D5.2 Strategies to balance and distribute value in open data ecosystems

Towa ds a sus ainable Open Da a ECOsys em
D5.2
S a egies o balance and dis ibu e alue in open da a
ecosys ems
This p ojec has ecei ed unding om he Eu opean Unionʼs Ho izon 2020 esea ch and inno a ion
p og amme unde he Ma ie Skłodowska-Cu ie g an ag eemen No 955569.
The opinions exp essed in his documen e lec only he au ho ʼs iew and in no way e lec he
Eu opean Commissionʼs opinions. The Eu opean Commission is no esponsible o any use ha may be
made o he in o ma ion i con ains.
D5.2 S a egies o balance and dis ibu e alue in open da a ecosys ems
P ojec Ac onym
ODECO
P ojec Ti le
Towa ds a sus ainable Open Da a ECOsys em
G an Ag eemen No.
955569
S a da e o P ojec
01-10-2021
Du a ion o he P ojec
48 mon hs
Deli e able Numbe
D5.2
Deli e able Ti le
S a egies o balance and dis ibu e alue in
open da a ecosys ems
Dissemina ion Le el
Public
Deli e able Leade
KU LEUVEN
Submission Da e
13-02-2025
Au ho
Sil ia Cazacu (KUL), Ramya Chand asekha
(CNRS), Ca e ina San o o (KUL)
, Ash a
Shaha udin (TU Del ), Héc o Ochoa O iz
(UNICAM), Ma ía Elena López Reyes (AAU),
Glenn Vancauwenbe ghe (KUL)
Co-au ho (s)
N/A
Documen his o y
Ve sion
#
Da e
Desc ip ion (Sec ion, page
numbe )
Au ho & O ganisa ion
V0.1
04-10-2024
ToC and app oach
Glenn Vancauwenbe ghe (KUL)
V0.2
11-10-2024
In oduc ion
Glenn Vancauwenbe ghe (KUL)
V0.3
25-10-2024
Chap e on inancial alue
Ash a Shaha udin (TU Del ),
Héc o Ochoa O iz (UNICAM)
V0.4
25-10-2024
Chap e s on concep ualizing
alue in ODECO and on inclusi e
pe spec i e on alue in ODE
Sil ia Cazacu (KUL)
V0.5
25-10-2024
Chap e on con lic ing alues in
ODEs and legal pa hways o
add ess hem
Ramya Chand asekha (CNRS),
Ca e ina San o o (KUL)
V0.6
28-10-2024
Chap e on social (use) alue
Ma ía Elena López Reyes (AAU)
V0.7
04-11-2024
Fi s d a , eady o e iew
Glenn Vancauwenbe ghe (KUL),
Sil ia Cazacu (KUL)
V0.7a
20-11-2024
Re iewed e sion
Melanie Dulong de Rosnay (CNRS),
Anneke Zuide wijk (TU Del )
V0.8
27-11-2024
Second d a , eady o e iew
Glenn Vancauwenbe ghe (KUL),
Sil ia Cazacu (KUL)
V0.8b
08-01-2025
Re iewed e sion
Melanie Dulong de Rosnay (CNRS),
Anneke Zuide wijk (TU Del ),
Bas iaan an Loenen (TU Del )
V0.9
14-02-2025
Final d a
Glenn Vancauwenbe ghe (KUL),
Sil ia Cazacu (KUL), Ash a
Shaha udin (TU Del ), Héc o
Ochoa O iz (UNICAM), Ma ía
Elena López Reyes (AAU), Ramya
Chand asekha (CNRS), Ca e ina
San o o (KUL)
V0.9
13-02-2025
App o al
Bas iaan an Loenen, (TUD)
V1.0
13-02-2025
Final edi ing
Dani sja an Heusden, (TUD)
D5.2 S a egies o balance and dis ibu e alue in open da a ecosys ems
Table o Con en s
Abb e ia ions ..................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Execu i e summa y .......................................................................................................................................................... 7
1 In oduc ion ............................................................................................................................................................... 8
1.1 Aim and scope o he deli e able ........................................................................................................ 8
1.2 Role o his deli e able in he ODECO p ojec ................................................................................ 8
1.3 S uc u e o he deli e able .................................................................................................................... 9
2 Concep ualizing alue in he ODECO p ojec ............................................................................................11
2.1 In oduc ion ................................................................................................................................................11
2.2 Closing he cycle: Unde s anding po en ial con ibu ions o open go e nmen da a
use s o he open da a ecosys em ......................................................................................................................11
2.3 Closing he cycle: P omo ing open da a use s' con ibu ion om a echnical pe spec i e
11
2.4 Mo i a ions o non-go e nmen ac o s o become ac i e con ibu o s o he open da a
ecosys em .....................................................................................................................................................................12
2.5 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................................13
3 An inclusi e pe spec i e on alue in open da a ecosys ems ...............................................................14
3.1 In oduc ion ................................................................................................................................................14
3.2 Mul iple iews on alue in open da a ecosys ems......................................................................14
3.3 Oppo uni ies and challenges in open da a ecosys em design ............................................17
3.4 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................................19
4 Financial alue in open da a ecosys ems .....................................................................................................20
4.1 In oduc ion ................................................................................................................................................20
4.2 How di e en ac o s p o ide and cap u e inancial alue .......................................................20
4.2.1 Go e nmen agencies .......................................................................................................................24
4.2.2 Companies .............................................................................................................................................24
4.2.3 Non-p o i o ganisa ions .................................................................................................................25
4.2.4 Ci izens ....................................................................................................................................................25
4.3 Discussion ...................................................................................................................................................26
4.4 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................................27
5 Social (use) alue in open da a ecosys ems ...............................................................................................28
5.1 In oduc ion ................................................................................................................................................28
5.2 The concep o social alue ..................................................................................................................28
5.3 Resea ch me hodology ..........................................................................................................................29
5.4 Dynamics in luencing social alue dis ibu ion ............................................................................29
5.5 Pu pose-d i en app oaches in open da a ecosys ems .............................................................30
5.6 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................................31
6 Explo ing con lic ing alues in ODEs and legal pa hways o add ess hem ..................................32
D5.2 S a egies o balance and dis ibu e alue in open da a ecosys ems
6.1 In oduc ion ................................................................................................................................................32
6.2 Resea ch me hodology ..........................................................................................................................33
6.3 A c i ical e iew o con lic ing alues in open da a ecosys ems ............................................33
6.4 F om con lic ing alues o legal and go e nance pa hways ha accoun o c i icali ies
34
6.5 Some concep ual legal a enues o ien ed owa ds da a jus ice ............................................35
6.6 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................................36
7 Conclusion: Balancing and Dis ibu ing Value in Open Da a Ecosys ems ......................................38
7.1 Concep ualizing alue: A mul i ace ed app oach ........................................................................38
7.2 Towa ds a balanced ecosys em: some ecommenda ions .......................................................38
7.3 Concluding ema ks ................................................................................................................................39
8 Re e ences ................................................................................................................................................................41
Lis o ables
Table 1: Means o p o iding and cap u ing inancial alue o di e en ac o s in di e en oles
............................................................................................................................................................................................24
D5.2 S a egies o balance and dis ibu e alue in open da a ecosys ems
5
Abb e ia ions
AI A i icial In elligence
AIoT A i icial In elligence o Things
API Applica ion P og amming In e ace
CARE Collec i e Bene i , Au ho i y o Con ol, Responsibili y, E hics
D Deli e able
ECHR Eu opean Cou o Human Righ s
ESR Ea ly S age Resea che
EU Eu opean Union
FAIR Findable, Accessible, In e ope able and Reusable
HOT Humani a ian OpenS ee Map Team
HRDAG Human Righ s Da a Analysis G oup
IATI In e na ional Aid T anspa ency Ini ia i e
ODE Open Da a Ecosys em
OGD Open Go e nmen Da a
OGP Open Go e nmen Pa ne ship
OSM OpenS ee Map
OSMF OpenS ee Map Founda ion
NGO Non-Go e nmen al O ganisa ion
NPO Non-P o i O ganisa ion
SDK So wa e De elopmen Ki
SME Small and Medium-sized En e p ises
N
Pa ne
Pa ne sho
name
Coun y
Bene icia y
1
Technische Uni e si ei Del
TU Del
Ne he lands
2
Ka holieke Uni e si ei Leu en
KUL
Belgium
3
Cen e Na ional de la Reche che Scien i ique
CNRS
F ance
4
Uni e sidad de Za agoza
UNIZAR
Spain
5
Panepis imio Aigaiou
UAEGEAN
G eece
6
Aalbo g Uni e si e
AAU
Denma k
7
Uni e si à degli S udi di Came ino
UNICAM
I aly
8
Fa osne S.A.
FAROSNET S.A.
G eece
Pa ne o ganisa ions
1
7eDa a
7EDATA
Spain
2
Digi aal Vlaande en
DV
Belgium
3
Ci y o Copenhagen
COP
Denma k
4
Ci y o Ro e dam
RDAM
Ne he lands
5
CoC Play ul Minds
CoC
Denma k
6
De ilinx
DERI
I eland
7
ESRI
ESRI
Ne he lands
8
Maggioli S.p.A
MAG
I aly
9
Na ional Cen e o Geog aphic In o ma ion
CNIG
Spain
10
Open Knowledge Belgium
OKB
Belgium
11
SWECO
SWECO
Ne he lands
12
The go e nmen lab
GLAB
Uni ed S a es o Ame ica
13
Agency o Da a Supply and In as uc u e
ADSI
Denma k
14
GFOSS Open Technologies Alliance
GFOSS
G eece

D5.2 S a egies o balance and dis ibu e alue in open da a ecosys ems
6
15
Inno3 Consul ing
IC
F ance
16
Regione Ma che
RM
I aly
17
Open Da a Ins i u e
ODI
Uni ed Kingdom
18
Swedish Na ional A chi es
SwNA
Sweden
D5.2 S a egies o balance and dis ibu e alue in open da a ecosys ems
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Execu i e summa y
This ask explo es how di e en open da a alues in e ac wi h each o he and how open da a
alues may be balanced o a i e a a sus ainable open da a ecosys em in which alue c ea ion
and alue cap u e p ocesses a e op imal. Fo his, we i s explo e open da a ecosys em alues,
highligh ing hei mul i ace ed na u e and e ealing bo h oppo uni ies and ensions in dealing
wi h alues in he con ex o open da a ecosys ems. Th oughou di e en chap e s, his deli e able
unpacks a ious dimensions o alue - concep ual, inancial, social, and legal, he eby b inging
cla i y o he in e ac ions, in e dependencies, and con lic s be ween hese dimensions.
The deli e able emphasizes he cen ali y o ‘ alueʼ in open da a ecosys ems, aming i as no
me ely economic bu encompassing social, e hical, and unc ional dimensions. The shi om
unidi ec ional models o alue gene a ion (da a elease by go e nmen s) o ci cula models o co-
c ea ion has unde sco ed he need o inclusi i y and mu ual in e dependence. These
concep ualiza ions o eg ounded he challenges o de ining and measu ing alues when mul iple
s akeholde s—go e nmen agencies, p i a e companies, Non-Go e nmen al O ganisa ion
(NGOs), and ci izens—pa icipa e wi h di e se mo i a ions and capaci ies.
In a dedica ed chap e on inancial alue, he epo del es in o he mone iza ion po en ial wi hin
open da a ecosys ems (ODEs), explo ing how ac o s cap u e and p o ide inancial alue. This
chap e e eals a ‘da a di ideʼ, i.e. s a inequali ies be ween ac o s which unde mine he b oade
objec i e o equi able alue dis ibu ion. A chap e on he social alue o open da a ecosys ems
emphasizes ha he u ili y o open da a ex ends beyond inancial me ics. The chap e a gues o
a ‘pu pose-d i enʼ app oach o open da a ini ia i es, aligning hem wi h speci ic social goals and
alues a he han me ely inc easing da a a ailabili y.
Finally, he deli e able explo es he inhe en con lic s be ween di e en ypes o alue in ODEs,
pa icula ly be ween e iciency, equi y, and p i acy. These con lic s o en s em om powe
asymme ies, whe e dominan ac o s p io i ize hei goals—such as p o i gene a ion o
ope a ional e iciency—o e b oade socie al bene i s. Legal and go e nance pa hways a e
p oposed o add ess hese ensions be ween alues.
The main conclusion o he deli e able is ha he o e a ching challenges o open da a
ecosys ems lie in balancing di e se and o en con lic ing alues while ensu ing hei sus ainabili y.
These con lic s o en a ise because di e en s akeholde s, such as go e nmen s, p i a e
companies, NGOs, and ci izens, p io i ize alues like anspa ency, p o i abili y, p i acy, o equi y
di e en ly, leading o ensions in decision-making and esou ce alloca ion. Fo example, while
businesses may emphasize inno a ion and economic gains, ci il socie y may ad oca e o social
jus ice and inclusi i y, c ea ing ade-o s ha a e di icul o econcile. Pu pose-d i en da a
ini ia i es, go e nance e o m, capaci y building, inno a i e incen i es, and con inuous esea ch
and collabo a ions can be impo an componen s in add essing his challenge.
D5.2 S a egies o balance and dis ibu e alue in open da a ecosys ems
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1 In oduc ion
1.1 Aim and scope o he deli e able
An open da a ecosys em can be de ined as a use -d i en, cyclical, c oss-bo de , c oss-sec o , and
inclusi e en i onmen o ien ed a ound agen s ha a e mu ually in e dependen in he c ea ion
and deli e y o alue om open da a (Van Loenen e al, 2021). Value, alue c ea ion and alue
deli e y a e key concep s in his de ini ion, as well as in many o he de ini ions and
concep ualiza ions o (open) da a ecosys ems. Acco ding o Oli ei a and Loscio (2018) he concep
o da a ecosys ems i sel e en sugges s a speci ic pe spec i e ha emphasizes da a-d i en alue
(co-)c ea ion as he sha ed goal among all ac o s. I is o en a gued ha (open) da a ecosys ems
should be desc ibed as a se o in e connec ed ac o s ha sha e and join ly c ea e alue om da a
(Jacobides e al., 2018, Palmié e al., 2022).
While he e is his g owing body o li e a u e ha ecognizes he impo ance o he concep o
alue in open da a ecosys ems (e.g. Oli ei a and Loscio, 2018; Jacobides e al, 2018), a sys ema ic
unde s anding o he mechanisms and p ocesses o alue c ea ion and sha ing in open da a
ecosys ems is s ill lacking. This deli e able aims o add ess his unde s anding by add essing he
ollowing wo main ques ions:
1. Wha ypes o alue a e p io i ized in open da a ecosys ems and how do di e en ypes o
alue in e ac wi h each o he ?
2. Wha s a egies can be employed o design open da a ecosys ems ha balance alues while
ensu ing inclusi e and sus ainable alue dis ibu ion?
Th ough hese ques ions, he deli e able di ec ly suppo s he objec i e o de eloping s a egies
o balance and dis ibu e alue in open da a ecosys ems. By explo ing he in e ac ions, con lic s,
and mechanisms o alue c ea ion and sha ing, he deli e able p o ides ac ionable insigh s in o
designing go e nance amewo ks, inclusi e p ocesses, and collabo a i e ini ia i es ha can
ensu e equi able and sus ainable alue dis ibu ion among di e se s akeholde s. These s a egies
aim o add ess powe imbalances, p omo e inclusi i y, and os e a pu pose-d i en app oach ha
aligns wi h he o e a ching goals o open da a ecosys ems.
1.2 Role o his deli e able in he ODECO p ojec
This deli e able is one o he h ee deli e ables p epa ed unde he ODECO wo k package on
de eloping a sus ainable open da a ecosys em, which aims o use he indings om p e ious
ODECO ac i i ies and ou pu s o design comp ehensi e s a egies o a sus ainable open da a
ecosys em.
• Deli e able 5.1 aims o design and e iew di e en models o alloca ing oles, asks and
esou ces in open da a ecosys ems.
• Deli e able 5.2 ocuses on s a egies o balancing and dis ibu ing alue in a sus ainable open
da a ecosys em.
• Deli e able 5.3 aims o de elop an o e a ching sus ainable amewo k/s a egy o a i e a a
use -d i en, ci cula and inclusi e open da a ecosys em.
This deli e able builds upon h ee p e ious ODECO deli e ables dealing wi h he alue o open
da a ecosys ems. These deli e ables a e:
• The deli e able on ‘Unde s anding po en ial con ibu ions o open go e nmen da a use s o
he open da a ecosys emʼ (Deli e able 3.1), which de ined i e ca ego ies o alues in he open
da a ecosys em: knowledge en ichmen , in o med decision-making, s akeholde engagemen
(collabo a ion), anspa ency and accoun abili y and se ice enhancemen (e iciency).
• The deli e able on ‘P omo ing open da a use s' con ibu ion om a echnical pe spec i eʼ
(Deli e able 3.2) which explo ed a ious s a egies o enhance ci cula i y in open da a po als
D5.2 S a egies o balance and dis ibu e alue in open da a ecosys ems
9
• The deli e able on ‘Mo i a ions o Non-Go e nmen Ac o s o Become Ac i e Con ibu o s o
he Open Da a Ecosys emʼ (Deli e able 4.1) which iden i ied and analysed mo i a ions o
di e en ypes o da a holde s o ac i ely con ibu e o open da a ecosys ems.
In he nex chap e o his deli e able, we p o ide a sho summa y o hese h ee deli e ables,
and how hey de ine and concep ualize alue in open da a ecosys ems. In addi ion o hese h ee
deli e ables, alue also is a cen al concep in he – indi idual and join – esea ch p ojec s o
se e al o he ODECO Ea ly S age Resea che s (ESRs). In his deli e able we will he e o e look in o
he esea ch and esea ch indings o se e al o he ODECO ESRs on alue in open da a
ecosys ems. In he esea ch on ‘Disen angling Da a Ecosys ems: Explo ing Da a Physicalisa ion
Tools o C i icali yʼ, Sil ia Cazacu (KU Leu en) de eloped a c i ical unde s anding o alues in da a
ecosys ems., highligh ing he complexi ies o alue in e ac ions and con lic s wi hin hese
en i onmen s, di ec ly add essing he ques ion:
Wha ypes o alue a e p io i ized in open da a
ecosys ems, and in wha ways do hese alues in e ac o con lic wi h one ano he ?
Ma ía Elena López Reyes (AAU) looked in o he use o Open Go e nmen Da a o Social Value
C ea ion in he esea ch on ‘Maximising he use o local go e nmen open (geo)da aʼ, o e ing
insigh s in o he mechanisms o c ea ing and sha ing social alue, he eby con ibu ing o he
ques ion:
Wha s a egies can be employed o design open da a ecosys ems ha balance
compe ing alues while ensu ing inclusi e and sus ainable alue dis ibu ion?
The inancial alue o open da a is cen al in he esea ch o Ash a Shaha udin (TU Del ) on
business models o open da a in e media ies o sus ainable open da a ecosys ems and add essed
in se e al esea ch ac i i ies o Héc o Ochoa O iz (UNICAM). Toge he , hei wo k sheds ligh on
how alue is c ea ed, cap u ed, and edis ibu ed ac oss s akeholde s, also add essing he second
esea ch ques ion.
Meanwhile, he esea ch o Ramya Chand asekha (CNRS) ocuses on Open Licensing o Non-
Go e nmen Da a, while Ca e ina San o o (KU Leu en) in es iga es he equi able use o (open)
da a in/by he public sec o o esol e alue- ela ed ensions, add essing he c i ical ques ion:
Wha s a egies can be employed o design open da a ecosys ems ha balance compe ing alues
while ensu ing inclusi e and sus ainable alue dis ibu ion?
Fo his deli e able, Ramya and Ca e ina collabo a ed o explo e con lic ing alues in open da a
ecosys ems and app oaches o add ess hem, p o iding ac ionable insigh s in o go e nance and
legal pa hways ha suppo balancing and edis ibu ing alue.
1.3 S uc u e o he deli e able
This deli e able is s uc u ed as ollows. A e his in oduc o y chap e , Chap e 2 examines
de ini ions and concep ualiza ions o he alue concep , as discussed in h ee p e ious ODECO
deli e ables. By syn hesizing ea lie insigh s on alue ca ego ies and hei dynamics, his chap e
p ima ily add esses he ques ion R1:
Wha ypes o alue a e p io i ized in open da a ecosys ems
and how do di e en ypes o alue in e ac wi h each o he
?
Chap e 3 in es iga es how alue is de ined and unde s ood in cu en esea ch on open da a
ecosys ems h ough a li e a u e e iew. By p o iding a comp ehensi e o e iew o heo e ical
amewo ks and empi ical indings, his chap e con ibu es o answe ing bo h R1:
Wha ypes o
alue a e p io i ized in open da a ecosys ems and how do di e en ypes o alue in e ac wi h
each o he ?
and R2:
Wha s a egies can be employed o design open da a ecosys ems ha
balance alues while ensu ing inclusi e and sus ainable alue dis ibu ion?
D5.2 S a egies o balance and dis ibu e alue in open da a ecosys ems
16
and co-c ea e alue. These ools educe ic ion and enable inno a ion by p o iding s anda dized
in e aces ha make da a mo e accessible and in e ope able ac oss di e en sys ems.
Au io (2019) in oduces he concep o "gene a i i y," whe e open pla o ms enable inno a ion
beyond hei o iginal scope. This gene a i e capaci y is a key ea u e o ODEs, allowing new ac o s
o en e he ecosys em and c ea e alue by combining exis ing da a and echnologies in no el
ways. The dynamic na u e o his p ocess makes ODEs pa icula ly sui ed o os e ing inno a ion
ac oss mul iple sec o s, om heal hca e o u ban planning.
A a d e al. (2016) and Azkan (2022) emphasize he impo ance o da a euse in d i ing alue
c ea ion. Da a in ODEs is no a ini e esou ce; ins ead, i s alue inc eases wi h each ins ance o
euse, as new applica ions and insigh s a e gene a ed. This i e a i e p ocess o da a euse and
alue gene a ion highligh s he unique po en ial o open da a ecosys ems o os e long- e m
inno a ion.
Too ajipou e al. (2024) explo e how AIoT enhances he gene a i e po en ial o ODEs by
au oma ing da a collec ion, analysis, and decision-making p ocesses. AIoT sys ems enable eal-
ime da a p ocessing, allowing businesses o op imize ope a ions and c ea e mo e pe sonalized
and adap i e se ices. This echnological ad ancemen adds a new laye o he gene a i e capaci y
o ODEs, enabling as e and mo e e icien inno a ion.
Fang (2023) and Ga cia (2019) poin ou ha while da a euse o e s signi ican po en ial o alue
c ea ion, many ODEs lack e ec i e mechanisms o ack and quan i y he alue gene a ed h ough
euse. This eedback gap can limi he sus ainabili y o alue c ea ion, as da a p o ide s may be
unawa e o he impac hei da a has, educing hei incen i es o con inue con ibu ing o he
ecosys em.
Who bene i s om alue c ea ion?
The ques ion o who bene i s om alue c ea ion in ODEs is a ecu ing heme ac oss he li e a u e.
Kapoo (2018) and Hein (2019) a gue ha pla o m owne s and la ge co po a ions o en cap u e
he majo i y o he alue gene a ed in ODEs. These ac o s con ol he da a in as uc u es and
bounda y esou ces ha acili a e alue c ea ion, gi ing hem a disp opo iona e ad an age o e
smalle playe s, such as non-p o i s and indi idual use s.
Micheli e al. (2020) and A ena e al. (2021) c i ique his unequal dis ibu ion o alue, a guing ha
ODEs o en eplica e exis ing powe s uc u es, whe e la ge ac o s bene i disp opo iona ely
while smalle ac o s s uggle o cap u e simila alue. These a icles call o mo e inclusi e
go e nance models ha ensu e equi able access o da a and esou ces, enabling a b oade ange
o s akeholde s o pa icipa e in alue c ea ion.
So i and Seppänen (2021) o e a mo e op imis ic iew, a guing ha alue in ODEs can be co-
c ea ed h ough collabo a i e p ocesses ha in ol e mul iple s akeholde s. By aligning hei goals
and esou ces, ac o s wi hin an ecosys em can de elop alue p oposi ions ha bene i he en i e
ecosys em, a he han jus a ew powe ul playe s. This app oach emphasizes he impo ance o
collec i e ac ion in ensu ing ha alue is sha ed equi ably ac oss di e en sec o s and ac o s.
Too ajipou e al. (2024) ocus on how businesses can cap u e alue h ough AIoT-d i en da a
ecosys ems. They a gue ha companies ha can in eg a e AIoT echnologies in o hei ope a ions
will be be e posi ioned o gene a e and cap u e alue. Howe e , hey also acknowledge ha
smalle ac o s may ace challenges in adop ing hese echnologies, po en ially leading o u he
inequali ies in alue cap u e.

D5.2 S a egies o balance and dis ibu e alue in open da a ecosys ems
17
3.3 Oppo uni ies and challenges in open da a ecosys em design
Go e nance: decen aliza ion s. powe asymme ies
Decen alized go e nance o e s a p omising pa hway o make ODEs mo e inclusi e and equi able.
Micheli e al. (2020) and A ena e al. (2021) a gue ha decen alized models, such as da a
coope a i es o public da a us s, enable a wide ange o s akeholde s—ci izens, non-p o i s,
local go e nmen s, and businesses— o pa icipa e in decision-making. These decen alized
s uc u es align wi h he p inciples o ODEs by dis ibu ing go e nance and con ol o e da a
esou ces mi iga e he isk o monopoliza ion by la ge co po a ions o pla o m owne s,
add essing he powe imbalances highligh ed by Micheli e al. (2020) and Kapoo (2018).
So i and Seppänen (2021) highligh how co-c ea ion o ecosys em-le el alue p oposi ions
os e s collabo a ion and ensu es ha alue is sha ed mo e equi ably. In he con ex o ODEs,
"equi able" e e s o ensu ing ha all s akeholde s, ega dless o size o powe , ha e ai access o
da a esou ces and oppo uni ies o pa icipa e in alue c ea ion. This means ha smalle ac o s,
such as local communi ies o non-p o i s, a e no ma ginalized by la ge co po a ions o pla o m
owne s, and ha he bene i s gene a ed om da a a e dis ibu ed in a way ha add esses
inequali ies, suppo s di e se con ibu ions, and p omo es collec i e well-being a he han
concen a ing alue in he hands o a ew dominan playe s (Sch age & Wes , 2020).
Howe e , decen alized go e nance mus o e come exis ing powe imbalances. Micheli e al.
(2020) and Kapoo (2018) wa n ha la ge co po a ions and pla o m owne s o en domina e da a
ecosys ems. La ge co po a ions like Google, Amazon, and Mic oso o en con ol key esou ces
such as cloud in as uc u e, and da a p ocessing echnologies. This cen alized con ol limi s
access o smalle ac o s and skews he dis ibu ion o alue, hinde ing equi able pa icipa ion in
he ecosys em.
This concen a ion o powe can ma ginalize smalle ac o s, p e en ing hem om ully
pa icipa ing o bene i ing. Hein (2019) echoes his conce n, no ing ha pla o m owne s o en
dic a e he e ms o alue c ea ion, hus limi ing inclusi i y. To add ess his, ODEs mus design
go e nance amewo ks ha p e en monopoliza ion by powe ul en i ies and ensu e ha smalle
playe s ha e a oice and access o he ecosys emʼs bene i s.
Go e nance amewo ks like mul i-s akeholde models can heo e ically ensu e inclusi e
pa icipa ion in open da a ecosys ems (ODEs), bu in p ac ice, hey o en s uggle o engage
smalle playe s meaning ully, as he p ocess can s ill be domina ed by mo e powe ul ac o s
(Beng sson & Rydell, 2018). While da a coope a i es o e po en ial o collec i e ba gaining, hei
success depends on he willingness and abili y o smalle ac o s o commi ime and esou ces,
which is no always easible, pa icula ly o hose wi h limi ed capaci y (O'Neil, 2021). Simila ly,
da a us s a e designed o p o ec he in e es s o smalle en i ies, bu in eali y, hey may s ill
ace challenges in ensu ing equi able decision-making when la ge en i ies hold signi ican powe
(Tene & Polone sky, 2018). The Open Go e nmen Pa ne ship (OGP) p omo es anspa ency, ye
i s e ec i eness in genuinely gi ing smalle ac o s a oice is o en limi ed by bu eauc a ic hu dles
and unequal access o decision-making p ocesses (Be o e al., 2010). Finally, open da a pla o ms
can p o ide an a enue o inpu , bu hei eliance on digi al engagemen may exclude hose
wi hou he ime, esou ces, o echnical skills o pa icipa e meaning ully (Janssen & Kuk, 2016).
Inno a ion and gene a i i y s. s anda diza ion and in e ope abili y
Open pla o ms ha os e gene a i i y p esen signi ican oppo uni ies o con inuous
inno a ion. Au io (2019) and Hein (2019) a gue ha bounda y esou ces like APIs enable di e se
ac o s o collabo a e and c ea e new applica ions, ools, and se ices. This gene a i e capaci y
allows o he dynamic ecombina ion o da a, d i ing inno a ion ac oss sec o s. Too ajipou e al.
(2024) u he highligh ha AIoT echnologies can ampli y his by enabling eal- ime, au oma ed
D5.2 S a egies o balance and dis ibu e alue in open da a ecosys ems
18
da a p ocessing, hus c ea ing new business oppo uni ies in indus ies like heal hca e and
logis ics. Howe e , ensu ing ha hese pla o ms a e in e ope able and s anda dized emains a
majo hu dle. Gelhaa (2021) and Fang (2023) emphasize ha wi hou common da a s anda ds
and o ma s, collabo a ion be ween di e en ac o s becomes di icul , limi ing he po en ial o
c oss-sec o al inno a ion. DʼHauwe s e al. (2022) show ha in sma ci y p ojec s, incompa ible
da a o ma s o en p e en e ec i e collabo a ion be ween di e en depa men s and
s akeholde s. Fo ODEs o ully ealize hei inno a ion po en ial, he e mus be conce ed e o s
o de elop open s anda ds and p o ocols ha acili a e seamless da a sha ing and in e ope abili y
ac oss pla o ms and sec o s.
Social and en i onmen al alue s. esou ce dispa i ies
In line wi h Bouckae s and C omp oe s' (2011) amewo k, ODEs mus in eg a e a a ie y o
go e nance ins umen s o suppo smalle ac o s and ensu e hei ac i e pa icipa ion. By
employing capaci y-building ins umen s, such as aining p og ams and echnical suppo , ODEs
can equip smalle playe s wi h he necessa y skills o engage e ec i ely. Addi ionally, incen i es
like subsidies o sha ed in as uc u e can lowe en y ba ie s, while collabo a i e ins umen s
help os e pa ne ships and co-c ea ion, ensu ing a mo e inclusi e and equi able go e nance
s uc u e ha bene i s all s akeholde s in he ecosys em.
T us and collabo a ion s. p i acy and secu i y conce ns
T us is a co ne s one o success ul ODEs, os e ing collabo a ion and da a sha ing. A ena e al.
(2021) and Gelhaa (2021) highligh he impo ance o building us among pa icipan s o
encou age openness and coope a ion. When us is es ablished, ac o s a e mo e likely o sha e
da a and collabo a e on inno a i e p ojec s. So i and Seppänen (2021) also a gue ha anspa en
go e nance models, whe e da a use is clea ly communica ed, can s eng hen us and long- e m
engagemen in he ecosys em.
Howe e , us is easily unde mined by conce ns o e da a p i acy and secu i y. Too ajipou e al.
(2024) poin ou ha AIoT sys ems, while enhancing da a-d i en inno a ion, in oduce new isks
ela ed o eal- ime da a collec ion, especially in sensi i e domains like heal hca e and sma ci ies.
Wi hou obus p i acy amewo ks and clea go e nance s uc u es, pa icipan s may hesi a e o
sha e da a, ea ing misuse o b eaches. Micheli e al. (2020) emphasize ha go e nance models
mus include clea guidelines o da a p i acy and e hical use o main ain us wi hin ODEs.
E en hough ODEs may no always in ol e pe sonal da a, us conce ns can s ill a ise due o he
na u e o he da a being sha ed, i s po en ial use, and he isks o unin ended consequences. Fo
example, e en non-pe sonal da a can be sensi i e when agg ega ed o used in ways ha migh
lead o p i acy iola ions o he misuse o in o ma ion. In cases like sma ci y da a o
en i onmen al da a, he sha ing o open da a could s ill pose isks ela ed o i s po en ial e-
iden i ica ion, misuse, o unin ended exploi a ion (e.g., h ough AI models o hi d-pa y
in eg a ions) (Sweeney, 2000; Tene & Polone sky, 2013). The e o e, he p inciples o da a p i acy
and e hical go e nance a e s ill c i ical in open da a ecosys ems o main ain us among
pa icipan s, pa icula ly in sensi i e o high-s akes sec o s, like public heal h, u ban planning, and
esea ch (Too ajipou e al., 2024; Micheli e al., 2020).
Long- e m sus ainabili y s. da a main enance cos s
The ecu ing na u e o alue in ODEs, whe e da a can be eused mul iple imes o gene a e new
insigh s and applica ions, o e s long- e m sus ainabili y po en ial. A a d e al. (2016) and Azkan
(2022) emphasize ha unlike ini e esou ces, da a can con inuously gene a e alue as i is applied
in new con ex s. This c ea es oppo uni ies o inno a ion and alue c ea ion ha ex end well
beyond he ini ial da a collec ion. Howe e , sus aining his alue equi es con inuous in es men
in da a main enance and quali y assu ance. Fang (2023) and Ga cia (2019) highligh ha da a
D5.2 S a egies o balance and dis ibu e alue in open da a ecosys ems
19
quali y, upda ing, and cu a ion demand signi ican esou ces, which can be di icul o sus ain o e
ime. Many ODEs ely on olun a y con ibu ions om da a p o ide s, bu wi hou p ope
incen i es o eedback mechanisms ha show how da a is eused and wha alue i gene a es,
p o ide s may become disengaged (Van De Aals e al., 2020). Ensu ing he sus ainabili y o ODEs
equi es obus s a egies o main aining da a quali y and incen i izing ongoing con ibu ions
om da a p o ide s and/o use s.
3.4 Conclusion
This chap e add esses he goal o explo ing he componen s o alue c ea ion, he a ious aspec s
o alue, and how bene i s a e dis ibu ed wi hin open da a ecosys ems (ODEs) by e iewing he
di e se ac o s ha in luence alue gene a ion in hese ecosys ems. I examines he economic,
social, and echnological d i e s o alue, highligh ing how da a euse, inno a ion, and
collabo a ion con ibu e o alue c ea ion. Addi ionally, he chap e discusses he challenges ha
a ec equi able alue dis ibu ion, including powe imbalances, go e nance issues, and
echnological ba ie s. Th ough his analysis, he chap e illus a es how alue in ODEs is no only
gene a ed h ough di ec economic ou comes bu also h ough social and e hical conside a ions,
such as anspa ency, accoun abili y, and pa icipa ion. Finally, i unde sco es he need o
go e nance amewo ks ha can ensu e ha he bene i s o ODEs a e sha ed equi ably among all
pa icipan s.
The li e a u e on open da a ecosys ems (ODEs) e eals a complex landscape whe e alue c ea ion
is d i en by di e se economic, social, and echnological ac o s. Ac oss he 22 a icles e iewed,
he e is ag eemen ha ODEs hold signi ican po en ial o inno a ion and public bene i ,
pa icula ly h ough da a euse, collabo a ion, and pla o m-based gene a i i y. Economic alue
c ea ion, as emphasized in much o he esea ch, e ol es a ound op imizing da a lows, os e ing
inno a ion, and cap u ing alue h ough s a egic alliances and echnological ad ancemen s like
AIoT. A he same ime, se e al schola s a gue o b oade concep ions o alue ha encompass
social and e hical dimensions, including anspa ency, accoun abili y, and equi able pa icipa ion.
Howe e , alongside hese oppo uni ies a e conside able challenges. Go e nance issues,
pa icula ly powe imbalances and con ol o e da a esou ces by dominan ac o s, emain a
pe sis en ba ie o equi able alue dis ibu ion in ODEs. Technological ba ie s, such as he lack
o s anda diza ion and in e ope abili y, also limi he po en ial o collabo a ion and inno a ion
ac oss sec o s. Addi ionally, building us among ecosys em pa icipan s, pa icula ly a ound da a
p i acy and secu i y, is a c i ical conce n ha mus be add essed o ensu e sus ained collabo a ion
and pa icipa ion.
The long- e m sus ainabili y o ODEs u he hinges on con inuous in es men in da a quali y and
main enance, as well as he abili y o p o ide smalle ac o s wi h he esou ces needed o engage
meaning ully in he ecosys em. While he gene a i e po en ial o open pla o ms is clea , he abili y
o main ain and g ow hese ecosys ems in a way ha bene i s all pa icipan s equally is a om
gua an eed.
O e all, he u u e o open da a ecosys ems will depend on how e ec i ely hese challenges a e
managed. The design o go e nance amewo ks ha add ess powe asymme ies, ensu e
in e ope abili y, and build us will be c ucial in de e mining whe he ODEs can deli e on hei
p omises o inno a ion and public alue. As such, he p ospec s o ODEs a e nei he gua an eed
no en i ely op imis ic, bu con ingen on he ca e ul balancing o compe ing in e es s and he
esolu ion o signi ican s uc u al challenges.
D5.2 S a egies o balance and dis ibu e alue in open da a ecosys ems
20
4 Financial alue in open da a ecosys ems
4.1 In oduc ion
In his chap e , we will ake a close look a inancial alue in he open da a ecosys em. While
economic alue is o en (mis)unde s ood as inancial alue, he o me has a b oade meaning in
he economic ield. Fo example, classical economis s such as Adam Smi h, Da id Rica do, and
Ka l Ma x discussed economic alue in e ms o he amoun o wo k and labou pu in o p oducing
some hing (Mazzuca o, 2020). The neoclassical economis s such as Al ed Ma shall hen measu e
alue o hings in e ms o hei use ulness o he consume and, in u n, how much hey a e willing
o pay o hem; hence, a shi om an objec i e measu e (i.e., how much labou is pu in o
p oduc ion) o a subjec i e measu e. Since hen, while p ice (i.e., mone a y e ms) has o en been
he indica o o economic alue, i is s ill no he only ep esen a ion. Economis s o en conside
di ec e sus indi ec use alue and ma ke e sus non-ma ke alues in hei economic modelling
and analysis, especially when hey in ol e aspec s ha a e no easily measu ed, such as
en i onmen al (Pea ce, 2001), cul u al (Angelini & Cas ellani, 2019), and social (Pos elnicu &
He mes, 2018) aspec s.
The e o e, his chap e ocuses na owly on inancial alue (i.e., dolla o eu o e ms) since
economic alue, a b oade e m, could also include public and social alues, which a e co e ed in
o he sec ions o his deli e able. As no ed by (Welle Donke & an Loenen, 2016), much esea ch
has been done on he bene i s o open da a, bu li le a en ion has been gi en o he mone a y
aspec s. Ne e heless, in p ac ice, money plays a c ucial ole o ac o s in he open da a ecosys em.
Fo example, wi hou sus ained unding, open da a p o ide s may be unable o p o ide open da a
ee o cha ge. Wi hou he inancial e u n expec ed om open da a ini ia i es (e.g., cos sa ings),
some companies may no conside in es ing sus ainably in hem (al hough o he s may conside
socie al goals ha a e no ied o inancial alue).
4.2 How di e en ac o s p o ide and cap u e inancial alue
Ac o s in an open da a ecosys em (e.g., go e nmen agencies, companies, non-p o i
o ganisa ions, and ci izens) a e no wedded o any pa icula ole (e.g., open da a unde , p o ide ,
in e media y, end-use ) (Oli ei a & Lóscio, 2018). In o he wo ds, hey can play mul iple oles a
he same ime o di e en oles in di e en con ex s. The e o e, o ha e a sys ema ic o e iew o
how di e en ac o s p o ide and cap u e inancial alue in he open da a ecosys em, we should
especially conside he a ious oles hey can play.
Table 1 shows how di e en ac o s p o ide and cap u e inancial alue h ough di e en oles.
D5.2 S a egies o balance and dis ibu e alue in open da a ecosys ems
21
Table 1: Means o p o iding and cap u ing inancial alue o di e en ac o s in di e en oles
Type o
ac o
Role
Means o p o iding
inancial alue
Means o cap u ing inancial
alue
Sou ces
Go e nmen
agencies
as a unde
•
Budge alloca ion ( ia
na ional easu y) o
open da a p o ide s
•
Tax e enue om economic
ac i i ies enabled o spu ed by
open da a
(Eu opean Commission, 2000; Ons ud, 1992; Vicke y,
2011; Welle Donke & an Loenen, 2016)
as an open
da a
p o ide
• Cos sa ings o open
da a use s
• Budge alloca ion ( ia na ional
easu y)
• Non-open da a o alue-added
p oduc s and se ices
• T ansac ion cos s sa ing
(Ha og e al., 2014; Janssen e al., 2012; Welle
Donke & an Loenen, 2016)
as an open
da a
in e media y
• Cos sa ings o open
da a use s and p o ide s
• Budge alloca ion (by na ional
easu y)
• Non-open da a o alue-added
p oduc s and se ices
(Ha og e al., 2014; Janssen e al., 2012; Welle
Donke & an Loenen, 2016)
as an open
da a end-
use
•
Tax e enue om
economic ac i i ies
enabled o spu ed by
open da a
•
Cos sa ing by no ha ing o
nego ia e and/o pu chase o
collec da a
• P o i s om p oduc s and
se ices based on open da a
(Ha og e al., 2014; Janssen e al., 2012)
Companies
as a unde
•
Dona ion o olun a y
con ibu ion o open da a
ini ia i es
• P ojec -based unding o
open da a ini ia i es
•
Cos sa ing by le e aging he
open da a ini ia i es hey
inancially sponso ed
• Tax deduc ion h ough
dona ion o olun a y
con ibu ion o open da a
ini ia i es
(OSM Founda ion, n.d.; O e u e Maps Founda ion,
2024; Wikimedia Founda ion, n.d.)

D5.2 S a egies o balance and dis ibu e alue in open da a ecosys ems
22
Type o
ac o
Role
Means o p o iding
inancial alue
Means o cap u ing inancial
alue
Sou ces
as an open
da a
p o ide
•
Cos sa ings o open
da a use s
•
Cos sa ing by le e aging
c owdsou ced open da a
p ojec s ha hey also
con ibu ed da a o
(OSM Founda ion, n.d.; O e u e Maps Founda ion,
2024)
as an open
da a
in e media y
•
Tax e enue om
economic ac i i ies
enabled o spu ed by
open da a
•
P o i s om p oduc s and
se ices based on open da a
(Eu opean Commission, 2000; Ons ud, 1992; Vicke y,
2011; Welle Donke & an Loenen, 2016)
as an open
da a end-
use
•
Tax e enue om
economic ac i i ies
enabled o spu ed by
open da a
•
Cos sa ing by no ha ing o
pu chase o collec da a
• P o i s om p oduc s and
se ices based on open da a
(Eu opean Commission, 2000; Ons ud, 1992; Vicke y,
2011; Welle Donke & an Loenen, 2016)
Non-p o i
o ganisa ions
as a unde
•
Dona ion o olun a y
con ibu ion o open da a
ini ia i es
•
Cos sa ing by le e aging he
open da a ini ia i es hey
inancially sponso ed
(HOT, 2024; OSM Founda ion, n.d.; O e u e Maps
Founda ion, 2024; Wikimedia Founda ion, n.d.)
as an open
da a
p o ide
•
Cos sa ings o open
da a use s
•
Cos sa ing by le e aging
c owdsou ced open da a
p ojec s ha hey also
con ibu ed da a o
• Dona ion o olun a y
con ibu ion
(HOT, 2024; O e u e Maps Founda ion, 2024)
as an open
da a
in e media y
• Cos sa ings o open
da a use s
• Dona ion o olun a y
con ibu ion
(HOT, 2024; O e u e Maps Founda ion, 2024)
as an open
da a end-
use
•
Cos sa ings by no ha ing o
pu chase o collec da a
(Janssen e al., 2012)
D5.2 S a egies o balance and dis ibu e alue in open da a ecosys ems
23
Type o
ac o
Role
Means o p o iding
inancial alue
Means o cap u ing inancial
alue
Sou ces
Ci izens
as a unde
•
Dona ion o olun a y
con ibu ion o open da a
ini ia i es
•
Tax deduc ion h ough
dona ion o olun a y
con ibu ion o open da a
ini ia i es
(OSM Founda ion, n.d.; Wikimedia Founda ion, n.d.)
as an open
da a
p o ide
•
Volun ee ing in open
da a c owdsou cing
p ojec s
(OSM Founda ion, 2024)
as an open
da a end-
use
•
Cos sa ing by no ha ing o
pu chase o collec da a
(Janssen e al., 2012)
D5.2 S a egies o balance and dis ibu e alue in open da a ecosys ems
24
4.2.1 Go e nmen agencies
The go e nmen easu y o en p o ides ull o pa ial unding o go e nmen open da a
p o ide s. A common expec a ion is ha he easu y will be able o egain inancial alue ia ax
e enue om he economic ac i i y and employmen enabled o enhanced by open da a
(Eu opean Commission, 2000; Ons ud, 1992; Vicke y, 2011; Welle Donke & an Loenen, 2016).
Ne e heless, a ew a iables a e a play (Welle Donke , 2018). Fi s , he economic gains by
companies h ough open da a a e no necessa ily ansla ed in o inc eased axable income. Fo
example, open da a may esul in an o e all echnological shi in a sec o , and a company does
no gain any compe i i e ad an age o e he o he s simply by using open da a because (almos )
e e yone else does so oo. Second, companies ha use open da a p o ided by go e nmen
agencies could be based ou side hose agenciesʼ ax ju isdic ion. Thi d, e en i open da a om
go e nmen agencies led o inc eased ax e enue, i is di icul o quan i y he addi ional e enue
and de e mine how much i co e s he cos s o p o iding open da a. Addi ionally, how much open
da a p o ide s should be compensa ed based on his addi ional e enue is also elian on poli ical
decisions. Some open da a p o ide s among go e nmen agencies co e he cos s o p o iding
open da a h ough non-open da a o alue-added p oduc s and se ices hey p o ide. Fo
example, he Du ch Na ional T anspo Agency (RDW) o e s gene al ehicle and pa king da a as
open da a. RDW bea s he cos o p o iding hose open da a om he e enue i gains om
ehicle egis a ion cha ges and annual ehicle es s. The agency also ob ains income by o e ing
ee-based web se ices (including nea eal- ime and addi ional his o ical da a) (Welle Donke &
an Loenen, 2016). Addi ionally, by publishing open da a, some go e nmen agencies, including
RDW, cap u e inancial alue h ough ansac ion cos s sa ing (Welle Donke & an Loenen, 2016).
The ansac ion cos s we e p e iously incu ed o main ain he paymen sys ems o selling da a.
By making da a open, hese sys ems no longe need o be in place. The e a e also go e nmen
agencies ha se e bo h as open da a p o ide s and in e media ies and, in u n, gene a e e enue
om hei open da a in e media ion p oduc s and se ices. Fo ins ance, while being compensa ed
by he easu y o he open da a i p o ides, he Du ch Cadas e, Land Regis y and Mapping
Agency (Kadas e ) also manages PDOK ( he open na ional geog aphic in o ma ion pla o m).
O he go e nmen agencies pay Kadas e o hos hei da a in PDOK (Welle Donke & an Loenen,
2016). Besides, Kadas e also o e s paid da a p oduc s as a sou ce o e enue.
As open da a p o ide s o in e media ies, go e nmen agencies o e cos sa ings o open da a
use s, including o he go e nmen agencies, as hey could a oid pu chasing o collec ing da a
hemsel es (Ha og e al., 2014; Janssen e al., 2012). Addi ionally, go e nmen agencies ha se e
as open da a in e media ies also o e cos sa ings o open da a p o ide s as he la e do no
ha e o indi idually de elop and main ain hei own pla o ms o dissemina e open da a.
4.2.2 Companies
Companies con ibu e as unde s o open da a ini ia i es (ei he in he supply, in e media ion, o
use o open da a) in mul iple ways. Fo example, companies such as TomTom, Mic oso , Me a,
Es i, and G ab con ibu e o he OpenS ee Map (OSM) p ojec by being co po a e membe s a
he OpenS ee Map Founda ion (OSMF), wi h annual membe ship ees anging om €750 o
€30,000, depending on he ie . OSM is a global open geog aphic da a c owdsou cing p ojec
main ained by a communi y o olun ee s, and he OSMF is he non-p o i o ganiza ion ha
suppo s he p ojec by means o gi ing i s legal ep esen a ion, in as uc u e hos ing,
und aising, and suppo ing he p ojec g ow h.
Companies may also con ibu e inancially o open da a ini ia i es on a p ojec basis. Fo example,
AWS, Me a, Mic oso , and TomTom collabo a i ely ini ia ed he O e u e Maps Founda ion
(O e u e), which aims a c ea ing high-quali y and in e ope able open map da a (O e u e Maps
Founda ion, 2024). O e u e le e ages OSM da a as one o he p ima y sou ces aside om da a
p o ided by i s membe s.
D5.2 S a egies o balance and dis ibu e alue in open da a ecosys ems
25
Companies bene i inancially om con ibu ing o OSM and O e u e p ojec s as hey (o hei
pla o m pa ne s and endo s) can use open da a om hese p ojec s hemsel es. These
companies do no need o pu chase o collec da a on hei own. Ins ead, hey can le e age
c owdsou ced o collabo a i e open da abases hey suppo inancially. They can also con ibu e
o hese p ojec s as open da a p o ide s by con ibu ing he da a hey collec o he open
da abase. Bo h ypes o con ibu ions – as a unde o open da a p o ide – can esul in cos
sa ings (o , a he , cos sha ing wi h o he s) o hese companies.
Companies may also bene i om ax deduc ions by inancially con ibu ing o open da a
ini ia i es, such as he case o he Wikimedia Founda ion and OpenS ee Map Founda ion.
Howe e , his depends on whe he he non-p o i o ganisa ion is g an ed a ax-deduc ible s a us
acco ding o local laws.
Companies ha use o in e media e open da a gene a e p o i s om p oduc s and se ices
enabled o enhanced by open da a. They also bene i om cos sa ings as hey do no ha e o
pu chase o collec da a independen ly. In u n, hey con ibu e ax e enue om hei gene a ed
p o i s (Eu opean Commission, 2000; Ons ud, 1992; Vicke y, 2011; Welle Donke & an Loenen,
2016). In heo y, (a po ion o ) he ax e enue would low back o go e nmen open da a
p o ide s o suppo he ope a ional and de elopmen al cos s o publishing open da a.
4.2.3 Non-p o i o ganisa ions
Non-p o i o ganisa ions can be unde s o open da a ini ia i es. Fo example, he Humani a ian
OpenS ee Map Team (HOT) is a non-p o i o ganisa ion (sepa a e om he OSMF). HOT is also a
co po a e membe o he OSMF, con ibu ing annual membe ship ees o suppo he OSM
p ojec . HOT also con ibu es open da a om mapping p ojec s hey conduc o he OSM
da abase. By being a unde and an open da a p o ide , HOT can simul aneously le e age he
OSM da abase, which o he OSM communi y olun ee s con ibu e, o hei p ojec s, sa ing he
o ganisa ion cos s.
E en hough non-p o i o ganisa ionsʼ (NPOs) goal is no o gene a e p o i , inancial alue is s ill
essen ial o he ope a ion and g ow h o hese o ganisa ions. The e a e non-p o i o ganisa ions
ha a e o iginal open da a p o ide s, i.e., hey collec and dissemina e he open da a hemsel es,
such as Human Righ s Da a Analysis G oup (HRDAG), and hose ha se e as open da a
in e media ies, such as Global Fo es Wa ch, and In e na ional Aid T anspa ency Ini ia i e (IATI). In
bo h oles (as open da a p o ide s and in e media ies), non-p o i o ganisa ions o en gain
unding h ough dona ions o olun a y con ibu ions (e.g., membe ship ees). The e a e also non-
p o i o ganisa ions ha a e end-use s o open da a, such as he Red C oss, which uses open da a
in humani a ian esponses. These o ganisa ions bene i inancially om no ha ing o pu chase o
collec da a hemsel es o hei wo k.
4.2.4 Ci izens
Ci izens can con ibu e inancially o open da a ini ia i es. Like companies, hey can do so h ough
dona ions o olun a y con ibu ions (e.g., membe ship ees). Fo some o ganisa ions, ha ca y
ou open da a ini ia i es in some coun ies such as Wikimedia Founda ion and OpenS ee Map
Founda ion, ci izens can ecei e ax deduc ions by con ibu ing o hose o ganisa ions. Ci izens
can also olun a ily con ibu e as open da a p o ide s in open da a c owdsou cing p ojec s, as
OSM communi y membe s do. As end-use s, ci izens can use open da a o ee o hei indi idual
o household ac i i ies, such as o check egis a ion o add esses and buildings, o esea ch and
hobby ac i i ies.
D5.2 S a egies o balance and dis ibu e alue in open da a ecosys ems
32
6 Explo ing con lic ing alues in ODEs and legal pa hways o
add ess hem
6.1 In oduc ion
While he p e ious wo chap e s each ocused on a pa icula ype o ca ego y o alue ( inancial
alue e sus social alue), in his chap e we will explo e how he e can be con lic s be ween hese
di e en ypes o alue in open da a ecosys ems.
The li e a u e on open da a has e ol ed signi ican ly o e he pas decade, e lec ing he
inc easing complexi y and scope o open da a p ac ices (see o e.g., Da ies e al., 2019). We can
iden i y di e en phases o schola ly wo k wi h ega d o open da a (Van Maanen, 2023) - Resea ch
p ima ily ocused on he echnical and p ocedu al aspec s o
open
da a elease
— he mechanisms
by which go e nmen s and ins i u ions made da ase s publicly a ailable, wi h he goal o
o e coming ‘ba ie sʼ ha p e en ed open da a lows (Janssen e al., 2012), including legal ba ie s
(Dulong de Rosnay and Janssen, 2014) hus implying ha open da a a e bene icial (Van Maanen,
2023). While his li e a u e was no blind o he nega i e aspec o open da a (Zuide wijk &
Janssen, 2014), his ea ly wa e o esea ch had he endency o emphasize he bene i s o open
da a o enhancing public se ices, p omo ing ci izen engagemen , and d i ing economic
de elopmen (Van Maanen, 2023).
As he ield ma u ed, a en ion began o shi owa ds he b oade concep o open da a
ecosys ems (Zuide wijk e al., 2014; Pollock, 2011). These ecosys ems a e cha ac e ized by he
in e ac ions among a di e se se o ac o s, including go e nmen , companies, non-p o i
o ganiza ions, ci izens, in e media ies, jou nalis s, and schools (Van Loenen e al., 2021). Ra he
han ocusing solely on da a elease, his s and o li e a u e examines how hese di e en ac o s
collabo a e, exchange da a, and c ea e alue collec i ely (ibid). Howe e , i also highligh s he
challenges inhe en in hese ecosys ems, as ac o s can be mo i a ed by di e en —and some imes
con lic ing— easons o bo h con ibu e o and engage wi h open da a ini ia i es (Magnussen e
al., 2024). Go e nmen s may p io i ize anspa ency and se ice imp o emen , while p i a e sec o
pa icipan s may seek o de i e comme cial bene i s, and ci il socie y ac o s may ocus on issues
o accoun abili y and social jus ice (ibid). Ano he s and o li e a u e s a ed ocusing on open
da a in p ac ice, o ‘a wo kʼ, wi h a ocus on open da a p ac ices ha go in he di ec ion o
inclusion, social equi y, and he achie emen o democ a ic alues (Ruije e al., 2017, 2024).
In his chap e , we aim o explo e he con lic s in alues ha a ise wi hin open da a ecosys ems,
pa icula ly om he pe spec i e o go e nmen ac o s wi h a ocus on ai ness and (social) equi y
conside a ions. D awing om he ields o c i ical da a s udies (Ki chin, 2021; Milan, 2024a) and
public adminis a ion (Ruije & Pie owski, 2022), we seek o unde s and how compe ing alues—
such as e iciency, equi y, p i acy, and public accoun abili y—mani es in he managemen and
go e nance o open da a. Wi h inc easing ocus on Linked Open Da a ini ia i es, use o big da a
analy ics o combine and gene a e insigh s ou o open da ase s and collec i e dimensions o
p i acy, he e a e eme ging conce ns ela ing o he inclusion o and in e ence o pe sonal da a
om open da ase s. (Dalla Co e 2018; Scassa 2019; Bo e o A cila 2023). Indeed, c i ical da a
s udies, which in e oga e powe dynamics and inequali ies in da a p ac ices (Iliadis & Russo,
2016) and public adminis a ion, which ocuses on he design and implemen a ion o go e nmen
policies (Ruije e al., 2022), p o ide aluable amewo ks o analysing hese ensions.
A e he in oduc ion, we p esen he esea ch me hodology in sec ion 2, ollowed by a c i ical
e iew o alues in open da a ecosys ems in sec ion 3. In sec ion ou we p esen he
legal/go e nance pa hways o o e come c i icali ies. In he inal sec ion, we p esen he
conclusions, and we e iew he limi a ions o ou analysis.

D5.2 S a egies o balance and dis ibu e alue in open da a ecosys ems
33
6.2 Resea ch me hodology
This chap e is buil as an in e disciplina y na a i e li e a u e e iew, b inging oge he li e a u e
om legal, social science and public adminis a ion wi h he aim o iden i y key hemes and
deba es su ounding con lic ing alues in open da a ecosys ems. This analysis is no exhaus i e
bu aims o highligh he mos pe inen con ibu ions in he ield ha add ess alue-d i en
con lic s. These hemes o e insigh in o he powe imbalances, e hical conside a ions, and
go e nance challenges ha a ise when di e en ac o s in e ac in open da a en i onmen s.
Based on he body o li e a u e ha we e e ence in his chap e ; we o e a non-comp ehensi e
lis o
go e nance and legal pa hways
ha can be pu sued o add ess he c i ical issues ela ed o
alue dis ibu ion in open da a ecosys ems. These pa hways o e po en ial s a egies o mi iga e
con lic s, p omo e mo e equi able da a p ac ices, and ensu e ha he alue gene a ed by open
da a is dis ibu ed mo e ai ly ac oss all ac o s in ol ed. Equi able da a p ac ices gene ally e e o
p inciples and ac ions aimed a ensu ing ai ness, inclusi i y, and jus ice in how da a is collec ed,
managed, analysed, and used. These p ac ices p io i ize he needs and igh s o all indi iduals,
especially ma ginalized o unde ep esen ed g oups, o p e en ha m and p omo e equi able
ou comes. This also en ails a mo e ai ly balanced dis ibu ion o he alue gene a ed by open
da a.
I is impo an o emphasize ha while ou e iew is no comp ehensi e, i emains highly ele an
o se e al easons. Fi s , he apidly e ol ing na u e o open da a ecosys ems means ha a
comple e e iew may be imp ac ical o e en impossible a any gi en ime; new s udies,
amewo ks, and case s udies con inuously eme ge. Second, he ocus o his e iew is o
illumina e key hemes and ensions wi hin he li e a u e ha a e cen al o unde s anding he
dynamics o da a jus ice and equi y. These hemes help iden i y ac ionable go e nance s a egies,
e en i no all s udies a e conside ed. Las ly, ou selec i e app oach allows o a mo e nuanced
discussion o he mos impac ul con ibu ions o he ield, he eby os e ing deepe insigh s in o
he legal and e hical implica ions o open da a p ac ices. In his way, ou e iew o e s a c i ical
ounda ion o u he esea ch and policy de elopmen , despi e i s limi a ions.
6.3 A c i ical e iew o con lic ing alues in open da a ecosys ems
O e he yea s, esea ch on open da a has iden i ied a se o c i ical challenges ha highligh
con as ing alues in open da a ecosys ems. In his analysis, we ocus exclusi ely on jus ice,
ai ness, and equi y, and how hese alues can come in o con lic wi h mo e adi ional o ypical
alues o open da a, such as e iciency, economy, and e ec i eness. We di ide hese con as s
hema ically in o h ee main ca ego ies.
Fi s , we add ess he ques ion: "
Wha open da a? Unde s anding open da a p oduc ion
", explo ing
he complexi ies o how open da a is p oduced and made a ailable. Nex , we examine he
go e nance o open da a h ough he lens o accoun abili y in "
The go e nance o open da a:
Who is accoun able?".
This sec ion ocuses on how da a is managed and who holds esponsibili y
o i s use. Finally, we shi ou a en ion o he impac o open da a in "
F om open da a o bene i s:
Wha do we need open da a o ?",
analysing how open da a ansla es in o eal-wo ld bene i s
and whe he i ul ils i s in ended goals.
Wha open da a? Unde s anding open da a p oduc ion
The alue in open da a ecosys ems is p ima ily a esul o da a p oduc ion, as da a a e no neu al;
hey a e inhe en ly poli ical (Ki chin, 2021). This idea has been explo ed in he ield o in o ma ion
jus ice, pa icula ly wi hin da a jus ice, which examines how da a can be conside ed bene icial
when sepa a ed om he alue gene a ed du ing hei p oduc ion (Johnson, 2014). The i s logical
s ep in assessing alue wi hin open da a ecosys ems is, he e o e, o analyse he alue embedded
in da a p oduc ion. Connec ed o he p oduc ion o da a is he assessmen o which da a a e
D5.2 S a egies o balance and dis ibu e alue in open da a ecosys ems
34
missing (e.g., da a ega ding ulne able g oups) (Gies & Samuels, 2020). This s ep is c ucial o
unde s anding he dynamic na u e o alue in open da a, especially as we encoun e phenomena
like "da a c eep," whe e da a spill o e in o uses o which hey we e no o iginally in ended (Ruije
e al., 2022) and lack o da a on some social issues can hen e lec in in isibili y (Milan & T e e,
2021).
Howe e , ecen li e a u e sugges s ha acing he o igins and in ended pu poses o da a is
becoming inc easingly di icul due o he ise o AI echnologies (Aleg e, 2024) and he g owing
ole o da a in as uc u es (Milan, 2024b). As he o iginal easons behind da a p oduc ion become
ha de o disce n, ou abili y o e alua e he alue o ha da a weakens, dilu ing powe and agency.
Da a, in u n, become a conglome a e epu posed o a ious objec i es, complica ing any
assessmen o hei alue since, o en, da a inpu s a e in isible (Busuioc e al., 2023). Ne e heless,
i emains essen ial o con inue his e alua i e exe cise in o de o cap u e he alue o open da a
wi hin a complex and e ol ing ecosys em. This is ele an in wo con ex s –
one
, in he gene a ion
o open go e nmen da ase s (whe e conce ns abou ep esen a ion o ma ginalised communi ies
o ins ance need o be add essed), and
wo
, in he euse and epu posing o o he da a o da a-
d i en decision making, such as he combina ion o adminis a i e da a wi h big da a (whe e i is
impo an bu di icul o ace he o igins o he da a used o decision-making).
The go e nance o open da a. Who is accoun able o hem?
Nex o he ques ion o da a p oduc ion is he issue o who in luences alue in he open da a
ecosys em. Con ibu ion o his ecosys em is o en obscu ed by he in usion o alues om a ious
ac o s, equen ly hidden wi hin opaque pa ne ships. Fo example, da a p oduc ion can esul
om pa ne ships be ween he p i a e and public sec o s, acili a ed h ough p ocu emen
p ocesses and he c ea ion o da a in as uc u es (Gu in, Bonina and Ve huls 2019).
Consequen ly, accoun abili y becomes dispe sed and in isible, lea ing hose a ec ed by da a
decisions wi hou agency. This lack o anspa ency makes i challenging o ace how da a mo es
ac oss bo de s and sec o s, u he complica ing ques ions a ound who bea s esponsibili y o
he in eg i y, p i acy, and secu i y o he da a. A no able example o hese conce ns is he case o
open science da a collec ed in he U.S. being used o ain acial ecogni ion echnology in China
(Taylo e al., 2022).
F om open da a o bene i s, wha do we need open da a o ?
No all ac o s in he da a ecosys em ha e he same powe . Powe dynamics can lead o wha can
be e med as
selec i e openness
, whe e only ce ain da a is sha ed, accessible o eusable, o en
bene i ing dominan ac o s (Gu ns ein 2011). While open da a ecosys ems emphasize he
collec i e bene i s o sha ing open da a, he dis ibu ion o alue s ill can be une en in p ac ice.
La ge co po a ions o well- esou ced o ganiza ions end o cap u e mo e alue om open da a
han smalle en i ies o indi iduals (Ba es, 2011; B oom ield, 2023; Chand asekha , 2024). As such,
he li e a u e sugges s ha his dynamic could exace ba e exis ing economic and social
inequali ies, as he capaci y o u ilize open da a is o en ied o access o ad anced ools and
expe ise. This calls o he assessmen o alue in open da a ecosys ems in connec ion o who is
likely o bene i om i .
6.4 F om con lic ing alues o legal and go e nance pa hways ha accoun o
c i icali ies
This sec ion p oposes some legal and go e nance s a egies in esponse o one o he esea ch
ques ions o his deli e able - s a egies o design open da a ecosys ems ha balance compe ing
alues while ensu ing inclusi e and sus ainable alue dis ibu ion. Legal a enues o edis ibu ing
alue in he open da a ecosys em need o accoun o he cu en inequi ies in open da a
ini ia i es. On he one hand, exis ing app oaches like he ‘FAIRʼ (Findable, Accessible, In e ope able
and Reusable) da a p inciples do b ing ocus o issues o da a quali y, accu acy and
D5.2 S a egies o balance and dis ibu e alue in open da a ecosys ems
35
ep esen a i eness in open – esea ch - da ase s. Howe e , hese p inciples s a om he p emise
ha da ase s a e neu al pu ely echnological a e ac s.
Bu , as discussed in his sec ion bu also elsewhe e in his deli e able, he p oduc ion o open
da ase s is inhe en ly poli ical. “Missing da a” a ec s no only he ep esen a ional quali y o an
open da ase , bu i also means ha
someone is missed ou
when his da ase is elied on by
public adminis a ion o decision-making (Kim e al., 2024). Fo example, a he beginning o he
Co id-19 pandemic, mo e “da a- ich” coun ies om he Global No h we e able o c ea e la ge
da ase s o Co id-19 cases and dea hs compa ed o coun ies in he Global Sou h, which in u n
lead o global heal h policy being c ea ed om da ase s ha did no ully ep esen he si ua ion
in Global Sou h coun ies (Milan & T e é, 2020). Going one s ep u he , schola s also highligh he
lack o da a collec ion abou co id-19 expe iences among indigenous communi ies in Global
No h coun ies - owing o lack o in as uc u e as well as sys emic dis us by hese communi ies
in da a-d i en policy making (Ca oll e al., 2021). And a an e en mo e mic o-le el, as San o o
(2024) a gues in he con ex o open da ase s on dayca e a ailabili y in B ussels, hese open
da ase s a e no well-in eg a ed wi h mobili y da a o ins ance, and as a esul do no o e much
in o ma ion on accessibili y o each dayca e cen e - which is an impo an ac o o pa en s
seeking dayca e se ices. These examples a a ious le els clea ly highligh he imbalances p esen
in he collec ion o da a, which ex end o imbalances in he alue o da a.
As a esul , legal and go e nance a enues o edis ibu ing alue need o ecognise and accoun
o he poli ics o open da a p oduc ion and e-use. No ma i ely, his can be achie ed h ough an
o ien a ion owa ds ‘da a jus iceʼ (Taylo , 2017). In e ms o p ac ical implemen a ion, legal and
go e nance amewo ks o open da a ini ia i es could e e o Collec i e Bene i , Au ho i y o
Con ol, Responsibili y, E hics (CARE) p inciples in addi ion o he FAIR p inciples o da a quali y
managemen (ODECO, 2023). These CARE P inciples do no ocus only on inhe en quali ies o
da a ha enable mo e sha ing and e-use, bu also ocus on powe di e en ials. As a esul , CARE
P inciples also ocus on ealising collec i e bene i om open da ase s, as well as ensu ing
commi men o e hics. (Ca oll e al., 2020). The e a e examples o CARE p inciples being ansla ed
in o he design and implemen a ion o open da a ini ia i es - such as he Open Da a Mekong
p ojec (Chung & Chung, 2019; DCPC, 2024).
6.5 Some concep ual legal a enues o ien ed owa ds da a jus ice
In his sec ion, we o e some sugges ions o legal policy and implemen a ion, d awing om
ecen ini ia i es ha adop a c i ical pe spec i e o legal in e en ions.
Fi s , exis ing legal amewo ks such as he Implemen ing Regula ion on High-Value Da ase s
(2023/138), applicable o he Eu opean Union (EU) should be implemen ed in mo e equi able
ways. This egula ion, in oduced as pa o he 2019 Open Da a Di ec i e in he EU, manda es
ha ce ain public sec o da a deemed o ha e high socio-economic, en i onmen al, and scien i ic
alue be made eely accessible and eusable ac oss he EU. This egula ion a ge s speci ic
ca ego ies o da a ha can d i e inno a ion and economic de elopmen , such as da a ela ed o
geospa ial in o ma ion, en i onmen al da a, me eo ology, s a is ics, companies, and mobili y. The
choice o hese da ase s e eals an implici hie a chisa ion o alue - whe e economic alue o
open da a is p io i ized o e , o ins ance, ci izen pa icipa ion. (B oom ield, 2023). As Bal e and
an Maanen (2019) no e, “
[ ]he communica ion o da a by go e nmen is an inhe en ly poli ical
p ocess ha can and should no be educed o he p oduc i i y and e iciency o ma ke ac o s.
E iciency as a mo ale o da a dissemina ion has he endency o lead o a nulli ica ion o p ima y
igh s o ci izens o go e nmen al se ices.
” To his ex en , Chand asekha (2024) has a gued ha
he EU could bo ow om India in ei he al e ing o expanding he ca ego ies o high- alue
da ase s o include social da a - such as da a on po e y alle ia ion and o he socio-economic
indica o s. Simila ly, he Unde s anding Glasgow p ojec - a collabo a ion be ween he Glasgow
D5.2 S a egies o balance and dis ibu e alue in open da a ecosys ems
36
Cen e o Popula ion Heal h, local and na ional o ganiza ions, esea che s, and communi ies -
c ea ed open da ase s and isualisa ions on li e and well-being in Glasgow, including indica o s
on heal h, educa ion, income, en i onmen , housing, and social capi al DCPC 2024, Unde s anding
Glasgow 2024).
Second, legal ins i u ions should also pay mo e a en ion o he in ol emen o comme cial ac o s
in open da a ini ia i es. While comme cial ac o s, pa icula ly open da a in e media ies, do b ing
signi ican bene i s o he open da a ecosys em (Shaha udin e al., 2023), he e is also a eal isk
o comme cial ac o s acqui ing a s onge oice han public adminis a ions as well as ci izens in
he go e nance o open da a. Cou s can play a pa icula ly use ul ole in laying down ules abou
he conduc o open da a in e media ies, o ensu e hey ac in public in e es . Fo ins ance, he
Eu opean Cou o Human Righ s (ECHR) has c ea ed a body o ju isp udence on in e media ies
and he undamen al igh o ecei e in o ma ion ( an Maanen & Bal e , 2019). This case,
he e o e, holds some insigh s on wha kinds o objec i es open da a in e media ies should
alo ise. Fu he , o he ex en comme cial ac o s a e in ol ed in p o iding public se ices - such
as in o ma ion and communica ion se ices o a municipali y o a ci y - legal amewo ks o
public p ocu emen can also be modi ied o ensu e hese p i a e ac o s ac in public in e es . One
way o achie e his, is by ollowing he example o he Ci y o Ba celona and in oducing ‘da a
so e eign y clausesʼ in public p ocu emen con ac s, which equi e comme cial ac o s o sha e all
da a gene a ed in he cou se o p o iding he public se ice in an open machine- eadable o ma
wi h he public adminis a ion, so ha his da a can be eleased as open go e nmen da a (Monge
e al., 2022). A simila example exis s in he Ne he lands, in public p ocu emen s con ac s be ween
he public agency Rijkswa e s aa and p i a e con ac o s o wa e in as uc u e p ojec s.
Thi d, and inally, legal ins umen s in he ealm o p i a e law can also aid in equi able alue
c ea ion and dis ibu ion in he open da a ecosys em. Cen al o he open da a mo emen is he
use o ee and open licenses - such as C ea i e Commons o c ea i e wo ks, as well as he Open
Da a Commons Open Da abase License and Communi y Da a License ag eemen o da ase s.
Since he backg ound cul u al con ex o he open da a mo emen was in ellec ual p ope y -
speci ically copy igh - hese licenses we e legal ools by which he logic o copy igh was
‘in e edʼ o enable g ea e access and e-use o da a, in o ma ion and knowledge o c ea e a
ib an digi al commons. (Giannopoulou, 2018). Howe e , e-use o da a is now impac ed no only
by copy igh , bu also by da a p o ec ion and p i acy conce ns as well as compe i ion and liabili y
conce ns (Dalla Co e, 2018; Dulong de Rosnay & Janssen, 2014). And as men ioned abo e, gi en
unequal powe dis ibu ion in he gene a ion and e-use o da a, he e is also g owing da a
ex ac i ism and da a colonialism - whe e da a gene a ed by and ela ing o communi ies in he
Global Sou h a e cap u ed and e-used by ac o s in he Global No h, wi h li le o no alue – i.e.
nei he inancial no social alue - lowing back o Global Sou h ac o s. (Á ila, 2023). In his
con en , open da a and con en licenses can be eimagined, o inculca e new se s o alues and
e hics in da a sha ing and e-use. (Benhamou & Dulong de Rosnay, 2023). Fo ins ance, he Da a
Science Law Lab in he Uni e si y o P e o ia has de eloped a new da a license o A ican
language da ase s, ha equi es e-use s om de eloped coun ies o commi o s onge sha e-
alike and openness obliga ions - as a way o espond o da a colonialism (Da a Science Law Lab,
2024).
6.6 Conclusion
In his chap e , we b ough oge he elemen s om law, social science and public adminis a ion
li e a u e o illus a e he ensions and con lic s be ween di e en alues in open da a ecosys ems.
We ocused on h ee aspec s - he p oduc ion o open da a, he esponsibili y o public
adminis a ions, and he impac o open da a. By e iewing c i ical li e a u e on hese opics, we
dis illed a se o obse a ions on he ensions be ween ealisa ion o economic and social alue
om open da a. We a gue ha he poli ical decisions unde pinning he p oduc ion o open da a
D5.2 S a egies o balance and dis ibu e alue in open da a ecosys ems
37
as well as he in as uc u es and skills equi ed o e-use open da a means ha he e a e s a k
powe di e en ials be ween di e en ypes o ac o s who can ealise alue ou o da a. Al hough
i s no always easy o clea ly dis inguish be ween hese di e en ypes, in ce ain cases comme cial
ac o s a e clea ly p i ileged o e ci izens and public adminis a ions.
Fu he , we a gued ha legal a enues o edis ibu ing alue in open da a ecosys ems should
ake in o accoun hese powe di e en ials, o ensu e ha all open da a ac o s a e gi en
p opo ional oice in go e nance o open da a. We a gued ha no ma i ely, legal in e en ions
should be o ien ed owa ds da a jus ice, o enable equi able gene a ion and use o open da a. We
hen ou lined some concep ual legal a enues o implemen ing such an o ien a ion owa ds da a
jus ice. We o e ed sugges ions wi h ega d o he implemen a ion o egula o y amewo ks such
as he Open Da a Di ec i e in he EU, modi ying public p ocu emen p ocesses o ensu e p i a e
sec o endo s ac in public in e es , , and upg ading ools o p i a e legal o de ing such as open
da a and open con en licenses. O he sugges ions could also include elease o open go e nmen
da ase s unde open licenses wi h “sha e alike” equi emen s, o ensu e ha e-use and de i a i es
a e also eleased as open da a, and po en ially con ibu ing o an open da a ecosys em.
While hese sugges ions a e well-sui ed o adop ing a c i ical app oach o open da a go e nance,
we ecognise ce ain limi a ions as well. As men ioned in Sec ion 2 abo e, he sugges ions o e ed
in his chap e do no esul om a sys ema ic li e a u e e iew o alues in open da a ecosys ems.
Howe e , as a gued abo e, such sys ema ic li e a u e e iew is o en impossible, gi en he
cons an ly e ol ing na u e o open da a ecosys ems as well as he publica ion o many new laws
and policies on da a sha ing and e-use. Fu he , he concep ual legal sugges ions o e ed he e
a e no in ended o se e as p esc ip ions, bu as illus a ions o app oaches adop ed in some
coun ies ha could in o m law and policymaking in o he coun ies. Legal sys ems a y ac oss
ju isdic ions - o example be ween cons i u ional and common law sys ems - which, in u n,
impac s he eplicabili y o he legal a enues discussed in his chap e . None heless, hese legal
sugges ions ep esen ecen impac ul con ibu ions o he ield, and a e he e o e ele an om
he pe spec i e o policymake s.

D5.2 S a egies o balance and dis ibu e alue in open da a ecosys ems
38
7 Conclusion: Balancing and Dis ibu ing Value in Open Da a
Ecosys ems
The explo a ion o alues in open da a ecosys ems has highligh ed hei mul i ace ed na u e,
e ealing bo h oppo uni ies and ensions. Ac oss his deli e able, each chap e has unpacked
di e en dimensions o alue - concep ual, inancial, social, and legal - b inging cla i y o hei
in e ac ions, in e dependencies, and con lic s. This conclusion syn hesizes he insigh s om hese
chap e s, discussing he b oade implica ions o balancing and dis ibu ing alue in open da a
ecosys ems and p o iding an in eg a ed answe o he wo cen al esea ch ques ions:
1. Wha ypes o alue a e p io i ized in open da a ecosys ems and how do di e en ypes o
alue in e ac wi h each o he ?
2. Wha s a egies can be employed o design open da a ecosys ems ha balance alues while
ensu ing inclusi e and sus ainable alue dis ibu ion?
7.1 Concep ualizing alue: A mul i ace ed app oach
Rega ding he i s esea ch ques ion, he deli e able began by emphasizing he cen ali y o
‘ alueʼ in open da a ecosys ems, aming i as no me ely economic bu encompassing social,
e hical, and unc ional dimensions. The shi om unidi ec ional models o alue gene a ion (da a
elease by go e nmen s) o ci cula models o co-c ea ion has unde sco ed he need o inclusi i y
and mu ual in e dependence. These concep ualiza ions o eg ounded he challenges o de ining
and measu ing alue when mul iple s akeholde s—go e nmen agencies, p i a e companies,
NGOs, and ci izens—pa icipa e wi h di e se mo i a ions and capaci ies.
The chap e on inancial alue del ed in o he mone iza ion po en ial wi hin ODEs, explo ing how
a ious ac o s cap u e and p o ide inancial alue. I e ealed s a k inequali ies: la ge
co po a ions, endowed wi h esou ces and echnical expe ise, a e be e posi ioned o ex ac
inancial gains, while smalle ac o s, such as NGOs and local go e nmen s, o en s uggle o
pa icipa e meaning ully. This "da a di ide" unde mines he b oade objec i e o equi able alue
dis ibu ion, e en when only looking a he inancial alue o open da a.
Chap e 5 shi ed he ocus o social alue, emphasizing ha he u ili y o open da a ex ends
beyond inancial me ics. Social alue encompasses public us , ci ic engagemen , and socie al
bene i s, such as anspa ency, accoun abili y, and imp o ed public se ices. Howe e , he
ealiza ion o social alue in open da a ecosys ems nowadays aces signi ican ba ie s, including
echnical limi a ions, da a asymme ies, and a lack o con ex ual unde s anding. The absence o
ma ginalized oices in he design and go e nance o ODEs pe pe ua es hese issues, limi ing he
ans o ma i e po en ial o open da a o add ess p essing socie al challenges.
Chap e 6 u he explo ed he inhe en con lic s be ween di e en ypes o alue in ODEs,
pa icula ly be ween e iciency, equi y, and p i acy. These con lic s - again - s em om powe
asymme ies, whe e dominan ac o s p io i ize hei goals—such as p o i gene a ion o
ope a ional e iciency—o e b oade socie al bene i s.
7.2 Towa ds a balanced ecosys em: some ecommenda ions
Rega ding he second esea ch ques ion, each o he chap e s in his deli e able p oposed
s a egies o a mo e balanced dis ibu ion o alue in open da a ecosys ems.
The inclusi e pe spec i e in Chap e 3 ad oca ed o an alignmen o economic gains wi h socie al
bene i s. Recognizing alue as a collabo a i e cons uc a he han a ze o-sum esou ce is
ounda ional o os e ing sus ainable ecosys ems. This inclusi i y equi es delibe a e go e nance
mechanisms o ensu e equi able pa icipa ion, pa icula ly o ma ginalized s akeholde s.
D5.2 S a egies o balance and dis ibu e alue in open da a ecosys ems
39
S a egies p oposed in chap e ou o mi iga e he imbalanced dis ibu ion o inancial alue
include ax incen i es o con ibu ions o ODEs, he p o ision o sha ed in as uc u es, and
enabling alue-added se ices by go e nmen agencies o o se cos s. These ini ia i es poin
owa d he need o edis ibu i e mechanisms ha coun e balance he inancial dominance o
well- esou ced ac o s and os e a mo e equi able ecosys em.
In chap e six legal and go e nance pa hways we e p o ided as po en ial solu ions o ensions
be ween di e en alues. No ma i e amewo ks such as he CARE p inciples should complemen
exis ing FAIR p inciples by add essing issues o equi y, e hics, and accoun abili y. Howe e ,
implemen ing such amewo ks equi es a shi om echnoc a ic go e nance models o
pa icipa o y app oaches ha p io i ize da a jus ice and inclusi i y.
The di e en chap e s o his deli e able clea ly show ha he o e a ching challenge o ODEs lies
in balancing di e se and o en con lic ing alues while ensu ing hei sus ainabili y. Based on he
esul s and indings o he di e en chap e s, se e al s a egies pa hways can be p oposed o
add essing hese challenges.
• Go e nance Re o m: Decen alized and pa icipa o y go e nance models a e essen ial o
add essing powe imbalances and os e ing us among s akeholde s. T anspa en
mechanisms o open da a sha ing and accoun abili y mus be p io i ized.
• Capaci y Building: Smalle ac o s, such as NGOs and local go e nmen s, equi e suppo in
e ms o echnical expe ise, in as uc u e, and inancial esou ces o engage e ec i ely wi h
ODEs.
• Inno a i e Incen i es: Tax b eaks, subsidies, and public-p i a e pa ne ships can incen i ize
b oade pa icipa ion and edis ibu e he bene i s o open da a mo e equi ably.
• Pu pose-D i en Da a Ini ia i es: Aligning da a elease and usage wi h socie al goals, such
as add essing clima e change o imp o ing heal hca e, can maximize bo h social and
economic alue.
• Ongoing Resea ch and Collabo a ion: The dynamic na u e o open da a ecosys ems
demands con inuous explo a ion o eme ging challenges and he co-c ea ion o solu ions by
di e se s akeholde s.
7.3 Concluding ema ks
The ODECO esea ch demons a es ha open da a ecosys ems hold a signi ican po en ial o
economic and socie al impac , bu s ill a e cons ained by sys emic inequi ies and go e nance
gaps. La ge o ganiza ions domina e, cap u ing mos alue, while smalle playe s like NGOs and
unde unded g oups o en lack he esou ces o pa icipa e meaning ully. To add ess hese powe
imbalances, mo e p ac ical solu ions such esou ce-sha ing ini ia i es, capaci y-building
p og ams, o ax incen i es could help smalle ac o s in engaging mo e e ec i ely. Such measu es
and solu ions howe e should be designed ca e ully, o a oid unin en ionally ein o cing exis ing
powe hie a chies.
Some con lic s be ween p io i ies and alues o en emain un esol ed. Tensions be ween
indi idual ‘useʼ alues and collec i e ‘pu poseʼ alues can be di icul o add ess o sol e. Cu en
go e nance models s ill seem o a o dominan ac o s and hei p io i ies, limi ing inclusi i y and
c ea ing ba ie s o equi able pa icipan s. The inco po a ion o CARE p inciples alongside
echnical s anda ds migh help add ess hese con lic s, bu his app oach needs u he
explo a ion. Impo an o ealize is ha new echnologies (such as AI and IoT) also b ing new
challenges and isks which also need o be add essed.
Looking ahead i can be s a ed ha signi ican e o s a e needed o balance and dis ibu e alue
in open da a ecosys ems, and wi hou delibe a e ac ion, open da a ecosys ems isk pe pe ua ing
exis ing inequi ies a he han add essing hem. The success and sus ainabili y o open da a
D5.2 S a egies o balance and dis ibu e alue in open da a ecosys ems
40
ecosys ems will depend on balancing compe ing alues and ensu ing hey se e di e se socie al
needs ai ly and e ec i ely.
D5.2 S a egies o balance and dis ibu e alue in open da a ecosys ems
41
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