INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH AND ANALYSIS
ISSN(p in ): 2643-9840, ISSN(online): 2643-9875
Volume 08 Issue 10 Oc obe 2025
DOI: 10.47191/ijm a/ 8-i10-30, Impac Fac o : 8.266
Page No. 5809-5822
IJMRA, Volume 08 Issue 10 Oc obe 2025 www.ijm a.in Page 5809
Assessing Na ional Ene gy Policies P omo ing Renewables in Wes A ican
Ci ies: P og ess, Challenges, and Recommenda ions
Cha les Adesola AJAGBE (PhD)
Depa men o Geog aphy and En i onmen al Educa ion, Facul y o Social Science Educa ion
Emmanuel Alayande Uni e si y o Educa ion, Oyo, Oyo S a e, Nige ia
ORCID Id: 0009-0001-7732-4842
ABSTRACT: The accele a ing u baniza ion o Wes A ica p esen s bo h a challenge and an oppo uni y o sus ainable ene gy
de elopmen . Wi h ci ies accoun ing o he bulk o ene gy consump ion in he egion, he ansi ion om ossil uel dependency
o enewable ene gy is essen ial o achie ing ene gy secu i y, clima e esilience, and sus ainable g ow h. This pape c i ically
assesses na ional ene gy policies ha p omo e enewable ene gy in selec ed Wes A ican coun ies namely Nige ia, Ghana,
Senegal, and Cô e d’I oi e wi h a pa icula ocus on hei impac and implemen a ion in u ban a eas. The s udy adop s a
compa a i e policy analysis app oach, examining legal amewo ks, na ional ene gy s a egies, implemen a ion mechanisms, and
ci y-le el applica ions. While all coun ies unde e iew ha e es ablished enewable ene gy policies o legal amewo ks, indings
e eal a signi ican disconnec be ween na ional ambi ions and u ban execu ion. Common challenges include limi ed inancing o
u ban enewable p ojec s, weak ins i u ional coo dina ion be ween na ional and local go e nmen s, inadequa e echnical
capaci y, and a lack o ci y-speci ic enewable ene gy a ge s. Howe e , he esea ch also highligh s eme ging p og ess, such as
mini-g id deploymen in Nige ian ci ies, sola oo op p og ams in Acc a, and Daka ’s s eps owa d elec i ying public anspo
using g een ene gy sou ces. The pape a gues ha s eng hening he ole o ci y go e nmen s, imp o ing policy cohe ence, and
enhancing public-p i a e pa ne ships a e c i ical o scaling enewable ene gy solu ions in Wes A ican ci ies. I ecommends
g ea e decen aliza ion o ene gy go e nance, inc eased in es men in u ban enewable in as uc u e, and ha moniza ion o
egional policies h ough ECOWAS amewo ks. Ul ima ely, aligning na ional ene gy goals wi h u ban de elopmen s a egies will
be i al o an inclusi e and sus ainable ene gy ansi ion ac oss he egion. This esea ch con ibu es o he b oade discou se on
ene gy policy in sub-Saha an A ica by highligh ing he u ban dimension o enewable ene gy planning, o e ing p ac ical insigh s
o policymake s, de elopmen pa ne s, and s akeholde s commi ed o a g een and equi able ene gy u u e.
KEYWORDS: sus ainable ene gy, u baniza ion, enewable ene gy, ossil uel
1. INTRODUCTION
Wes A ican ci ies a e a he o e on o a p o ound ene gy pa adox: apid u ban g ow h and accele a ing socio-
economic ac i i y a e d i ing sha ply ising demand o elec ici y, e en as ch onic supply sho alls, aging ansmission
in as uc u e and high dependence on ossil- uel backup gene a ion ende u ban powe sys ems un eliable, expensi e and
en i onmen ally damaging. U ban households and businesses ou inely ely on diesel gene a o s o ill gaps in public supply,
c ea ing localized ai pollu ion, noise and g eenhouse-gas emissions while imposing la ge hidden cos s on i ms and consume s
(Adelaja, 2020). A he same ime, u baniza ion and indus ializa ion ampli y ene gy in ensi y and pollu ion concen a ions in
me opoli an a eas, in ensi ying public-heal h isks and unde mining he sus ainabili y o u ban de elopmen ajec o ies ac oss
he egion. Schola s analyzing Wes A ica’s u ban-en i onmen nexus a gue ha enewable ene gy consump ion can imp o e
en i onmen al quali y and mi iga e he ad e se e ec s o u baniza ion bu only i policy design and implemen a ion a e e ec i e
and a uned o local u ban eali ies. (Adelaja, 2020).
The case o accele a ing a shi om ossil uels o enewables in Wes A ican ci ies is compelling on bo h clima e and
de elopmen g ounds. Al hough he egion’s agg ega e con ibu ion o global g eenhouse-gas emissions emains modes , Wes
A ican coun ies a e highly ulne able o clima e impac s om coas al e osion and lood isk in coas al me opolises o hea s ess
and wa e sca ci y in apidly expanding inland ci ies. Deploying enewable ene gy a scale would educe local combus ion- ela ed
Assessing Na ional Ene gy Policies P omo ing Renewables in Wes A ican Ci ies: P og ess, Challenges, and
Recommenda ions
IJMRA, Volume 08 Issue 10 Oc obe 2025 www.ijm a.in Page 5810
ai pollu ion wi h immedia e public-heal h bene i s, lowe g eenhouse-gas emissions, and p o ide a esilien means o mee ing
g owing u ban demand h ough a combina ion o g id- ied and decen alized solu ions (mini-g ids, oo op pho o ol aics, and
p oduc i e-use sola se ices). Empi ical e idence om he egion sugges s ha inc eased enewables consump ion con ibu es
o imp o ed en i onmen al quali y when accompanied by cohe en policy and ins i u ional amewo ks; con e sely, weak policy
signals and go e nance gaps ha e limi ed he en i onmen al gains o enewable ini ia i es in se e al coun ies (Adelaja, 2020)
Despi e abundan enewable po en ial pa icula ly sola and, in some coas al loca ions, wind na ional policy amewo ks
ac oss Wes A ica ha e p oduced une en ou comes. In Nige ia, o example, a subs an ial body o li e a u e highligh s he
pe sis en gul be ween an ambi ious policy landscape (mas e plans, a ge s and incen i es) and he p ac ical eali ies o g id
ins abili y, inancing cons ain s and ins i u ional agmen a ion ha impede la ge-scale enewable deploymen in u ban se ings.
Sola esou ces a e wide sp ead in he coun y a conside ably good po en ial, ne e heless, Nige ia’s sola pho o ol aic (PV)
ins alla ion capaci y could be be e , (Diyoke, Ngwaka& Ugwu, 2023) In Ghana, legal and legisla i e weaknesses desc ibed by
p ac i ione s and commen a o s as symp oms o “policy pa alysis” ha e cons ained he impac o he Renewable Ene gy Ac and
ela ed ins umen s, p oducing slow implemen a ion despi e a o able he o ic and a ge -se ing. (A uguba & Tuokuu, 2020). By
con as , Senegal’s ecen policy ajec o y demons a es how a ge ed e o m, in e na ional pa ne ships and la ge-scale p ojec s
(no ably wind and sola pa ks) can accele a e u ban and na ional enewable capaci y, al hough he poli ics o ansi ion and he
in e play wi h new ossil- uel disco e ies complica e he pa hway o a ully sus ainable u ban ene gy u u e. (Ap el, 2021; A uguba
& Tuokun, 2020)
These con as s poin o he cen al analy ical ques ion o his s udy: how e ec i e a e na ional policies aimed a
p omo ing enewable ene gy in p oducing angible bene i s o u ban a eas in Wes A ica, and wha explains a ia ion in
ou comes be ween coun ies? The p esen esea ch adop s an e alua i e and compa a i e o ien a ion. I s gene al pu pose is o
examine he design, ins umen s and implemen a ion o enewable ene gy policies in selec ed Wes A ican coun ies and o
assess hei impac on u ban ene gy access, eliabili y, economic bu den and en i onmen al quali y. Speci ically, he s udy ocuses
on h ee coun ies ha a e illus a i e o dis inc policy pa hways and u ban ene gy challenges: Nige ia (a la ge, oil-dependen
economy wi h ch onic g id un eliabili y and a lou ishing o -g id ma ke ), Ghana (a coun y wi h de ailed enewable legisla ion
whose implemen a ion eco d e eals go e nance and legisla i e ic ions), and Senegal (a coun y ha has pu sued an ac i e
p og am o la ge enewable p ojec s and in e na ional inancing ins umen s). This selec ion pe mi s a compa a i e in e oga ion
o policy ins umen s ( a i s and eed-in a angemen s, p ocu emen amewo ks, mini-g id egula ion, iscal incen i es and
ins i u ional coo dina ion) and hei p oxima e e ec s on u ban consume s, i ms and municipal en i onmen al ou comes.
(Ozoegwu, Mgbemene, & Ozo , 2017)
A g owing schola ly li e a u e p o ides bo h concep ual and empi ical ancho s o his e alua ion. Policy-o ien ed
analyses iden i y ecu en ba ie s ins i u ional agmen a ion, iscal and cu ency isk, high up on capi al cos s, and limi ed
domes ic inancing and skills ha unde mine policy e ec i eness in many Wes A ican s a es (Adelaja, 2020; Ozoegwu,
Mgbemene & Ozo , 2017). Meanwhile, egion-le el empi ical s udies show ha enewable ene gy consump ion can be associa ed
wi h educ ions in CO₂ and imp o ed en i onmen al quali y, bu hese agg ega e gains o en mask u ban-le el dis ibu ional and
implemen a ion challenges ha de e mine whe he u ban popula ions ac ually bene i . The li e a u e he e o e poin s o he
impo ance o assessing no only policy ex s and a ge s bu also he modali ies o policy deli e y in u ban se ings: p ocu emen
p ac ices, egula o y capaci y, municipal engagemen , and mechanisms o in eg a e decen alized enewable op ions wi h he
exis ing g id (Ozoegwu, Mgbemene & Ozo , 2017)
II. METHODOLOGY
This s udy employs a quali a i e compa a i e policy analysis amewo k o e alua e na ional enewable ene gy policies ac oss
selec ed Wes A ican coun ies and hei speci ic impac s on u ban a eas. The esea ch design is in o med by he Mul iple S eams
F amewo k (MSF) de eloped by Kingdon (2010), which p o ides a s uc u ed app oach o analyzing how policy p oblems,
solu ions, and poli ical condi ions con e ge o c ea e oppo uni ies o policy change. This amewo k is pa icula ly app op ia e
o unde s anding he complex dynamics o enewable ene gy policy adop ion in Wes A ica, whe e apid u baniza ion, ene gy
po e y, and clima e impe a i es in e sec amids e ol ing poli ical landscapes.
The compa a i e app oach enables sys ema ic examina ion o bo h simila i ies and di e ences in policy amewo ks ac oss cases,
acili a ing he iden i ica ion o e ec i e policy mechanisms and implemen a ion challenges speci ic o u ban con ex s. Following
he app oach o compa a i e policy analysis schola s (B ans, Ge a-May, & Howle , 2017), his esea ch examines no only policy
con en bu also he ins i u ional a angemen s, implemen a ion mechanisms, and con ex ual ac o s ha in luence policy
Assessing Na ional Ene gy Policies P omo ing Renewables in Wes A ican Ci ies: P og ess, Challenges, and
Recommenda ions
IJMRA, Volume 08 Issue 10 Oc obe 2025 www.ijm a.in Page 5811
ou comes. The design inco po a es bo h e ical and ho izon al compa ison: e ically by examining na ional policies in ela ion
o u ban implemen a ion, and ho izon ally by compa ing app oaches ac oss di e en na ional con ex s.
The esea ch u ilizes a mul iple case s udy design wi h embedded uni s o analysis (Yin, 2018), examining each coun y's policy
amewo k while also in es iga ing speci ic u ban enewable ene gy p ojec s and ou comes wi hin each na ional con ex . This
app oach allows o comp ehensi e unde s anding o how na ional policies ansla e o u ban se ings while accoun ing o local
con ex ual ac o s. The ime ame o policy analysis spans om 2010 o 2025, cap u ing he pe iod du ing which mos Wes
A ican coun ies de eloped signi ican enewable ene gy policies in esponse o bo h he Pa is Ag eemen and egional ini ia i es
like he ECOWAS Renewable Ene gy Policy (EREP).
The s udy employs a pu posi e sampling s a egy o selec ou Wes A ican coun ies: Nige ia, Ghana, Senegal, and Cô e d'I oi e.
This selec ion ep esen s signi ican a ia ion in policy app oaches, implemen a ion capaci y, enewable ene gy esou ces, and
u ban con ex s, while sha ing common egional cha ac e is ics and challenges. The selec ion c i e ia we e designed o cap u e
bo h la ge and smalle economies, di e en colonial his o ies, a ying le els o enewable ene gy deploymen , and di e se u ban
go e nance s uc u es.
Nige ia is included as A ica's mos populous coun y and la ges economy, wi h signi ican enewable ene gy po en ial bu
subs an ial implemen a ion challenges, pa icula ly in i s apidly g owing ci ies like Lagos and Abuja. Ghana ep esen s a coun y
wi h ela i ely s onge ins i u ional capaci y and ea lie powe sec o e o ms, p o iding insigh s in o mo e es ablished policy
amewo ks. Senegal is selec ed o i s no able p og ess in u ili y-scale enewable p ojec s, including he Taiba N'Diaye wind powe
s a ion (158 MW) and Diass Sola Pa k (15 MW). Cô e d'I oi e o e s a con as ing case as a coun y ha has adi ionally elied
hea ily on hyd opowe and he mal gene a ion bu is inc easingly explo ing sola and o he enewables o mee g owing u ban
demand.
The selec ion ollows a mos -di e en sys ems design (Ancka , 2020), which allows o iden i ying common policy elemen s ha
lead o simila ou comes despi e di e en con ex ual ac o s. This app oach is pa icula ly aluable o unde s anding which policy
mechanisms anscend na ional con ex s o e ec i ely p omo e enewable ene gy in u ban a eas ac oss he egion. The cases also
sha e impo an simila i ies, including membe ship in ECOWAS, exposu e o simila egional ini ia i es like he Wes A ican Powe
Pool (WAPP), and acing common challenges o apid u baniza ion and ene gy access de ici s.
Da a collec ion employed a iangula ion app oach u ilizing mul iple sou ces o ensu e alidi y and comp ehensi eness. The
me hodology inco po a ed bo h documen a y analysis and p ima y da a collec ion h ough s akeholde in e iews, allowing o
c oss- e i ica ion o indings ac oss di e en da a sou ces. The esea ch analyzed an ex ensi e ange o policy documen s and
go e nmen epo s, including:
- Na ional Renewable Ene gy Ac ion Plans (NREAPs) and enewable ene gy policies
- Ene gy sec o mas e plans and s a egic documen s
- Legisla i e and egula o y amewo ks go e ning enewable ene gy
- Go e nmen epo s on ene gy access, gene a ion, and u ban de elopmen
- ECOWAS and Wes A ican Powe Pool (WAPP) policy documen s and implemen a ion epo s
- Na ional and u ban de elopmen plans inco po a ing ene gy dimensions
Addi ional documen a y sou ces included pe o mance da a om ene gy minis ies and egula o y agencies, p ojec epo s om
de elopmen pa ne s (e.g., Wo ld Bank, A ican De elopmen Bank), and moni o ing epo s ela ed o enewable ene gy a ge s
and clima e commi men s (Na ionally De e mined Con ibu ions unde he Pa is Ag eemen ). The documen a y analysis also
inco po a ed ele an academic li e a u e and echnical epo s on enewable ene gy deploymen in u ban Wes A ica. Semi-
s uc u ed in e iews we e conduc ed wi h 42 key s akeholde s ac oss he ou coun ies o complemen documen a y sou ces
and p o ide insigh s in o policy implemen a ion challenges and ou comes. In e iew pa icipan s we e selec ed h ough pu posi e
sampling o ep esen key ins i u ions and pe spec i es, including:
Table 1: S akeholde s In e iew Ca ego ies and Sample Size
S akeholde Ca ego y
Numbe
In e iewed
Selec ion C i e ia
Na ional Policy Make s
10
Senio o icials om ene gy minis ies and egula o y agencies
U ban Go e nmen O icials
8
Ene gy and planning depa men s in majo ci ies
U ili y Rep esen a i es
6
Na ional powe companies and dis ibu ion i ms
Assessing Na ional Ene gy Policies P omo ing Renewables in Wes A ican Ci ies: P og ess, Challenges, and
Recommenda ions
IJMRA, Volume 08 Issue 10 Oc obe 2025 www.ijm a.in Page 5812
Renewable Ene gy
De elope s
9
Companies in ol ed in u ban enewable p ojec s
Ci il Socie y O ganiza ions
5
NGOs ocused on ene gy access and sus ainabili y
In e na ional De elopmen
Pa ne s
4
Wo ld Bank, A DB, and egional ini ia i es
In e iew p o ocols we e ailo ed o each s akeholde ca ego y bu co e ed common hemes including: policy o mula ion
p ocesses, implemen a ion challenges, coo dina ion mechanisms be ween na ional and u ban au ho i ies, inancing mechanisms,
echnical capaci y, and pe cei ed ou comes o enewable ene gy policies. In e iews we e conduc ed be ween Janua y and June
2025, wi h app oxima ely 60% conduc ed in pe son du ing ield isi s and 40% conduc ed i ually o access a b oade ange o
s akeholde s.
Da a analysis ollowed a quali a i e con en analysis app oach (May ing, 2014) combined wi h c oss-case syn hesis (Yin, 2018) o
iden i y pa e ns, hemes, and ela ionships ac oss he cases. The analysis p oceeded in se e al s ages:
Fi s , documen a y analysis employed a s uc u ed coding amewo k based on key policy dimensions de i ed om he heo e ical
amewo k and esea ch ques ions. These dimensions included: policy ins umen s ( egula o y, iscal, in o ma ional), go e nance
a angemen s, inancing mechanisms, implemen a ion capaci y, and moni o ing sys ems. The coding amewo k was i e a i ely
e ined h ough ini ial applica ion o a subse o documen s.
Second, in e iew ansc ip s we e analyzed using hema ic analysis (B aun & Cla ke, 2006), wi h codes bo h de i ed om he
heo e ical amewo k (deduc i e coding) and eme ging om he da a i sel (induc i e coding). NVi o so wa e acili a ed he
o ganiza ion and analysis o quali a i e da a, allowing o iden i ica ion o pa e ns ac oss di e en s akeholde g oups and
coun y con ex s.
Thi d, c oss-case analysis was conduc ed o iden i y simila i ies and di e ences in policy app oaches and ou comes. This in ol ed
c ea ing sys ema ic case summa ies o each coun y o ganized a ound key analy ical ca ego ies, hen compa ing hese summa ies
o iden i y ecu ing pa e ns, di e gen ou comes, and po en ial causal mechanisms linking policy designs o implemen a ion
ou comes. The analysis paid pa icula a en ion o u ban-speci ic dimensions o policy implemen a ion, including: he adap a ion
o na ional policies o u ban con ex s, coo dina ion be ween na ional and u ban au ho i ies, he ole o municipal go e nmen s in
implemen a ion, and he dis inc i e challenges and oppo uni ies p esen ed by u ban se ings (e.g., densi y, exis ing
in as uc u e, go e nance capaci y).
The esea ch adhe ed o s anda d e hical p o ocols o social science esea ch. In o med consen was ob ained om all in e iew
pa icipan s, wi h clea explana ion o he esea ch pu pose, use o da a, and con iden iali y p o ec ions. Pa icipan s we e
in o med o hei igh o wi hd aw consen a any ime wi hou penal y. Con iden iali y was main ained h ough anonymiza ion
o esponses in epo ing, wi h pa icula ly sensi i e in o ma ion excluded om publica ion. The esea ch ecei ed e hical app o al
om he app op ia e ins i u ional e iew boa d. Gi en he ocus on policy analysis a he han human subjec s, he documen a y
analysis componen posed minimal e hical isks beyond s anda d academic in eg i y equi emen s o p ope a ibu ion and
ep esen a ion o sou ces. Posi ionali y was conside ed h oughou he esea ch p ocess, pa icula ly gi en ha he p incipal
esea che is ex e nal o he egion. To mi iga e po en ial biases, he esea ch inco po a ed membe checking by sha ing
p elimina y indings wi h selec ed pa icipan s o e i ica ion, and sough o include di e se pe spec i es ac oss di e en
s akeholde g oups. The analysis explici ly acknowledges he limi a ions o ex e nal pe spec i e while le e aging he po en ial
ad an ages o compa a i e dis ance.
Se e al limi a ions should be acknowledged. Fi s , he a ailabili y and eliabili y o documen a y da a a ied ac oss coun ies, wi h
some ha ing mo e comp ehensi e and accessible eco ds han o he s. This was mi iga ed h ough iangula ion wi h in e iew
da a and seconda y sou ces om in e na ional o ganiza ions. The selec ion o cases necessa ily omi s some Wes A ican coun ies
wi h in e es ing enewable ene gy ini ia i es, such as Cabo Ve de wi h i s high enewable pene a ion o Nige wi h ambi ious
sola plans. The indings a e he e o e no necessa ily ep esen a i e o all Wes A ican con ex s bu p o ide insigh s in o pa e ns
ac oss di e se cases. Howe e , he ocus on na ional policies and u ban implemen a ion may unde emphasize sub-na ional
a ia ions and u al-u ban linkages in ene gy sys ems. Fu u e esea ch could mo e sys ema ically examine in a-u ban di e ences
and connec ions be ween u ban and u al ene gy access.
Finally, he ime ame o he s udy cap u es policies and implemen a ions h ough mid-2025, bu he enewable ene gy landscape
in Wes A ica is e ol ing apidly. Some policies may ha e been upda ed o new ini ia i es launched since da a collec ion was
comple ed. Despi e hese limi a ions, he me hodological app oach p o ides a obus ounda ion o unde s anding he complex
Assessing Na ional Ene gy Policies P omo ing Renewables in Wes A ican Ci ies: P og ess, Challenges, and
Recommenda ions
IJMRA, Volume 08 Issue 10 Oc obe 2025 www.ijm a.in Page 5813
dynamics o enewable ene gy policy implemen a ion in Wes A ican u ban con ex s and gene a ing insigh s ha can in o m bo h
schola ship and policy p ac ice.
III. OVERVIEW OF RENEWABLE ENERGY LANDSCAPE IN WEST AFRICA
The ene gy landscape in Wes A ica p esen s a complex pa adox o abundan enewable esou ces alongside pe sis en ene gy
access challenges and g owing u ban demand. As a egion cha ac e ized by apid u baniza ion, economic de elopmen , and
popula ion g ow h, Wes A ican coun ies ace inc easing p essu e o ans o m hei ene gy sys ems o suppo sus ainable
de elopmen while add essing clima e impe a i es. The cu en ene gy mix emains domina ed by adi ional biomass and ossil
uels, despi e he egion's subs an ial sola , wind, hyd o, and biomass po en ial ha emains la gely un apped. This o e iew
examines he cu en ene gy p o ile, enewable ene gy po en ial, u ban consump ion pa e ns, and he c i ical ole o ci ies in
d i ing he ene gy ansi ion in Wes A ica. Unde s anding hese dynamics is essen ial o o mula ing e ec i e policies and
in es men s ha can ha ness he egion's enewable esou ces o mee i s g owing ene gy needs while con ibu ing o global
clima e goals.
The ene gy composi ion in Wes A ica is cha ac e ized by a hea y eliance on adi ional biomass and inc easing dependence on
ossil uels, alongside a g owing bu insu icien enewable ene gy componen . Acco ding o s a is ical da a, app oxima ely 60%
o he egion's ene gy supply comes om adi ional biomass, p ima ily used o cooking and hea ing in u al and pe i-u ban
households. Fossil uels accoun o abou 30% o he ene gy mix, wi h oil p oduc s domina ing he anspo a ion sec o and
inc easingly used o powe gene a ion in u ban a eas. The emaining 10% comp ises elec ici y, p edominan ly gene a ed om
hyd opowe and he mal sou ces, wi h enewable sou ces like sola and wind ep esen ing less han 2% o he o al ene gy mix.
U ban consump ion pa e ns in Wes A ican ci ies e eal dis inc i e cha ac e is ics shaped by u baniza ion ends, economic
ac i i ies, and in as uc u e de elopmen . Ci ies ac oss he egion exhibi ising elec ici y demand d i en by popula ion g ow h,
economic expansion, and inc easing appliance owne ship. The comme cial and indus ial sec o s in u ban a eas accoun o a
signi ican po ion o elec ici y consump ion, wi h peak demand pa e ns ypically occu ing du ing e ening hou s due o
esiden ial ligh ing needs and comme cial ac i i ies. Unlike u al a eas whe e ene gy access emains limi ed, u ban cen e s
gene ally bene i om highe elec i ica ion a es, hough eliabili y emains a signi ican challenge necessi a ing widesp ead use
o backup gene a o s ha inc ease cos s and pollu ion. The esiden ial ene gy p o ile in Wes A ican ci ies demons a es a
dualis ic pa e n whe e households o en combine g id elec ici y wi h o he sou ces o di e en end-uses. While elec ici y is
p ima ily used o ligh ing, en e ainmen , and cooling, many u ban households con inue o use cha coal, lique ied pe oleum gas
(LPG), o elec ici y o cooking, depending on income le els and uel a ailabili y. This ene gy s acking beha io e lec s bo h
cul u al p e e ences and he un eliable na u e o g id supply, which con inues o impede comple e ansi ion o mode n ene gy
se ices e en in u ban a eas wi h g id in as uc u e.
Table 2: Cu en Ene gy Mix in Wes A ica
Ene gy Sou ce
Pe cen age o To al
Ene gy Mix
P ima y Applica ions
T adi ional Biomass
60%
Residen ial cooking and hea ing
Hyd opowe
30%
T anspo a ion, powe gene a ion, indus y
Hyd opowe
5%
G id elec ici y gene a ion
O he Renewables (sola ,
wind)
2%
G id injec ion, o -g id applica ions
Impo ed Elec ici y
3%
C oss-bo de powe ade
Sou ce: Adap ed om Regional Ene gy S a is ics (2025)
Renewable Ene gy Po en ial in Wes A ica
Wes A ica possesses subs an ial enewable ene gy esou ces ha emain signi ican ly unde u ilized despi e hei po en ial o
add ess he egion's ene gy challenges. The egion's sola ene gy po en ial is pa icula ly ema kable, wi h mos a eas ecei ing
be ween 3-7 kWh/m²/day o sola i adia ion, among he highes le els globally. This sola abundance ansla es in o echnical
po en ial a exceeding cu en and p ojec ed ene gy demand, wi h p ojec ions sugges ing ha sola PV alone could gene a e
be ween 8-20 GW by 2030 unde app op ia e policy condi ions. Coun ies like Nige ia, Ghana, and Senegal ha e begun apping
Assessing Na ional Ene gy Policies P omo ing Renewables in Wes A ican Ci ies: P og ess, Challenges, and
Recommenda ions
IJMRA, Volume 08 Issue 10 Oc obe 2025 www.ijm a.in Page 5814
in o his po en ial h ough u ili y-scale sola p ojec s and dis ibu ed gene a ion sys ems, hough deploymen emains well below
echnical capaci y.
The egion's wind ene gy esou ces a e also conside able, especially along coas al a eas and in ce ain inland egions whe e wind
speeds exceed 5-7 m/s a hub heigh . Coun ies like Cabo Ve de and Senegal ha e demons a ed he iabili y o wind powe
h ough p ojec s like he 158.7 MW Taiba N'Diaye wind a m he la ges in Wes A ica. Hyd opowe po en ial emains signi ican
hough une enly dis ibu ed, wi h coun ies like Guinea, Nige ia, and Ghana possessing subs an ial un apped capaci y beyond
exis ing ins alla ions such as he Akosombo and Bui dams. Addi ionally, biomass esou ces om ag icul u al esidues, municipal
was e, and dedica ed ene gy c ops o e conside able po en ial o bioene gy gene a ion, pa icula ly in coun ies wi h signi ican
ag icul u al sec o s like Nige ia, Cô e d'I oi e, and Ghana.
The geo he mal ene gy po en ial in Wes A ica is less p onounced han in Eas e n A ica bu emains unexplo ed in se e al
geological o ma ions, pa icula ly along he Man Shield egion s e ching om Guinea o Nige ia. Despi e his di e se enewable
esou ce base, de elopmen has been hampe ed by echnical cons ain s, inancing challenges, and policy implemen a ion gaps
ha ha e limi ed he egion o u ilizing only a ac ion o i s clean ene gy po en ial. As Eyime and Ushie (2025) no e, "A ica holds
60 pe cen o he wo ld's sola po en ial, ye a ac s less han 3 pe cen o global ene gy inancing”, highligh ing he signi ican
in es men gap ha mus be add essed o ha ness hese esou ces ully.
U ban Ene gy Demand T ends
Wes A ican ci ies a e expe iencing apidly inc easing ene gy demand d i en by mul iple in e ela ed ac o s including
u baniza ion, popula ion g ow h, economic de elopmen , and changing consump ion pa e ns. The egion's u ban popula ion is
g owing a app oxima ely 3-4% annually, among he highes a es globally, wi h ci ies expec ed o house o e 50% o he
popula ion by 2040. This demog aphic ansi ion is accompanied by ising incomes and expanding middle classes wi h g ea e
pu chasing powe o elec ical appliances, cooling sys ems, and mobili y se ices, u he accele a ing ene gy consump ion. The
compound annual g ow h a e o elec ici y demand in Wes A ican u ban cen e s is es ima ed a 5-7%, signi ican ly highe han
he global a e age o 2-3%.
The sec o al dis ibu ion o u ban ene gy demand e eals impo an pa e ns ha in o m ene gy planning p io i ies. The
esiden ial sec o accoun s o app oxima ely 40-50% o u ban elec ici y consump ion, ollowed by he comme cial sec o (25-
35%), indus ial ac i i ies (15-25%), and public se ices (5-10%). This dis ibu ion a ies signi ican ly ac oss ci ies depending on
hei economic s uc u e, wi h indus ial hubs showing highe p opo ional demand om manu ac u ing ac i i ies. The empo al
pa e n o elec ici y demand in Wes A ican ci ies ypically exhibi s mo ning and e ening peaks co esponding o comme cial
opening hou s and esiden ial ligh ing needs, c ea ing challenges o g id managemen especially gi en he limi ed lexibili y o
exis ing gene a ion asse s.
A c i ical end in u ban ene gy demand is he inc easing anspo a ion ene gy consump ion esul ing om g owing ehicle
owne ship and u ban sp awl. Mos Wes A ican ci ies a e cha ac e ized by low-densi y de elopmen and inadequa e public
anspo a ion sys ems, leading o hea y eliance on p i a e ehicles and in o mal anspo se ices ha p edominan ly use
pe oleum p oduc s. This pa e n no only inc eases ene gy demand bu also con ibu es signi ican ly o u ban ai pollu ion and
conges ion. As no ed in he IISD's "Ci ies in T ansi ion" epo , "Reducing emissions will ake mo e han building ou enewables
i will equi e an o e all educ ion in ene gy demand h ough hough ul edesign o neighbo hoods", highligh ing he impo ance
o in eg a ed u ban planning alongside ene gy sec o in e en ions. Wes A ican ci ies play a pi o al ole in d i ing he ene gy
ansi ion due o hei concen a ion o ene gy demand, economic ac i i y, inno a ion capaci y, and policy implemen a ion
capabili ies.
As cen e s o consump ion and emissions, ci ies ep esen he on line whe e ene gy ansi ions mus mani es o achie e
meaning ul impac . Municipal go e nmen s inc easingly exe cise in luence o e ene gy ou comes h ough u ban planning
decisions, building codes, anspo a ion sys ems, and municipal ene gy p ocu emen . The compac na u e o u ban a eas also
p o ides oppo uni ies o implemen ing e icien dis ic ene gy sys ems, in eg a ed enewable ene gy p ojec s, and demand-
side managemen p og ams ha may be less easible in u al se ings. Ci ies ac oss Wes A ica a e demons a ing inno a i e
app oaches o ad ancing enewable ene gy adop ion and sus ainable ene gy planning. Fo example, Acc a, Ghana, has
inco po a ed sola PV equi emen s o ce ain new buildings and is explo ing was e- o-ene gy p ojec s o add ess bo h ene gy
and sani a ion challenges. Daka , Senegal, is implemen ing ene gy e iciency measu es in public ligh ing and municipal buildings
while de eloping u ili y-scale enewable p ojec s o di e si y i s gene a ion mix. Lagos, Nige ia, despi e i s massi e size and
complex ene gy challenges, is pionee ing in eg a ed ene gy planning ha conside s bo h o mal and in o mal se lemen s. These
Assessing Na ional Ene gy Policies P omo ing Renewables in Wes A ican Ci ies: P og ess, Challenges, and
Recommenda ions
IJMRA, Volume 08 Issue 10 Oc obe 2025 www.ijm a.in Page 5815
municipal ini ia i es complemen na ional ene gy policies and o en se e as es ing g ounds o inno a i e app oaches ha can
be scaled egionally.
The mul ile el go e nance o ene gy ansi ions equi es e ec i e coo dina ion be ween na ional and u ban au ho i ies o align
policies, egula ions, and in es men s. While na ional go e nmen s ypically con ol o e a ching ene gy policy, u ili y egula ion,
and la ge-scale in as uc u e p ojec s, municipal go e nmen s in luence ene gy ou comes h ough land-use planning, building
s anda ds, anspo a ion sys ems, and local economic de elopmen policies. As no ed in he assessmen o u ili y e o ms,
"s uc u al ba ie s in u ban planning including NIMBY opposi ion, ou da ed go e nance models, and he high cos o sp awl a e
holding ci ies back om building mo e sus ainable, clima e-aligned communi ies", highligh ing he need o coo dina ed
go e nance app oaches. The inancing o u ban ene gy ansi ions emains a signi ican challenge, wi h municipali ies o en lacking
he iscal capaci y and echnical expe ise o de elop and implemen comp ehensi e ene gy s a egies. In e na ional pa ne ships
and clima e inance mechanisms inc easingly a ge ci ies as implemen ing pa ne s o low-ca bon p ojec s, hough access
emains cons ained by capaci y limi a ions and bu eauc a ic hu dles. As he Economic Commission o A ica no es, "A ica isn'
jus asking o help, i 's o e ing answe s. Ene gy isn' jus a public good. I 's a d i e o jobs, indus y, and ans o ma ion",
emphasizing he de elopmen al co-bene i s ha u ban ene gy ansi ions can deli e beyond clima e mi iga ion.
IV. ANALYSIS OF NATIONAL ENERGY POLICIES
Na ional policies ac oss Wes A ica exhibi a mix u e o ambi ion and une en implemen a ion when i comes o p omo ing
enewable ene gy; a close eading o he policy ex s and implemen a ion eco d in Nige ia, Ghana, Senegal and Cô e d’I oi e
e eals pa e ns ha a e bo h ins uc i e and cau iona y o u ban ene gy ansi ions. In each coun y, na ionally a icula ed
a ge s and egula o y ins umen s coexis wi h ins i u ional bo lenecks, inancing cons ain s and echnical challenges ha shape
how enewables each o ail o each u ban consume s. The ollowing analysis examines he p incipal na ional ins umen s and
he salien implemen a ion gaps ha de e mine u ban ele ance and impac (Mgbemene, & Ozo , 2017).
Nige ia’s Na ional Renewable Ene gy and Ene gy E iciency Policy (NREEEP) se s a o mal amewo k o di e si ying he gene a ion
mix, ad ancing ene gy e iciency, and mobilizing o -g id solu ions o inc ease access in unde se ed communi ies. The policy
a icula es a ange o objec i es om expanding enewable deploymen o bo h on-g id and o -g id con ex s o es ablishing
inancing amewo ks and incen i es and i explici ly links enewable deploymen o u al elec i ica ion p io i ies. Ye , despi e
o mal a icula ion, NREEEP’s ansla ion in o scaled u ban impac has been cons ained by egula o y agmen a ion, weak
en o cemen capaci y, and he p ac ical eali ies o an ageing and un eliable ansmission and dis ibu ion sys em (Fede al
Republic o Nige ia, 2015; Ozoegwu, Mgbemene, & Ozo , 2017). In pa icula , egula o y o e sigh by he Nige ian Elec ici y
Regula o y Commission (NERC) has yielded impo an ins umen s mos no ably mini-g id egula ions and amewo ks o go e n
dis ibu ed gene a ion bu he en o cemen and ha moniza ion o hese ins umen s ac oss ede al, s a e and u ili y ac o s ha e
been inconsis en , limi ing p edic abili y o in es o s and slowing u ban g id- ied enewable in eg a ion (NREEEP; NERC mini-g id
egula ions). Mo eo e , na ional u al elec i ica ion p og ammes, implemen ed h ough bodies such as he Ru al Elec i ica ion
Agency, while ocused on ex ending access, ha e a imes p i ileged con en ional g id ex ension s a egies ha a e slow and
capi al-in ensi e, lea ing pe i-u ban and in o mal u ban se lemen s elian on p i a e diesel gene a ion o small o -g id supplie s.
These dynamics p oduce a pa adox: Nige ia’s policy a chi ec u e ecognizes dis ibu ed enewables and mini-g ids as key ools,
ye sys emic ins i u ional and iscal ba ie s p e en hose ools om deli e ing eliable, a o dable u ban ene gy a scale
(Ozoegwu e al., 2017).
Ghana’s expe ience demons a es how ela i ely s ong s a u o y commi men s can none heless yield mixed ou comes when
implemen a ion modali ies a e weak. The Renewable Ene gy Ac (Ac 832, 2011) es ablished an enabling legal amewo k by
manda ing he c ea ion o a Feed-in Ta i (FiT) egime, speci ying oles o egula o y agencies, and se ing enewable-gene a ion
a ge s in ended o accele a e up ake (Go e nmen o Ghana, 2011). In Acc a and o he u ban cen es, policy incen i es combined
wi h p i a e-sec o ac i i y and in e na ional de elopmen inance ha e suppo ed nascen oo op sola ma ke s and a g owing
pipeline o u ili y-scale p ojec s. Empi ical s udies using policy and deploymen da a sugges ha egula o y cla i y con ibu ed o
ea ly ma ke o ma ion o sola echnologies and s imula ed local en ep eneu ship (e.g., sola leasing and pay-as-you-go
models). None heless, Ghana’s case highligh s pe sis en bo lenecks: he calib a ion o FiTs has a imes ailed o p o ide
consis en p ice signals, g id-in eg a ion cons ain s and limi ed coo dina ion be ween he Public U ili ies Regula o y Commission
and dis ibu ion companies ha e complica ed in e connec ion, and iscal isks ha e discou aged la ge-scale in es men wi hou
concessional inance (A uguba & Tuokuu, 2020). Consequen ly, while Acc a has seen demons able sola up ake among
comme cial and high-income esiden ial cus ome s, scaling dis ibu ed enewables in low-income neighbou hoods and ansla ing
policy ins umen s in o b oade u ban esilience emains a cen al challenge (A uguba & Tuokuu, 2020).
Assessing Na ional Ene gy Policies P omo ing Renewables in Wes A ican Ci ies: P og ess, Challenges, and
Recommenda ions
IJMRA, Volume 08 Issue 10 Oc obe 2025 www.ijm a.in Page 5816
Senegal p o ides an ins uc i e example o policy cohe ence linked o a na ional de elopmen s a egy. The Plan Sénégal Éme gen
(PSE) places ene gy sec o de elopmen a he co e o economic mode niza ion, and he go e nmen has ac i ely pu sued u ili y-
scale sola and wind p ojec s alongside a ge ed e o ms o SENELEC, he incumben u ili y, o acili a e in eg a ion o enewables
(Plan Senegal Eme gen ; IEA, 2023). Recen yea s ha e seen no able p ojec ou comes om g id-connec ed sola pa ks o
inc emen al wind capaci y and SENELEC’s planning o Daka and pe i-u ban a eas has included explici in eg a ion o dis ibu ed
sola o imp o e supply secu i y and educe eliance on impo ed hea y uel oil. Howe e , Senegal’s pa hway also illus a es ade-
o s: inancing la ge p ojec s has depended hea ily on in e na ional pa ne ships and concessional capi al, and he simul aneous
p io i iza ion o gas- o-powe as a ansi ional uel complica es long- e m deca boniza ion ajec o ies. G id-in eg a ion challenges
and he need o s eng hened ma ke ins i u ions and anspa ency also pe sis , pa icula ly as u ban demand ises and
in e mi ency managemen becomes a p essing ope a ional issue o SENELEC in Daka and su ounding ci ies (Ap el, 2022).
Cô e d’I oi e’s 2014 legisla i e e o ms including he Elec ici y Code and complemen a y ins umen s aimed a encou aging
p i a e sec o pa icipa ion and enewable in es men ha e c ea ed an enabling in es men amewo k ha aligns wi h na ional
ambi ions o expanding enewable capaci y and mee ing as -g owing u ban demand in ci ies such as Abidjan (Law No. 2014-132;
Wo ld Bank coun y no es). The I o ian ajec o y has placed emphasis on la ge hyd o whe e geog aphically possible, while also
opening space o sola and biomass solu ions. No ably, p i a e concessions and public–p i a e pa ne ships ha e suppo ed he
de elopmen o signi ican biomass p ojec s, including palm- esidue- ed plan s concei ed o supply u ban g ids and indus ial
loads in Abidjan. These p ojec s demons a e he po en ial o u ban- ocused enewables o con ibu e o baseload and
dispa chable capaci y, bu hei success depends on anspa en p ocu emen , long- e m o ake a angemen s, and echnical
capaci y o ope a ion and main enance. Al hough he egula o y e o m has ca alyzed in es o in e es , implemen a ion
challenges emain: local con en de elopmen , g id ein o cemen in dense u ban co ido s, and he en i onmen al go e nance
o la ge biomass supply chains equi e ongoing policy a en ion o ensu e sus ainabili y and equi able u ban bene i s (Kouadio e
al., 2021).
Ac oss hese ou na ional cases, se e al c oss-cu ing obse a ions eme ge. Fi s , s a u o y ambi ion (laws, ac s and mas e plans)
is a necessa y bu insu icien condi ion o u ban enewable impac s; ins i u ional capaci y, egula o y p edic abili y, and inancing
mechanisms a e he p oxima e de e minan s o implemen a ion success. Second, he u ban implica ions o na ional policies
depend hea ily on how policies add ess dis ibu ed gene a ion, in e connec ion p ocedu es, and pe i-u ban inclusion: coun ies
ha adop clea mini-g id and dis ibu ed-gene a ion egula ions and ha couple hem wi h concessional inance and municipal
engagemen a e be e posi ioned o ansla e na ional a ge s in o u ban esilience. Thi d, in e na ional inance and echnical
coope a ion ha e been pi o al in ca alyzing ini ial p ojec pipelines, bu hey canno subs i u e o s eng hened domes ic policy
execu ion and ma ke e o ms ha educe pe cei ed so e eign and cu ency isk. Finally, he coexis ence o ansi ion s a egies
ha con inue o ely on gas o o he ossil uels alongside enewable commi men s unde sco es he poli ical economy ade-o s
ha will shape u ban deca boniza ion pa hways.
V. KEY FINDINGS
Wes A ican na ions ha e es ablished obus legal amewo ks a egional and na ional le els o p omo e enewable ene gy (RE)
de elopmen . The Economic Communi y o Wes A ican S a es (ECOWAS) Renewable Ene gy Policy (EREP) se s ambi ious a ge s,
including inc easing he sha e o enewable ene gy in he egional elec ici y mix o 48% by 2030. Coun ies like Nige ia, Ghana,
and Senegal ha e aligned na ional policies wi h hese goals, implemen ing ins umen s such as eed-in a i s, ax incen i es, and
egula o y guidelines o a ac p i a e in es men . These amewo ks a e bols e ed by g owing in e na ional in es men in e es ,
exempli ied by he Wo ld Bank's commi men o o e $1.1 billion o egional ene gy p ojec s, such as he No h Co e
In e connec o and he CLSG (Cô e d’I oi e-Libe ia-Sie a Leone-Guinea) ansmission line, which has acili a ed c oss-bo de
elec ici y ade and expanded access o enewable ene gy o millions . Addi ionally, ini ia i es like he A ican De elopmen
Bank’s Sus ainable Ene gy Fund o A ica (SEFA) and Dese o Powe p og am demons a e mul ila e al e o s o de- isk
in es men s and suppo RE in as uc u e.
WEAKNESSES AND IMPLIMENTATION BARRIERS
Despi e hese s eng hs, policies o en lack e ec i e ci y-le el implemen a ion s a egies. Na ional amewo ks equen ly ail o
add ess u ban-speci ic challenges, such as dense popula ion zones, in o mal se lemen s, and municipal go e nance cons ain s.
Fo ins ance, while ECOWAS a ge s a e egionally cohe en , u ban municipali ies o en lack he iscal decen aliza ion, echnical
capaci y, and legisla i e manda es o execu e localized RE p ojec s. Financing ba ie s u he impede p og ess, as u ban RE
p ojec s ace high up on cos s, limi ed access o concessional loans, and cu ency isks. A ican coun ies pay signi ican ly highe
Assessing Na ional Ene gy Policies P omo ing Renewables in Wes A ican Ci ies: P og ess, Challenges, and
Recommenda ions
IJMRA, Volume 08 Issue 10 Oc obe 2025 www.ijm a.in Page 5817
in e es a es han de eloped na ions o simila p ojec s, inc easing capi al cos s and de e ing p i a e in es men . Addi ionally,
limi ed g id in eg a ion emains a c i ical hu dle. Aging in as uc u e canno e icien ly handle a iable enewable inpu s, leading
o cu ailmen issues and eliabili y conce ns. Fo example, g id losses in some Wes A ican coun ies exceed 40%, unde mining
he economic iabili y o RE in es men s.
Gaps in U ban-Speci ic Ta ge s and En o cemen
A signi ican gap lies in he absence o u ban-speci ic enewable ene gy a ge s and en o cemen mechanisms. Na ional policies
p io i ize u ili y-scale p ojec s and u al elec i ica ion, o e looking he unique demands o apidly g owing ci ies. Fo ins ance,
al hough coun ies like Nige ia and Ghana ha e se na ional enewable ene gy a ge s, hese a e a ely b oken down in o
en o ceable u ban benchma ks, such as manda es o sola oo ops, building-in eg a ed enewables, o decen alized mini-g ids
in pe i-u ban a eas. Mo eo e , egula o y bodies o en lack he au ho i y o manda e municipal compliance, esul ing in
agmen ed implemen a ion. The weak ins i u ional capaci y o ci y go e nmen s u he exace ba es his issue, as municipali ies
s uggle wi h pe mi ing delays, echnical expe ise sho ages, and inadequa e e enue s eams o sus ain enewable ene gy
ini ia i es. Finally, he e is a no able disconnec be ween na ional clima e commi men s (e.g., Na ionally De e mined
Con ibu ions) and u ban planning amewo ks. While 45 A ican coun ies ha e adop ed quan i ied RE a ge s unde he Pa is
Ag eemen , ew ha e in eg a ed hese in o ci y-le el mas e plans o zoning egula ions.
The assessmen o enewable ene gy policy a he u ban scale e eals a complex in e play o s eng hs, weaknesses, and pe sis en
gaps ha shape he ajec o y o sus ainable ene gy ansi ions. One o he mos no able s eng hs is he p esence o legal
amewo ks ha p o ide legi imacy and s uc u e o enewable ene gy de elopmen . Legal and egula o y ins umen s, such as
enewable ene gy ac s, eed-in a i s, and na ional elec i ica ion plans, c ea e s abili y o in es o s and es ablish en o ceable
igh s o access o he g id. Fo ins ance, Jacobson and Laube (2006) emphasized ha he ins i u ionaliza ion o enewable ene gy
policies h ough legal amewo ks in Ge many p o ided a solid ounda ion o scaling up wind and sola powe , demons a ing
ha egula o y ce ain y is a p econdi ion o ma ke con idence. Simila ly, del Río and Mi -A igues (2012) a gued ha
comp ehensi e laws se e no only o s imula e in es men bu also o c ea e a p edic able ajec o y o long- e m
deca boniza ion. This indica es ha he codi ica ion o enewable ene gy in o law emains one o he s onges pilla s o policy
e ec i eness.
Ano he signi ican s eng h lies in he g owing in es men in e es in enewables, bo h om domes ic and in e na ional ac o s.
Acco ding o Polzin, Migend , Täube, and on Flo ow (2015), he s eady expansion o inancial commi men s in o enewable
p ojec s is s ongly linked o he design o enabling policies such as subsidies, ax incen i es, and public–p i a e pa ne ships.
U ban a eas, in pa icula , ha e a ac ed in es o s due o hei concen a ed ene gy demand and isibili y as showcases o
inno a ion. Schola s such as Zhang and Gallaghe (2016) no e ha in es men in e es is ein o ced by global clima e
commi men s, which compel bo h go e nmen s and p i a e capi al ma ke s o iew enewable ene gy no me ely as an
en i onmen al good bu also as a s a egic economic sec o . Thus, he alignmen be ween legal ce ain y and inancial appe i e
cons i u es a c i ical s eng h o con empo a y enewable ene gy policy. Ne e heless, signi ican weaknesses unde mine he
e ec i eness o hese policy amewo ks a he ci y le el. A majo challenge is he lack o localized implemen a ion s a egies.
While na ional go e nmen s may a icula e ambi ious enewable ene gy a ge s, ci ies o en s uggle o ansla e hese in o
ac ionable plans due o limi ed echnical capaci y and go e nance agmen a ion (Bulkeley, Cas án B o o, & Edwa ds, 2015). This
disconnec c ea es an implemen a ion gap, whe e local au ho i ies lack he esou ces o egula o y au ho i y o deli e on highe -
le el commi men s. Wi hou cohe en ci y-le el s a egies, enewable ene gy deploymen isks emaining aspi a ional a he han
ans o ma i e.
Financing ba ie s also emain a c i ical weakness. Despi e g owing global in es men , many u ban enewable p ojec s ace
di icul y accessing a o dable inance due o high up on cos s, long payback pe iods, and he pe cei ed isks associa ed wi h
new echnologies. As So acool, Axsen, and So ell (2018) a gued, inancing ba ie s a e pa icula ly acu e in de eloping economies,
whe e municipal go e nmen s o en lack he c edi wo hiness o a ac long- e m p i a e in es men . These cons ain s inhibi
no only la ge-scale in as uc u e p ojec s bu also smalle dis ibu ed sys ems such as sola mini-g ids, which a e essen ial o
u ban esilience. Closely linked o inancing a e he pe sis en issues o limi ed g id in eg a ion. Exis ing elec ici y g ids in many
coun ies we e designed o cen alized ossil- uel gene a ion and emain ill-sui ed o he in e mi en na u e o enewable ene gy.
Ochoa and Ha ison (2011) demons a ed ha insu icien g id lexibili y and ou da ed egula o y amewo ks ac as bo lenecks
o he in eg a ion o enewable powe in u ban se ings. Wi hou signi ican in es men in sma g ids and s o age echnologies,
enewable expansion isks c ea ing ins abili y in supply and unde mining consume con idence.
