed es o a ion o no mal his ological ea u es
in he li e and kidney o in ec ed oden s ea ed wi h V. amygdalina. Compa able obse a ions ha e equally been made
wi h o he plan -based an ischis osomal candida es. Fo ins ance, Adenowo e al., (2015) ound ha Ca ica papaya seed
ex ac signi ican ly educed li e g anuloma ous eac ions in schis osome in ec ed animals. Likewise, Akinmoladun e
al., (2019) obse ed ha Azadi ach a indica lea ex ac imp o ed li e his ology and educed ib osis in schis osome
in ec ed a s. These s udies s eng hen he a gumen o medicinal plan s as po en ial al e na i es o adjunc s o
p aziquan el in educing hepa ic pa hology as well as hei gene al use ulness in schis osomiasis managemen .
Va ia ions in e icacy epo ed ac oss hese s udies may be a ibu ed o di e ences in ex ac ion sol en s, plan
GSC Biological and Pha maceu ical Sciences, 2025, 33(01), 183-189
188
chemo ypes, and expe imen al models. The s ong e ec s obse ed in he p esen s udy, pa icula ly a 200 mg,
sugges s ha he bioac i e compound in V. amygdalina ex ac a e po en agains schis osome pa asi es and associa ed
pa hology.
5. Conclusion
This s udy has e ealed ha Ve nonia amygdalina aqueous lea ex ac exhibi s signi ican an ischis osomal ac i i y in
expe imen ally in ec ed a s. The highes dose (200 mg) was he mos e ec i e, p oducing educ ions in wo m bu den,
amelio a ion o g oss pa hological changes, and es o a ion o no mal clinical ou comes compa able o p aziquan el.
These indings suppo i s po en ial as a locally a ailable and a o dable he apy o schis osomiasis.
Recommenda ions
• Fu he s udies should in es iga e he mechanisms o ac ion o he ex ac .
• Toxicological s udies should es ablish he sa e y p o ile and op imal he apeu ic dosage.
• His opa hological in es iga ions should be conduc ed o de ail issue-le el epai and pa asi e clea ance.
• Clinical ials in endemic communi ies a e needed o e alua e e ec i eness in humans.
Compliance wi h e hical s anda ds
Acknowledgmen s
We since ely app ecia e Go e nmen Day P ima y Fi o illage, Ganjuwa Local Go e nmen , Bauchi S a e o hei
assis ance in sample collec ion. We a e also g a e ul o he Depa men o Biological Sciences, Abubaka Ta awa Balewa
Uni e si y, Bauchi, o he p o ision o labo a o y acili ies and echnical suppo .
Disclosu e o con lic o in e es
We decla e ha he e a e no con lic o in e es in connec ion wi h his pape ..
S a emen o e hical app o al
This s udy was ca ied ou ollowing he e hical guidelines o he use o labo a o y animals as app o ed by he
depa men o Biological Sciences, Abubaka Ta awa Balewa Uni e si y, Bauchi. All expe imen al p ocedu es in ol ing
a s we e pe o med in compliance wi h ins i u ional and In e na ional s anda ds o he ca e and use o labo a o y
animals.
Re e ences
[1] Acheampong, D. O., Adzo ah, N. O., A mah, F. A., Aninagyei, E., Asiamah, E. A., Thom o d, A. K., & Anyan, W. K.
(2020). E hnopha macological e alua ion o schis osomicidal and ce ca icidal ac i i ies o some selec ed
medicinal plan s om Ghana. T opical Medicine and Heal h, 48(19). 55 -58
[2] Ada amoye, O. A., Akin ayo, O., Achem, J., & Fa unso, M. (2008). Lipid-lowe ing e ec s o me hanolic ex ac o
Ve nonia amygdalina lea es in a s ed on high choles e ol die . Vascula Heal h and Risk Managemen , 4, 235–
241.
[3] Agya e, C., Spiegle , V., Sa kodie, H., Asase, A., Liebau, E., & Hensel, A. (2014). An e hnopha macological su ey
and in i o con i ma ion o he e hnopha macological use o medicinal plan s as an helmin ic emedies in he
Ashan i egion, Ghana. Jou nal o E hnopha macology, 158, 255–263.
[4] Akowuah, G. A., May, L. L. Y., & Chin, J. H. (2015). Toxicological e alua ion o Ve nonia amygdalina me hanol lea
ex ac in a s. O ien al Pha macy and Expe imen al Medicine, 15(4), 365–369.
[5] Colley, D. G., Bus induy, A. L., Seco , W. E., & King, C. H. (2014). Human schis osomiasis. The Lance ,383(9936),
2253–2264.
[6] Fa ombi, E. O., & Owoeye, O. (2011). An ioxidan and chemop e en i e p ope ies o Ve nonia amygdalina and
Ga cinia bi la onoid. In e na ional Jou nal o En i onmen al Resea ch and Public Heal h, 8(6), 2533–2555.
GSC Biological and Pha maceu ical Sciences, 2025, 33(01), 183-189
189
[7] Ghamba, P. E., Balla, H., Goje, L. J., Halidu, A., & Dauda, M. D. (2014). In i o an imic obial ac i i ies o Ve nonia
amygdalina on selec ed clinical isola es. In e na ional Jou nal o Cu en Mic obiology and Applied Sciences,3,
1103–1113.
[8] He wald , B. L., Tao, L., Van Pel , W., Tsang, V. C., & B uce, J. I. (1995). Pe sis ence o Schis osoma haema obium
in ec ion despi e mul iple cou ses o he apy wi h p aziquan el. Clinical In ec ious Diseases, 20(2), 309–315.
[9] King, C. H., Olb ych, S. K., Soon, M., Singe , M. E., Ca e , J., & Colley, D. G. (2011). U ili y o epea ed p aziquan el
dosing in he ea men o schis osomiasis in high- isk communi ies in A ica: A sys ema ic e iew. PLOS
Neglec ed T opical Diseases, 5:9
[10] McManus, D. P., Dunne, D. W., Sacko, M., U zinge , J., Venne ald, B. J., & Zhou, X. N. (2018). Schis osomiasis. Na u e
Re iews Disease P ime s, 4,13.
[11] Naomi, W., Yole, D., & Ochanda, H. (2014). An ischis osomal ac i i y o i e plan ex ac s on Swiss whi e mice
in ec ed wi h Schis osoma mansoni. IOSR Jou nal o Pha macy and Biological Sciences, 9(1), 49–53.
[12] Smi he s, S. R., & Te y, R. J. (1965). The in ec ion o labo a o y hos s wi h ce ca iae o Schis osoma mansoni and
he eco e y o adul wo ms. Pa asi ology, 55(4), 695–700.
[13] Viana, I. L., e al. (2018). Modi ied pe usion me hod o wo m eco e y. PLOS Neglec ed T opical Diseases, 15(9),
[14] WHO (2020). Schis osomiasis s a egy. h ps://www.who.in /schis osomiasis/s a egy/en/
