In e na ional Mig a ion Pa e ns in and be ween
Hunga y and Aus ia
Resea ch Repo
Ádám Néme h, Bo bála Göncz, Jose Kohlbache , Gyö gy Lengyel, A ila Melegh,
Zsol Néme h, U sula Reege , Lilla Tó h
Janua y 2023
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This wo king pape was de eloped in he con ex o he p ojec MIGWELL – Well-being and
Mig a ion: he Hunga y – Aus ia Mig a ion Nexus
Wo k Package 2: „Seconda y Analysis o Exis ing Da a‟
MIGWELL is an FWF–NKFIH In e na ional Join P ojec . In Aus ia he p ojec is unded by he
Aus ian Science Fund. In Hunga y he p ojec has been implemen ed wi h he suppo p o ided by he
Na ional Resea ch, De elopmen and Inno a ion Fund (Minis y o Inno a ion and Technology o
Hunga y), inanced unde he ANN unding scheme.
P ojec code: I 5616 (in Aus ia), 139465 (in Hunga y)
P ojec du a ion: 01.02.2022 – 31.07.2025 (in Aus ia), 01.12.2021 – 31.05.2025 (in Hunga y)
P ojec Pa ne s:
Ins i u e o U ban and Regional Resea ch a he Aus ian Academy o Sciences
Cen e o Empi ical Social Resea ch a he Co inus Uni e si y o Budapes
Depa men o Finno-Ug ian S udies, Uni e si y o Vienna
Scien i ic Ad iso y Boa d:
Depa men o Sociology, Uni e si y o Vienna
Hunga ian Demog aphic Resea ch Ins i u e
Hunga ian Cen al S a is ical O ice
MIGWELL‟s websi e: LINK
MIGWELL‟s ou pu s will be uploaded o: LINK
Inqui ies can be di ec ed o: Ins i u e o U ban and Regional Resea ch a he Aus ian Academy o
Sciences, [email p o ec ed].a o Cen e o Empi ical Social Resea ch a he Co inus Uni e si y o
Budapes , bo bala.goncz@uni-co inus.hu
Sugges ed ci a ion: Néme h, Á., Göncz, B., Kohlbache , J., Lengyel, Gy., Melegh, A., Néme h, Zs.,
Reege , U., and Tó h, L. (2023) In e na ional Mig a ion Pa e ns in and be ween Hunga y and
Aus ia. MIGWELL Wo king Pape s, No. 2. 46 p.
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Table o con en s
1. Aims .......................................................................................................................................................... 4
2. Mig a ion: de ini ions and me hodological challenges ............................................................................. 4
2.1 An o e iew o key de ini ions and he ocus o he MIGWELL p ojec ................................................. 4
2.2 Me hodological challenges........................................................................................................................ 5
2.3 Da a sou ces .............................................................................................................................................. 7
3. Gene al popula ion dynamics .................................................................................................................... 9
3.1 Hunga y .................................................................................................................................................... 9
3.2 Aus ia ..................................................................................................................................................... 11
4. In e na ional mig a ion p ocesses ........................................................................................................... 15
4.1 Hunga y .................................................................................................................................................. 15
4.1.1 Mig a ion lows ....................................................................................................................................... 15
4.1.2 Popula ion by place o bi h .................................................................................................................... 18
4.2 Aus ia ..................................................................................................................................................... 19
4.2.1 Mig a ion lows ....................................................................................................................................... 19
4.2.2 Popula ion by place o bi h .................................................................................................................... 23
5. The Hunga y – Aus ia mig a ion nexus ................................................................................................. 26
5.1 Mig a ion p ocesses since he la e 19 h cen u y ....................................................................................... 26
5.2 Mig a ion lows be ween Hunga y and Aus ia a e he millennium ..................................................... 28
5.3 The Hunga ian popula ion s ock in Aus ia ............................................................................................ 31
5.3.1 Some socio-demog aphic ea u es o pe manen immig an s om Hunga y .......................................... 34
5.4 Spa ial aspec .......................................................................................................................................... 35
5.5 The Aus ian popula ion s ock in Hunga y ............................................................................................. 40
6. Open ques ions o MIGWELL .............................................................................................................. 42
7. Li e a u e ................................................................................................................................................. 43
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MIGWELL a a glance
The MIGWELL p ojec ocuses on he nexus o mig a ion and well-being in Hunga y and
Aus ia. Using quan i a i e and quali a i e esea ch me hods, i seeks o explo e he impac s
o mig a ion on subjec i e well-being in he case o Hunga ian immig an s in Aus ia as well
as he e ec s o subjec i e well-being di e ences on emig a ion po en ial in Hunga y. The
app oach o his p ojec is inno a i e, no only because i links he concep s o „well-being‟
and „mig a ion‟, bu also because i in e p e s hei wo-way causal ela ionship wi hin one
esea ch amewo k. Since he Co id-19 pandemic migh ha e had a p o ound impac on bo h
pilla s, MIGWELL will also e lec on he apidly changing socio-economic and well-being
ela ed issues ha ha e eme ged due o he epidemic h oughou he li e cycle o he p ojec .
The heo e ical expansion o hese concep s and he empi ical indings o he p ojec may
con ibu e o mo e e ec i e policies in bo h coun ies.
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1. Aims
The main goal o Wo k Package 2 is o unde s and he pa e ns o subjec i e well-being in
Hunga y and Aus ia, and he ac o s esponsible o he coun y-le el di e ences as a d i e
behind in e na ional mig a ion lows. Mos impo an ly, EU-SILC and mic o-census da a will
p o ide inpu o he seconda y analysis, which will also conside he changing mac o-
s uc u al condi ions and he impac s o he Co id-19 pandemic. Be o e p esen ing an
exhaus i e s a is ical analysis o he cu en ly a ailable seconda y da a on well-being, his
pape , as he i s deli e able o WP2, aims o p o ide an o e a ching analysis o he
in e na ional mig a ion pa e ns in Hunga y and Aus ia.
2. Mig a ion: de ini ions and me hodological challenges
2.1 An o e iew o key de ini ions and he ocus o he MIGWELL p ojec
A p e ious esea ch epo o he MIGWELL p ojec , en i led “Concep ual F amewo k o he
S udy o he Subjec i e Well-being–Mig a ion Nexus” (Néme h e al. 2022: 4-19) al eady
p o ided an o e iew o he key de ini ions and some ypologies o mig a ion p ocesses in
gene al, ollowed by a li e a u e-based e iew o he main heo ies on mig a ion and well-
being. This chap e b ie ly summa izes he mos impo an de ini ions ha a e ele an o
Wo k Package 2, “Seconda y Analysis o Exis ing Da a”.
The Uni ed Na ions Depa men o Economic and Social A ai s de ines an in e na ional
mig an as “any pe son who changes his o he coun y o usual esidence”, excluding
mo emen s due o “ ec ea ion, holiday, isi s o iends and ela i es, business, medical
ea men o eligious pilg images”. Pe sons who a e absen om hei coun y o o igin o a
pe iod o h ee o wel e mon hs a e conside ed sho ‐ e m in e na ional mig an s. I his
pe iod exceeds wel e mon hs, hey appea in s a is ics as long‐ e m in e na ional mig an s
(UN 1998: 17). The e m “usual esidence” is used o e e o he place “a which a pe son
no mally spends he daily pe iod o es , ega dless o empo a y absence o pu poses o
ec ea ion, business, medical ea men o eligious pilg image o , in de aul , he place o legal
o egis e ed esidence” (EC 2007). Howe e , no all s a es adhe e p ecisely o hese
de ini ions, as we will poin ou in Chap e 2.2.
I is impo an o men ion he e ha du ing he las yea s, a new exp ession has eme ged in he
Eu opean Union‟s pa lance: when EU na ionals o legally esiden hi d-coun y na ionals
mo e om one EU Membe S a e o ano he – implemen ing hei igh o ee mo emen – i
is usually called “in a-EU mobili y”. F om a scien i ic poin o iew i is, o cou se, s ill a
o m o in e na ional mig a ion, bu his ype o spa ial mobili y is ea ed sepa a ely in EU
policy deba es. Beyond he pu e changes in e minology, his has p ac ical consequences oo.
F ee language cou ses, o ins ance, a e no a ailable anymo e o people who change hei
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coun y o esidence “only” wi hin he Eu opean Union. In his pape , we will ollow he
Uni ed Na ion‟s de ini ion, and use he wo d “mig a ion” consis en ly.
The MIGWELL p ojec has been designed o analyse he subjec i e well-being o po en ial
s aye s and po en ial emig an s in Hunga y, pe manen long- e m immig an s in Aus ia who
ha e a i ed om he e i o y o Hunga y, as well as e u n mig an s (o po en ial e u n
mig an s) who ha e decided (o plan) o mo e back o Hunga y om Aus ia. Daily o weekly
c oss-bo de commu e s and second o hi d-gene a ion immig an s a e no included in
MIGWELL.
2.2 Me hodological challenges
“S a is ics a e no synonymous wi h eali y bu a e, a he , a way o ep esen ing he
complexi y o he wo ld in ca ego ies and igu es a ached o such ca ego ies” (Fassmann e
al. 2009: 17). This becomes ob ious when we look a he di e en ways in which ce ain
g oups o people – e.g. e hnic mino i ies, eligious g oups, o immig an s – ha e been coun ed
in censuses, popula ion egis e s, and o he da abases wo ldwide. The ecogni ion o he
echnical and me hodological challenges o conduc ing egula enume a ions o he whole
popula ion, and acking p ocesses like mig a ion, da e back o he 19 h cen u y, when he
Eu opean empi es (e.g. Habsbu g, Russian, O oman) spen eno mous e o s o egis e ,
ca ego ise, and hence be e con ol hei he e ogeneous popula ions (Ke ze and A el 2002).
While o e seas mig a ion was ela i ely well documen ed du ing he 1800s, he measu emen
o in e nal mig a ion was echnically impossible a he ime, and acking mig a ion ac oss
Eu opean s a e bo de s was likewise di icul . I could only be econs uc ed indi ec ly om
he censuses, based on pe sonal decla a ions o place o bi h. (In some cases, s a is ical
o ices egis e ed all esiden o eign ci izens and sen he egis a ion ca ds back o hei
coun ies o o igin.) Popula ion censuses a ely p o ided in o ma ion abou emig an s; i so,
hey did no yield p ecise and e i iable esul s. The i s ag eemen s on he necessi y o
compa able mig a ion s a is ics s a ed a he con e ences held by he In e na ional S a is ical
Ins i u e in he la e 1800s (Fassmann 2009: 22-24).
Al hough he Uni ed Na ions, he OECD, Eu os a , and some o he in e na ional ins i u ions
made signi ican e o s in he leas decades o s anda dise and ha monise he main concep s
and measu emen ools o in e na ional mig a ion, he de ini ions and ins umen s o
de e mining mig a ion igu es used by indi idual coun ies s ill di e ema kably, and da a
a e no always di ec ly compa able. This chap e will b ie ly e lec on he mos impo an
me hodological p oblems and he ways na ional s a is ics y o cope wi h hem. These
challenges a e associa ed wi h bo h low and s ock s a is ics.
Mig an - low da a accoun o he numbe o mig an s en e ing o lea ing a e i o ial uni ,
e.g. a coun y, du ing a speci ied ime pe iod, usually one calenda yea (UN DESA 2017).
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They a e mo e sensi i e han s ock da a o he ollowing easons: 1. Since hese da a a e
ypically collec ed in he cou se o adminis a i e p ocedu es, such as egis a ions and
de egis a ions a egis y o ices, hey hea ily depend on he ac ual legal sys ems o he
indi idual s a es. Thus, low s a is ics a e no always compa able ac oss coun ies o o e
ime. 2. They a e usually compiled by adminis a i e s a wi hou speci ic quali ica ions in
s a is ics, which has nega i e e ec s on da a quali y. 3. The whole p ocess is no ini ially
designed and coo dina ed wi h he pu pose o esea ch in mind. In mos cases, only e y ew
basic a iables a e collec ed (o published) abou he people who a i ed o le he coun y.
De ailed in o ma ion beyond age and gende – ha would be use ul o esea che s, e.g.
quali ica ions, p e ious coun ies o esidence, o amily membe s le behind – a e a ely
a ailable (Fassmann 2009).
Acco ding o he UN ecommenda ions, s a is ical o ices should label only hose people as
in e na ional mig an s who had en e ed he coun y a leas 12 mon hs ea lie . The e o e,
immig a ion low da a become ou -da ed be o e hey a e ac ually published. Some coun ies,
such as Aus ia, “ y o ci cum en he p oblem o delayed s a is ics by coun ing hose who
ha e c ossed hei bo de s as in e na ional mig an s a e hey ha e s ayed o mo e han h ee
mon hs” (ibid: 32-36). Howe e , in his way, da a on immig a ion become compa a i ely
highe han in o he coun ies whe e s a is ical o ices keep o he one-yea limi .
Ano he p ac ical p oblem conce ns he ques ion o who should be called an emig an . While
mos Eu opean coun ies coun hei ci izens as pa o he esiden popula ion o some
mon hs a e hey ha e le (e.g. h ee mon hs in he case o Aus ia), in many coun ies, o
ins ance in Romania o Hunga y, all people a e coun ed owa d he popula ion who ha e a
egis e ed pe manen add ess in he coun y, e en i hey li e in ano he coun y (Poulain e
al. 2006).
This is ela ed o he ac ha emig a ion is poo ly egis e ed in mos coun ies. A signi ican
numbe o he people who lea e a coun y, e en o a longe pe iod o ime, does no decla e
he change o hei esidence, pa icula ly wi hin he Eu opean Union. Since he e a e no
incen i es o de egis a ion, many o hem main ain hei pe manen add ess in he coun y o
o igin, while hey ac ually li e, wo k, o s udy in ano he coun y. As a esul , low da a on
emig a ion a e e y o en se iously unde es ima ed (Nowok e al. 2006). The nume ical gap
can be es ima ed by bila e al compa isons o o icial emig a ion da a o a coun y and
immig a ion da a o he des ina ion coun ies wi hin he same ime pe iod. Using “mi o
s a is ics” as a ool o de ec ing asymme ies in low da a is essen ial in mig a ion s udies.
In e na ional mig an s ocks show he o al numbe o in e na ional mig an s p esen in a
gi en coun y a a pa icula poin in ime. Coun y o bi h o , i his in o ma ion is no
a ailable, ci izenship, a e he mos equen ly used p oxy a iables o de ining in e na ional
immig an s (UN DESA 2017: 9, 2 UN DESA 2020: 5). Howe e , hese app oaches a e no
wi hou di icul ies.
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Al hough mos coun ies ga he in o ma ion on he place o bi h o hei esiden popula ion
in he cou se o censuses o popula ion egis e s, his da a in i sel does no say any hing abou
when and om which coun y he espec i e pe son has a i ed. In his sense, he coun y o
p e ious esidence could be a use ul complemen a y indica o bu ela i ely ew censuses
con ain speci ic ques ions on ha . Mo eo e , a pe son‟s coun y o bi h da a can di e om
his/he cu en coun y o esidence wi hou hei ha ing mo ed a all in hei li e ime because
he in e na ional bo de s ha e changed o he s a e i sel had meanwhile dissol ed. Simila ly,
all EU Membe S a es ask hei esiden popula ion abou hei ci izenship. Since he
equi emen s o ob aining ci izenship and he ea men o child en bo n in amilies wi h
o eign ci izenship di e signi ican ly in each coun y, he use o his a iable is e en mo e
p oblema ic.
The main sou ces o in o ma ion on in e na ional mig an s ock a e s ill he censuses. These
egula enume a ions p o ide ull and p ecise c oss-sec ional pic u es o he popula ion s ock
o a coun y. Thei majo disad an age is he g ea ime span – in mos cases en yea s –
be ween da a collec ion pe iods. Some na ional s a is ics o ices, o example in Hunga y and
Aus ia, aim o b idge his gap by conduc ing in-be ween mic o-censuses. Al hough da a
alidi y is limi ed because hese a e based on ep esen a i e sample su eys (and hey usually
unde es ima e immig an popula ion), mic o-censuses a e widely conside ed use ul ools o
ack popula ion dynamics ha can change d as ically o e a decade (Fassmann 2009: 39).
Ano he me hodological p oblem ha hampe he in e na ional compa abili y o s ock da a is
he lack o consensus abou he necessa y pe iod o s ay o be coun ed as immig an (e.g. h ee
mon hs in Aus ia, h ee mon hs in Hunga y o EU ci izens, one yea o hi d-coun y
ci izens), and he ea men o asylum seeke s; in Aus ia hey a e included, while in Hunga y
hey a e excluded om he esiden popula ion (Poulain e al. 2006).
Wi h all challenges and limi a ions in mind, in his Resea ch Repo we will use coun y o
bi h as a p oxy a iable o de ining in e na ional immig an s, wi h e lec ions on he da a o
coun y o las esidency, which ha e been a ailable in Aus ia since 2002.
2.3 Da a sou ces
In his pape , we use h ee main da a sou ces conce ning in e na ional mig a ion: censuses
ha co e he s ock popula ions in Hunga y and Aus ia, he popula ion egis e in Aus ia,
and da abases o Eu os a and he Uni ed Na ions.
In Hunga y, he au ho i y esponsible o o ganising he censuses and p oducing accu a e da a
on he popula ion s ock is he Hunga ian Cen al S a is ical O ice. The 2001, 2011, and 2022
censuses p o ided se e al a iables ega ding he o eign popula ion s ock, such as
ci izenship, place o bi h, sex, age, and so o h (Há s and Sik 2009). Beside he census
esul s, he Hunga ian Cen al S a is ical O ice also uses adminis a i e da a sou ces o coun
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o eign popula ion, such as he Cen al Popula ion Regis e , he Cen al Aliens Regis e , and
wo k-pe mi da a.
In Aus ia, he las “classic” popula ion census was held in 2001. The high cos s, g owing
esis ance o he popula ion, and he delay o yea s be ween he inqui y and he publica ion o
he esul s we e he main easons o in oducing a new popula ion egis e , and abandoning
he old model (Reege 2009). E e y pe son who changes his/he esidence wi hin Aus ia,
a i es in, o lea es he coun y, mus egis e wi hin h ee days. Municipal egis a ion
se ices a e esponsible o coo dina ing his p ocess, and S a is ics Aus ia ecei es hese
da a h ough he Cen al Regis a ion Sys em. Since he popula ion egis e has been linked o
many o he egis e s, including educa ion, social secu i y, ax, unemploymen , business, e c.,
S a is ics Aus ia has been able o conduc egis e -based censuses since 2011. This in eg a ed
egis e -based sys em makes i possible o measu e in e nal and in e na ional mig a ion lows
mo e accu a ely han be o e. Da a on ci izenship, place o bi h, cu en and p e ious o – in
case o de egis e ed emig an s, he nex – coun y o main esidence a e a ailable on he le el
o municipali ies. Howe e , p e- and pos -2002 da a on mig a ion a e no pe ec ly
compa able (ibid: 115-116).
Eu os a
1
con inuously upda es, e ises ( o ob ain in e na ionally compa able da a), and
publishes mig a ion s a is ics collec ed om he Membe S a es‟ na ional s a is ical ins i u es.
The Uni ed Na ions da abase
2
on in e na ional mig an s ocks is ano he ele an sou ce ha
co e s all coun ies in he wo ld. These da a a e ob ained om censuses, popula ion egis e s,
o na ionally ep esen a i e su eys acco ding o he e e ence yea s 1990, 1995, 2000, 2005,
2010, 2015 and 2020. Howe e , o coun ies whe e empi ical da a a e no a ailable o wo
o mo e poin s in ime, in e pola ion o ex apola ion is used o es ima e he mig an s ock o
he e e ence yea s. The UN in e na ional mig a ion low s a is ics co e 45 coun ies. These
da a a e collec ed h ough a a ie y o da a collec ion sys ems: popula ion egis e s, bo de
s a is ics, he numbe o esidence pe mi s issued, s a is ical o ms ha a e comple ed when
pe sons change hei place o esidence, e c.
1
h ps://ec.eu opa.eu/eu os a /web/main/da a/da abase
2
h ps://www.un.o g/de elopmen /desa/pd/da a-landing-page
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4. In e na ional mig a ion p ocesses
4.1 Hunga y
4.1.1 Mig a ion lows
As in many o he socialis coun ies, he in e na ional mig a ion lows o Hunga y we e qui e
mode a e h oughou he socialis e a. Legal emig a ion and immig a ion could be pe mi ed
upon eques in cases o amily euni ica ion, al hough i was no conside ed a uni e sal igh
bu was decided on a case-by-case basis (Göd i e al. 2013). The e we e some no able
excep ions o his ule, because poli ically a ou ed g oups such as G eek and Chilean
e ugees ecei ed esidence pe mi s in 1949 and 1973 espec i ely. A ci cula o m o labou
mig a ion u he mo e exis ed wi hin he Eas e n Bloc. Fo example, Hunga ian enginee s
wo ked in he So ie Union and in ce ain Middle Eas e n coun ies, while Hunga y in e u n
ecei ed Cuban wea e s, Polish mine s, and Russian indus ial wo ke s (Puskás 1991). The
sum o legal immig an s in he s a e socialis pe iod is es ima ed a a ound 52,000, whe eas
he o al ou wa d mig a ion could ha e been a ound 430,000 (Tó h 1997). In 1956, he yea o
he e olu ion agains he So ie ule, almos 200,000 people le Hunga y du ing a b ie
pe iod o open bo de s (Hablicsek and Illés 2007). F om he la e 1980s onwa d, Hunga y
changed om a closed coun y wi h e y low mig a ion a es o a coun y wi h conside able
immig a ion and ansi mig a ion. Due o he in oduc ion in 1988 o igh s o na ionals o
a el ab oad eely, ou mig a ion also became signi ican (Göd i e al. 2013).
While he na u al change has a ied be ween -30,000 and -40,000 pe yea since he ea ly
1990s, mig a ion su plus has been mi iga ing i s nega i e e ec on popula ion de elopmen .
On he whole, app oxima ely 450,000 mo e people a i ed in Hunga y han hose who had
le he coun y be ween 1996 and 2021.
Immig a ion
Acco ding o he o icial s a is ics, he annual numbe o immig an s inc eased sligh ly un il
he 2008 global inancial c isis. A e a empo a y jump and d op, a consis en and
conside able inc ease is obse able: in 2010 only 25,000 people a i ed in Hunga y, while in
2019 his numbe amoun ed o mo e han 88,000 (Figu e 5). E hnici y has played an impo an
ole in his p ocess because he in low o o eign-bo n people had consis ed mainly o e hnic
Hunga ians om Romania, Uk aine, Se bia, and Slo akia. Al hough hei sha e has been
declining, one can s ill ind he neighbou ing coun ies on he lis o he immig an s‟ op
coun ies o bi h, oge he wi h Ge many, Tu key, China, Vie nam, and he USA (Table 3,
Figu e 6-7). The sha e o o al immig a ion made up by Hunga ian ci izens (including
e u nees) a ied be ween 8 and 13% a e he millennium bu oday i is g ea e han 55%
(Néme h and G ube 2019: 29).
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Figu e 5. Flow da a on in e na ional immig a ion, emig a ion, and mig a ion balance in Hunga y, 1996-2020
Sou ce: Eu os a , own igu e.
Table 3. In e na ional immig a ion lows by coun y o bi h (na i e bo n, o eign bo n, op 5 coun ies o bi h) a
he na ional le el in Hunga y by 2010, 2015, 2020
Immig a ion low by coun y o bi h
2010
2015
2020
To al
25,519
58,344
75,470
Na i e bo n
2,507
15,162
23,440
Fo eign bo n (EU*)
12,521
15,286
21,297
Fo eign bo n (non-EU)
10,491
27,889
30,718
Top 1.
Romania
6,441
Uk aine
10,003
Romania
6,203
Top 2.
Ge many
2,054
Romania
8,451
Uk aine
5,674
Top 3.
Se bia
1,264
Se bia
3,751
Ge many
3,532
Top 4.
Uk aine
1,072
China
3,527
Slo akia
2,824
Top 5.
China
1,056
Ge many
1,888
Se bia
2,622
Sou ce: Eu os a , own able. (*EU-28 coun ies, 2013-2020)
Figu e 6. In e na ional immig a ion lows by coun y o bi h (na i e bo n, o eign bo n EU-28*, o eign-bo n non-
EU-28) a he na ional le el in Hunga y, 2008-2020. Le : in numbe s; igh : in pe cen ages.
Sou ce: Eu os a , own igu e. (*EU-28 coun ies: 2013-2020, including he Uni ed Kingdom)
0
10 000
20 000
30 000
40 000
50 000
60 000
70 000
80 000
90 000
100 000
Immig a ion Emig a ion Mig a ion balance
0
10 000
20 000
30 000
40 000
50 000
60 000
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
Na i e bo n
Fo eign bo n (EU-28)
Fo eign bo n (non-EU-28)
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
Fo eign bo n (non-EU-28)
Fo eign bo n (EU-28)
Na i e bo n
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Figu e 7. In e na ional immig a ion lows acco ding o he op 10 coun ies o bi h ( ega ding he whole pe iod) a
he na ional le el in Hunga y, 2008-2020.
Sou ce: Eu os a , own igu e.
Emig a ion
Simila ly o mos Eu opean coun ies, Hunga y also lacks eliable da a on emig a ion. Thus,
he numbe o de egis e ed emig an s is a below he igu es shown by mi o s a is ics. (Fo
ins ance, while o icially abou 13,000 Hunga ians mo ed o ano he EU coun y in 2012,
acco ding o “mi o s a is ics” almos 80,000 Hunga ian immig an s we e egis e ed by he
espec i e des ina ion coun ies – Göd i 2014). Emig a ion lows om Hunga y also
expe ienced a peak in he i s yea s a e he poli ical ans o ma ion. A he ime i howe e
was mainly non-Hunga ian ci izens, who had a i ed in he la e 1980s, who hen le he
coun y. A e a sho pe iod wi h ela i ely mode a e emig a ion igu es, he numbe o ou -
mig an s s a ed o inc ease a e Hunga y‟s accession o he Eu opean Union, and pa icula ly
a e he global inancial c isis in 2008 (Há s 2013).
The mos impo an u ning poin came in 2011, when Ge many and Aus ia opened hei
labou ma ke s o he wo k o ce coming om he new EU Membe S a es (Göd i 2016: 7).
A e a empo a y s agna ion, he numbe o emig an s g ew dynamically – by 72% – be ween
2017 and 2020 (Figu e 5). The h ee main coun ies o des ina ion a e Ge many, Aus ia, and
he Uni ed Kingdom, which ha e yea ly been abso bing mo e han h ee- hi ds o all
egis e ed emig an s (Table 4). Howe e , su eys e eal ha while li ing and wo king in
Ge many en ails a pe manen mo e ab oad, Aus ia and he Uni ed Kingdom end o appea as
scenes o ci cula labou - o ce mig a ion (Göd i e al. 2013).
0
2 000
4 000
6 000
8 000
10 000
12 000
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Romania Uk aine Se bia Ge many China
Uni ed S a es Slo akia Tu key Vie nam India
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Table 4. In e na ional emig a ion lows o na i e-bo n na ional and o eign ci izens by des ina ion coun y (Top-5
des ina ion coun ies) a he na ional le el in Hunga y by 2016
Emig a ion low o na i e
bo n na ional ci izens
Emig a ion low o
o eign ci izens
To al
28,166
10,464
Ge many
9,087
n.a.
Aus ia
7,470
n.a.
Uni ed Kingdom
5,759
n.a.
Swi ze land
1,004
n.a.
Ne he land
813
n.a.
Sou ce: Néme h and G ube 2019: 29.
The e o e, he in e na ional mig a ion balance g ew signi ican ly be ween 2013 (ca. +4,000)
and 2019 (+39,000 people). The Co id-19 pandemic changed his endency, bu i is no ye
clea whe he his is a empo a y phenomenon (Figu e 5).
4.1.2 Popula ion by place o bi h
Fo eign-bo n popula ion in Hunga y
The size o he o eign-bo n popula ion (597,000, i.e. 6%) in Hunga y has been g owing
sligh ly since 1991. Compa able o he low da a, he la ges p opo ion o he o eign-bo n
popula ion s ems om he ou neighbou ing coun ies o Romania, Uk aine, Slo akia, and
Se bia (al oge he 64% o he immig an s ock) as well as om Ge many and China (Figu e 8,
Table 5).
Figu e 8. Popula ion s ock by he op 10 coun ies o bi h a he na ional le el in Hunga y (numbe o people, 2012-
2021)
Sou ce: Eu os a . Own igu e.
0
50 000
100 000
150 000
200 000
250 000
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Romania Uk aine Se bia Ge many
Slo akia Uni ed Kingdom China Aus ia
Uni ed S a es Vie nam
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Table 5. Popula ion s ock by coun y o bi h (na i e bo n, o eign bo n, op 5 coun ies o bi h) a he na ional le el
in Hunga y by 2011, 2016, 2021
Immig a ion low by coun y o bi h
2011
2016
2021
To al
9,937,628 (100%)
9,803,837 (100%)
9,730,772 (100%)
Na i e bo n
9,544,643 (96%)
9,420,342 (96%)
9,133,130 (94%)
Fo eign bo n (EU*)
266,981 (3%)
252,958 (3%)
337,790 (4%)
Fo eign bo n (non-EU)
116,255 (1%)
130,537 (1%)
259,852 (3%)
Top 1.
Romania
176,550
Romania
158,020
Romania
207,970
Top 2.
Uk aine
35,354
Uk aine
37,121
Uk aine
71,508
Top 3.
Slo akia
33,155
Slo akia
32,843
Se bia
45,935
Top 4.
Se bia
29,144
Se bia
25,387
Ge many
38,954
Top 5.
Ge many
22,605
Ge many
23,453
Slo akia
21,266
Sou ce: 2011 popula ion census, 2016 mic o-census, 2021: Eu os a . Own able. (*EU-28 coun ies, 2013-2020)
Hunga ian-bo n people ab oad
Acco ding o he es ima ions o he Uni ed Na ions, app oxima ely 632,000 Hunga ian-bo n
people li ed ab oad in 2019. This alue inc eased by 64% du ing he las h ee decades. The
Hunga ian emig an s ock (based on coun y-o -bi h da a) comp ised ca. 387,000 people in
1990, ca. 421,000 in 2000 and almos 514,000 in 2010. Today, almos hal o all Hunga ian
emig an s li e in Wes e n Eu ope, bu he USA (85,000) and Canada (39,000) also belong o
he mos impo an des ina ion coun ies (UN DESA 2019).
Acco ding o he 2016 mic o-census, he numbe o people li ing ab oad empo a ily o
pe manen ly (bu belonging o households in Hunga y) was abou 38,000 and 259,000
espec i ely. Mo e han 80% o hem mo ed ab oad o o employmen easons, and 70%
wo k in Ge many, Aus ia, o he Uni ed Kingdom. Among he people who ha e chosen
Ge many o Aus ia, he a io o men (55%) was highe han hei espec i e a io among he
o al popula ion, while he o he o e - ep esen ed g oups we e hose o wo king age (90%),
he younge gene a ion (33-37%), skilled wo kmen (58%), o people wi h a highe educa ion
(30%) (Tálas 2020: 73). Addi ionally, he numbe o c oss-bo de commu e s exceeded
72,000 (Ho á h 2022: 110). Based on he 2016 mic o-census esul s ega ding he mig a ion
expe ience, we can conclude ha ca. 41% o Hunga ian emig an s e u ned o Hunga y (Tálas
2020: 73).
4.2 Aus ia
4.2.1 Mig a ion lows
Immig a ion
A e ha ing been an emig a ion coun y o decades, Aus ia has de eloped in o an
immig a ion coun y du ing he pos -Wo ld Wa II pe iod (Fassmann and Münz 1994). Un il
he 1990s, he highes sha e o immig a ion was associa ed wi h gues -wo ke mobili y mainly
om wo coun ies: Tu key and Yugosla ia. A he peak o he ec ui men phase, he numbe
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o en ies ose o a ound 35,000 pe yea . This i s wa e o in e na ional immig a ion b ough
indi idual young people, mos ly males, o Aus ia. They we e in e es ed in maximising
income while minimising li ing cos s, in o de o send home as much money as possible
(Fassmann 1992: 102). Es ablishing in eg a ion policy was no on he Aus ian poli ical
agenda because hese newly a i ed people we e gene ally seen as empo a y gues wo ke s
who can be hi ed o sen back home depending on he economic si ua ion (Fassmann and
Reege 2012: 79).
The annual in e na ional mig a ion balance was mode a e (in some yea s nega i e) in he pos -
1973 pe iod. Du ing he economic down u n, accompanied by g owing unemploymen as well
as inc eased in la ion and public deb , he Aus ian go e nmen a emp ed o educe he
o eign labou o ce and ec ui men was also s opped. The in e na ional mig a ion su plus
s a ed o g ow again slowly in he second hal o he 1980s, mainly due o amily
euni ica ions. A he same ime, he numbe o e ugees om socialis Eas e n and Sou h-
Eas e n Eu opean coun ies also inc eased signi ican ly.
Since he 1991 census, he Aus ian popula ion has g own by abou one million, and nea ly
90% o his inc ease has been a esul o mig a ion gain. Howe e , hese h ee decades canno
be conside ed a homogeneous pe iod ega ding he in e na ional mig a ion p ocesses. Du ing
he ea ly 1990s, a signi ican pa o he new a i als comp ised e ugees om o me
Yugosla ia. A e 1993, s ic e egula ions (“Aliens Ac ”, “Residence Law” and he 2002
“Aliens‟ Law Package”) we e in oduced o con ol immig a ion. These in ol ed annual
quo as and he classi ica ion o po en ial immig an s in o di e en g oups. Aus ia became
mo e es ic i e, especially o hi d-coun y na ionals. These poli ical measu es we e he main
eason o he d op in mig a ion igu es (Figu e 4).
The annual numbe o immig an s s a ed o g ow again a e he eas wa d expansion o he
EU. Howe e , ansi ional a angemen s we e in oduced: ci izens o he new Membe S a es
we e no g an ed employmen igh s in Aus ia in p o ec ed economic sec o s (e.g.
cons uc ion indus y) un il May 2011. In he case o Romanian and Bulga ian na ionals, his
egula ion was in o ce un il 2013. Thus, immig a ion lows om he new EU coun ies g ew
signi ican ly a e he end o hese es ic ions (Figu e 9, 11). The in low o people om he
Middle Eas inc eased signi ican ly in 2015-2017 due o an inc eased numbe o e ugees
a i ing in Eu ope. Du ing his pe iod, abou 156,000 asylum applica ions we e iled. Mo e
han 77,000 pe sons – mos ly om Sy ia and A ghanis an – we e g an ed asylum bu many o
hese applica ions a e s ill pending. I was he i h majo wa e o asylum applica ions in
Aus ia since he 1950s, and nume ically he mos impo an one since he 1956 up ising in
Hunga y (Riede e e al. 2020: 22). This c ea ed a comple ely new si ua ion in immig a ion
and in eg a ion measu es, as hese wo coun ies had p e iously been o li le impo ance as
sou ces o mig a ion o Aus ia.
The Eu os a da a illus a e ha he sha es o o eign-bo n non-EU ci izens in he o al
in e na ional immig a ion low ha e la gely e u ned o p e-2015 alues (Figu e 10).
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Howe e , he s ong asylum mig a ion in 2022 will p obably b eak his end again. Mos o
he 71.885 asylum applica ions we e submi ed by ci izens o A ghanis an (16.510), Sy ia
(12.529), and India (11.541). Among he o al numbe o applican s, he high numbe o
unaccompanied mino s (9.347) is pa icula ly no ewo hy.
7
Figu e 9. O icial da a on in e na ional immig a ion, emig a ion, and mig a ion balance in Aus ia, 2002-2020
Sou ce: S a is ics Aus ia, own igu e.
Table 6. In e na ional immig a ion lows by coun y o bi h (na i e bo n, o eign bo n, op 5 coun ies o bi h) a
he na ional le el in Aus ia by 2010, 2015, 2020
Immig a ion low by coun y o bi h
2010
2015
2020
To al
112,691
214,410
136,343
Na i e bo n
13,260
13,483
12,532
Fo eign bo n (EU*)
58,193
85,571
77,207
Fo eign bo n (non-EU)
41,292
115,356
46,604
Top 1.
Ge many
17,555
Sy ia
21,741
Ge many
18,934
Top 2.
Romania
11,432
A ghanis an
17,403
Romania
16,799
Top 3.
Se bia
6,775
Romania
17,246
Hunga y
8,898
Top 4.
Hunga y
6,351
Ge many
16,875
Se bia
6,333
Top 5.
Tu key
4,476
Hunga y
13,060
Bosnia-H.
5,545
Sou ce: S a is ics Aus ia. Own able. (*EU-28 coun ies, 2013-2020)
7
h ps://www.bmi.g .a /301/S a is iken/ iles/2022/De ails a is ik_BFA_Kennzahlen_1-3_Qua al_2022.pd
0
50000
100000
150000
200000
250000
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Immig a ion Emig a ion Mig a ion balance
FWF–NKFIH Join P ojec
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Figu e 10. In e na ional immig a ion lows by coun y o bi h (na i e bo n, o eign-bo n EU-28*, o eign-bo n non-
EU-28) a he na ional le el in Aus ia, 2008-2020. Le : in numbe s; Righ : in pe cen ages.
Sou ce: Eu os a , own igu e. (*EU-28 coun ies: 2013-2020, wi h he Uni ed Kingdom)
Figu e 11. In e na ional immig a ion lows acco ding o he op 10 coun ies o bi h ( ega ding he whole pe iod) a
he na ional le el in Aus ia, 2002-2020.
Sou ce: S a is ics Aus ia, own igu e.
Emig a ion
Since 2002, a ound 1.3 million people emig a ed om Aus ia, and app oxima ely one hi d
o hem we e na i e-bo n pe sons. Among hei main des ina ion coun ies one could ind
Ge many, Swi ze land, he USA, he UK, and Tu key in 2016, while Ge many, Romania,
Hunga y, Se bia, and Poland led he lis o o eign na ionals (Table 7).
0
10 000
20 000
30 000
40 000
50 000
60 000
70 000
80 000
90 000
100 000
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
Na i e bo n
Fo eign bo n (EU-28)
Fo eign bo n (non-EU-28)
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
Fo eign bo n (non-EU-28)
Fo eign bo n (EU-28)
Na i e bo n
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Ge many Romania Hunga y
Poland Bosnia and He zego ina Tu key
Se bia Slo akia Sy ia
Bulga ia
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In 2020, he Co id-19 pandemic es ic ed mobili y, esul ing in a dec ease in mo emen in
and ou o he coun y. A ound 96,000 people le Aus ia, so ha 2020 was he yea wi h he
lowes emig a ion le el since 2012. The olume o emig a ion inc eased again in 2021 (ca.
102,000 people). The la ges g oup o emig an s we e Aus ian ci izens (17,140), ollowed by
Romanians (13,318), Ge mans (11,024), Hunga ians (7,702) and Se bs (4,615).
8
Aus ia‟s
cu en ne mig a ion a e is 3,237 pe 1000 inhabi an s, which is a 24.1% decline om 2021.
9
Table 7. In e na ional emig a ion lows o na i e-bo n na ional and o eign ci izens by des ina ion coun y ( op-5
des ina ion coun ies) a he na ional le el in Aus ia by 2016
Emig a ion low o na i e bo n
na ional ci izens
Emig a ion low o o eign
ci izens
To al
16,143
To al
89,026
Ge many
2,581
Ge many
11,593
Swi ze land
1,245
Romania
8,811
USA
467
Hunga y
7,081
UK
344
Se bia
4,893
Tu key
290
Poland
3,407
Sou ce: Neme h and G ube 2019: 21.
4.2.2 Popula ion by place o bi h
Fo eign-bo n popula ion in Aus ia
App oxima ely 1.8 million o eign-bo n people li ed in Aus ia on 1 Janua y 2021, amoun ing
o 20.5% o he popula ion. Looking a a b oade indica o , 25% o he o al popula ion (mo e
han 2.2 million pe sons) has a “mig a ion backg ound”, including all pe sons whose pa en s
had been bo n ab oad. Looking a he cu en popula ion s uc u e, he highes sha es o
oday‟s popula ion a e s ill holding a mig a ion backg ound om Se bia o Tu key.
Today he highes p opo ion o o eigne s in he Aus ian popula ion is cons i u ed by people
bo n in Ge many, ollowed by Bosnia and He zego ina, Tu key, Se bia, and Romania. (Table
8). As a consequence o he 2022 Uk ainian wa , he e is a s ong inc ease in he numbe o
Uk ainians. A he beginning o 2022, app oxima ely 13,000 Uk ainians li ed in Aus ia,
whe eas on 1 Ap il 2022, hei numbe al eady exceeded 52,000.
10
The sha e o hose who
wan o s ay in Aus ia pe manen ly is cu en ly s ill unce ain.
8
h ps://de.s a is a.com/s a is ik/da en/s udie/718036/um age/auswande e -aus-oes e eich-nach-
s aa sangehoe igkei en/
9
h ps://www.mac o ends.ne /coun ies/AUT/aus ia/ne -mig a ion.
10
h ps://www.in eg a ions onds.a / ileadmin/con en /AT/Fo os/Publika ionen/S a is ikb oschue e/OEIF_S a is isc
hes_Jah buch_2021.pd
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Table 8. Popula ion s ock by coun y o bi h (na i e bo n, o eign bo n, Top 5 coun ies o bi h) a he na ional le el
in Aus ia by 2011, 2016, 2021
Immig a ion low by coun y o bi h
2011
2016
2021
To al
8,426,498 (100%)
8,700,471 (100%)
8,932,664 (100%)
Na i e bo n
7,131,792 (85%)
7,105,748 (81%)
7,135,091 (79.5%)
Fo eign bo n (EU*)
585,276 (7%)
714,028 (9%)
831,427 (9.5%)
Fo eign bo n (non-EU)
709,430 (8%)
880,695 (10%)
966,146 (11%)
Top 1.
Ge many
205,630
Ge many
219,943
Ge many
244,947
Top 2.
Bosnia-H.
167,255
Bosnia-H.
162,021
Bosnia-H.
172,373
Top 3.
Tu key
126,778
Tu key
160,184
Tu key
159,068
Top 4.
Se bia
141,877
Se bia
137,057
Se bia
144,416
Top 5.
Romania
109,988
Romania
98,727
Romania
134,206
Sou ce: S a is ics Aus ia. Own able. (*EU-28 coun ies, 2013-2020)
The annual da a show a signi ican con inuous inc ease in he Ge man- and Romanian-bo n
popula ion s ock, and a simila end o Sy ians since 2015. The ela i ely s able s ock o
Hunga ian o igin also inc eased in he ollowing yea s, bu has le elled o again a a s able
le el since 2018 (Figu e 12). In e ms o s ock o he o eign-bo n popula ion, he mos
impo an coun y is Ge many (14%), ollowed by Bosnia and He zego ina, Tu key, Se bia,
Romania, and Hunga y.
Figu e 12. Popula ion s ock acco ding o he op 10 coun ies o bi h a he na ional le el in Aus ia (numbe o
people, 2002-2022)
Sou ce: S a is ics Aus ia. Own igu e.
Aus ian-bo n people ab oad
Acco ding o he Uni ed Na ions, mo e han 576,000 Aus ian-bo n people li ed ab oad in
2019: 238,000 in Ge many, 72,000 in he USA and Canada, 61,000 in Swi ze land and 28,000
in he Uni ed Kingdom. This emig a ion s ock, calcula ed by coun y-o -bi h da a, ep esen s
a ai ly s able numbe , which has inc eased sligh ly since 1990, when a ound 506,000
0
50000
100000
150000
200000
250000
300000
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
Ge many Bosnia and He cego ina Tu key
Se bia Romania Hunga y
Poland Sy ia C oa ia
Slo akia
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assume ha hey p edominan ly ep esen he child en bo n in Aus ia o e u n mig an s.
(Figu e 16).
Figu e 16. The age-sex py amids o he mig a ion low be ween Hunga y and Aus ia, by coun y o bi h, 2002-2021.
(Scales di e )
Sou ce: S a is ics Aus ia. Own igu e.
5.3 The Hunga ian popula ion s ock in Aus ia
Acco ding o he o icial s a is ics, al oge he 85,316 Hunga ian-bo n people li ed in Aus ia
on he 1s o Janua y 2022. Mo e han 85% o hem has Hunga ian ci izenship, ye only h ee-
ou hs o hese Hunga ian na ionals we e bo n in Hunga y (Table 11). These igu es include
-20000 -15000 -10000 -5000 0 5000 10000 15000 20000
0-4
5-9
10-14
15-19
20-24
25-29
30-34
35-39
40-44
45-49
50-54
55-59
60-64
65-69
70-74
75-79
80-84
85-89
90-94
95+
Mig an s om Hunga y o Aus ia (Coun y
o bi h: Hunga y)
Male Female
-300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300
0-4
5-9
10-14
15-19
20-24
25-29
30-34
35-39
40-44
45-49
50-54
55-59
60-64
65-69
70-74
75-79
80-84
85-89
90-94
95+
Mig an s om Hunga y o Aus ia (Coun y
o bi h: Aus ia)
Male Female
-10000 -7500 -5000 -2500 0 2500 5000 7500 10000
0-4
5-9
10-14
15-19
20-24
25-29
30-34
35-39
40-44
45-49
50-54
55-59
60-64
65-69
70-74
75-79
80-84
85-89
90-94
95+
Mig an s om Aus ia o Hunga y (Coun y
o bi h: Hunga y)
Male Female
-1500 -1000 -500 0 500 1000 1500
0-4
5-9
10-14
15-19
20-24
25-29
30-34
35-39
40-44
45-49
50-54
55-59
60-64
65-69
70-74
75-79
80-84
85-89
90-94
95+
Mig an s om Aus ia o Hunga y (Coun y
o bi h: Aus ia)
Male Female
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people wi h dual ci izenship, an op ion ha has been a ailable o e hnic Hunga ians ou side
o hei kin s a e since 2010. Since Aus ian law does no pe mi mul iple ci izenship, people
a e only allowed o indica e one coun y o ci izenship in hei egis a ion documen s. We
ha e no in o ma ion abou he decision-making ou comes bu a signi ican p opo ion o hese
dual ci izens may choose he Hunga ian ci izenship, ins ead o he Uk ainian, Romanian,
Se bian and so o h. This would explain he di e ence o app oxima ely 9,000 be ween he
numbe o Hunga ian-bo n people and Hunga ian ci izens li ing in Aus ia (Figu e 13).
Table 11. Popula ion s ock o he Hunga ian-bo n people by op-5 ci izenships and he Hunga ian ci izens by he op-
5 coun ies o bi h in Aus ia in 2022
Hunga ian-bo n people by ci izenship
Hunga ian ci izens by coun y o bi h
Hunga y
72,044
84.44%
Hunga y
72,044
76.31%
Aus ia
12,038
14.11%
Aus ia
9,778
10.36%
Ge many
714
0.84%
Se bia
7,447
7.89%
Romania
135
0.16%
Romania
2,757
2.92%
Uni ed S a es o Ame ica
38
0.04%
Ge many
579
0.61%
Slo akia
25
0.03%
Uk aine
308
0.33%
o he
322
0.38%
o he
1,498
1.59%
SUM
85,316
100%
SUM
94,411
100%
Sou ce: S a is ics Aus ia. Own able.
Simila o he majo i y o coun ies in he Global No h, he a io be ween he sexes in Aus ia
is sligh ly biased owa d he emale sex wi h abou 97 males o 100 emales. Women make up
a bigge p opo ion o he Aus ian-bo n popula ion om age 55, and his emale su plus
inc eases g adually in e e y age g oup he ea e . In he case o he Hunga ian-bo n
popula ion, he sex a io is e en mo e biased wi h 87 males pe 100 emales, i.e. 46% males
and 54% emales. Women ou numbe men in all age g oups abo e he age o 20. The age-sex
py amid o he Aus ian-bo n popula ion has an “u n” shape, which is common in he
de eloped coun ies, wi h dec easing popula ion numbe s and longe li e expec ancies. The
“diamond” shape o he Hunga ian-bo n popula ion‟s age-sex py amid is also ypical o
immig an popula ions (Figu e 17).
Ne e heless, i is in e es ing ha he a io o he sexes is in e sed in he case o low and
s ock da a. To ecall: while males made up he majo i y (52%) o he Hunga ian-bo n
mig an s o e he las wo decades, and hei p opo ion is e en highe among e u n
mig an s
16
(56%), he e is a emale su plus (52%) in he Hunga ian-bo n popula ion s ock
li ing in Aus ia. Based on hese igu es, we can assume ha males a e gene ally mo e mobile
han emales, and hey mo e back and o h mo e equen ly, while Hunga ian women a e
mo e likely o emain in Aus ia. (Ano he explana ion o he emale su plus could be ha he
16
As a p oxy a iable o “ e u n mig a ion”, we he e e e o he low da a ega ding he numbe o Hunga ian-
bo n people mo ing om Aus ia o Hunga y.
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Hunga ian wo ke s in Aus ia a e concen a ed in sec o s o he ho el and hospi ali y indus y
as well as 24-hou home nu sing, whe e he p opo ion o women is usually highe .)
Figu e 17. Popula ion py amid o he Aus ian-bo n (le ) and he Hunga ian-bo n ( igh ) popula ions li ing in
Aus ia, 2022 (Scales di e )
Sou ce: S a is ics Aus ia. Own igu e. Blue: males; O ange: emales.
Al hough s uden mobili y does exis , and some imes amilial ela ionships may be he main
mo i a ion o mig a ion (e.g. mo ing ab oad because o he p essu e o suppo he amily,
o , con e sely, e u ning o he coun y o o igin in o de o ecei e kin suppo , o example,
om g andpa en s), labou mig an s doub lessly cons i u e he majo i y o in e na ional
mig an s in he Danube Region, including he Hunga y–Aus ia mig a ion channel. As G ube
and Néme h (2021: 232-234) concluded, highe sala ies and he a ailabili y o jobs a e he
pull ac o s, while you h unemploymen , p eca ious o pa - ime employmen , and he
aspi a ion o be e oppo uni ies in a di e en coun y ep esen he main push ac o s.
Many o hese young males o emales can be conside ed “ a ge ea ne s”, who ake up
employmen in Aus ia in o de o sa e money and send i back o Hunga y, o make
in es men s a e e u ning. While unquali ied wo ke s a e p ima ily mo i a ed by highe
sala ies, skilled wo ke s o hose wi h highe educa ion diplomas end o pu sue p o essional
excellence ab oad. Howe e , many o hem ha e o accep jobs equi ing lowe skills han
hei own, and hey o en become apped in employmen below hei ac ual quali ica ion.
This phenomenon is called “b ain was e” in he li e a u e, and can be explained by he limi ed
in e na ional ans e abili y o skills.
17
17
F om a heo e ical poin o iew, he segmen a ion o he labou ma ke also explains why mig an s a e
en olled in unskilled wo k o a la ge ex en , despi e hei ac ual quali ica ion. B ain was e ca ies subs an ial
-300000 -200000 -100000 0 100000 200000 300000
0-4
5-9
10-14
15-19
20-24
25-29
30-34
35-39
40-44
45-49
50-54
55-59
60-64
65-69
70-74
75-79
80-84
85-89
90-94
95+
-6000 -4000 -2000 0 2000 4000 6000
0-4
5-9
10-14
15-19
20-24
25-29
30-34
35-39
40-44
45-49
50-54
55-59
60-64
65-69
70-74
75-79
80-84
85-89
90-94
95+
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In gene al, amilies display a lowe endency owa d mig a ing, especially when amily ies
a e close (Kulu and Milewski 2007). In he Danube Region, ansna ional amilies wi h amily
membe s le behind a e e y ypical (G ube and Neme h 2018). All o hese aspec s o
in e na ional mig a ion ha e a s ong impac on peoples‟ subjec i e well-being. We will ocus
on his opic in he subsequen Wo k Packages and MIGWELL Resea ch Repo s.
5.3.1 Some socio-demog aphic ea u es o pe manen immig an s om Hunga y
The 2016 Hunga ian mic o-census con ained a supplemen a y ques ionnai e on in e na ional
mig a ion. I p o ided, among o he s, de ailed in o ma ion abou pe sons who belonged o
Hunga ian households bu li ed ab oad empo a ily o pe manen ly on 1 Oc obe 2016. The
sample was ep esen a i e by se e al a ibu es, including gende , age, economic ac i i y,
educa ional backg ound, e c.
18
The mic o-census de ec ed 24,212 pe manen mig an s wi h a Hunga ian o igin in Aus ia.
19
67% o hem belonged o he 15-39 age g oup, whe eas 22% belonged o he 40-54 age g oup.
O e all, he p opo ion o men was 53%. The male su plus was pa icula ly s ong among he
25-39 yea -olds (60%) bu in he age g oup 15-24, emales ou numbe ed males (58%). While
oca ional quali ica ion was ypical o men (42%, compa ed o 17% o women), he
p opo ion o women wi h seconda y school g adua ion and a highe educa ion deg ee was
signi ican ly highe ; 46% and 32% o emales, 36% and 17% o males espec i ely.
Rega ding ma i al s a us he e was no ema kable gende -speci ic di e ences: 56-58% o his
popula ion we e single, 29% we e ma ied and 11-14% we e di o ced.
20
While he ela i e majo i y o men wo k in gene al indus y and speci ically he cons uc ion
indus y, mos women a e employed in he e ia y sec o (Figu e 18). Acco ding o he mic o-
census, mo e han one- hi d o he Hunga ian pe manen mig an s can be conside ed
o e quali ied, i.e. hey exceed he educa ion le el ha is equi ed o pe o m hei ac ual job.
(Howe e , his a io is no less han 85% among mig an women wi h child en emaining in
he homeland – Ho á h 2022: 136-137). Pe manen mig an s end o main ain s ong
ansna ional ela ionships: 65% o hem inancially suppo amily membe s a home and
95% o hem ha e isi ed Hunga y a leas once a e hey had mo ed o Aus ia (ibid: 113-
122).
economic cos s, i can educe educa ion incen i es, weaken he chances o posi i e sel -selec ion, and dec ease
he possibili y o „ eal‟ b ain gain (Ga cia Pi es 2015).
18
h ps://www.ksh.hu/mik ocenzus2016/ke doi ek/mic ocensus2016_mig a ion_su ey.pd
19
Tempo a y mig an s (module D), i.e. sho - e m mig an s: people who ha e been li ing in Aus ia o mo e
han 3 bu less han 12 mon hs. Pe manen mig an s (module E), i.e. long- e m mig an s: people who ha e been
li ing in Aus ia o mo e han 12 mon hs.
20
Howe e , e e y 10 h empo a y mig an woman was di o ced, while his a io was only 4% among men.
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Figu e 18. The occupa ional dis ibu ion o he sho - e m and long- e m Hunga ian mig an s in Aus ia, 2016
Sou ce: Ho á h (2022) in Hunga ian. Da a sou ce: 2016 Hunga ian mic o-census
5.4 Spa ial aspec
Du ing he las wo decades, he spa ial pa e n o he Hunga ian-bo n popula ion in Aus ia
changed signi ican ly. Al hough he inc ease was he g ea es in Vienna in absolu e e ms (by
2,000 people be ween 2002 and 2011, and u he by 9,000 un il 2022), oday he capi al ci y
d aws a lowe p opo ion o Hunga ians han had been he case a ound he millennium. While
almos h ee qua e s o Hunga ian-bo n mig an s li ed in Vienna, Lowe Aus ia and
Bu genland in 2002, only hal o hem a e esiden s o hese eas e n p o inces oday (Figu e
19, 20). The changing spa ial s uc u e can be explained by he apid g ow h o he numbe o
Hunga ians in o he ede al p o inces, i s o all in Uppe Aus ia ( om ca. 3,000 o 13,000),
S y ia ( om ca. 3,000 o 10,000), Salzbu g and Ty ol (in bo h cases om ca. 1,000 o 6,000)
be ween 2002 and 2022.
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Figu e 19. The numbe o he Hunga ian-bo n popula ion s ock in he ede al p o inces o Aus ia, 2002-2022
Sou ce: S a is ics Aus ia. Own igu e.
Figu e 20. The Hunga ian-bo n popula ion acco ding o he egions o Aus ia, 2002-2022
Sou ce: S a is ics Aus ia. Own igu e.
Al hough he g ea es numbe o Hunga ian-bo n people li e in he la ges ci ies o Aus ia,
hei sha e is ela i ely high (abo e 2%) mainly in small owns and illages wi h a popula ion
o abou 300 o 5,000 inhabi an s (Table 12, Figu e 21). T adi ionally, hese se lemen s we e
concen a ed in close p oximi y o Hunga y, mos ly in Bu genland and he sou h-eas e n pa
o Lowe Aus ia. Howe e , his spa ial pa e n has changed d ama ically du ing he las
decade – c . Figu e 22 and 23. On he one hand, he da ke shades o o ange and ed on he
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
Bu genland Ca in hia Lowe Aus ia Uppe Aus ia Salzbu g
S y ia Ty ol Vo a lbe g Vienna
12,2 13,2 8,9
2,1 2,3 3,4
19,4 18,7 15,9
8,6 8,7 15,1
3,7 3,6 7,1
8,4 10,9 11,5
3,3 4,4
7,6
1,8 1,6
3,1
40,4 36,4 27,4
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
Bu genland Ca in hia Lowe Aus ia Uppe Aus ia Salzbu g S y ia Ty ol Vo a lbe g Vienna
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maps e e o he inc easing numbe and p opo ion o Hunga ian immig an s in gene al. On
he o he hand, while he “eas e n clus e ” emained signi ican , he p e iously spo adic
occu ence o se lemen s wi h a leas 1% Hunga ians has become ano he well isible clus e
in he wes . In o he wo ds, hei popula ion-weigh ed cen e mo ed clea ly owa d he wes .
The p opo ion o Hunga ians is especially high in he eas e n pa o Ty ol (e.g. Eben am
Achensee, Ki zbühel), he sou he n pa o he p o ince o Salzbu g (e.g. Kap un, Flachau),
and he wes e n edge o S y ia (e.g. Bad Aussee, Schladming). We assume ha he g ea e
pa o his popula ion wo ks in he e ia y sec o , i s o all in hospi ali y ela ed o skiing
ou ism, including lodging, gas onomic se ices, e c.
Table 12. The op-10 se lemen s (and op-3 Vienna dis ic s) in Aus ia wi h he highes numbe o Hunga ian-bo n
people by 1 Janua y 2022
No.
Se lemen
Fede al p o ince
Hunga ian-bo n
popula ion
1
Vienna
Vienna
23,403
… Dis ic 10, Fa o i en
2,411
… Dis ic 20, Donaus ad
2,134
… Dis ic 21, Flo idsdo
1,910
2
G az
S y ia
3,120
3
Linz
Uppe Aus ia
1,903
4
Salzbu g
Salzbu g
1,305
5
Wels
Uppe Aus ia
1,051
6
Wiene Neus ad
Lowe Aus ia
868
7
Eisens ad
Bu genland
798
8
Innsb uck
Ty ol
687
9
Klagen u am Wö he see
Ca in hia
629
10
S ey
Uppe Aus ia
581
Sou ce: S a is ics Aus ia
Figu e 21. Hunga ian-bo n people in he se lemen s (and dis ic s in Vienna) o Aus ia by 1 Janua y 2022
Sou ce: S a is ics Aus ia (X axis: Loga i hmic scale). Own igu e.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000
Sha e o he Hunga ian-bo n people (%)
Popula ion o he se lemen (numbe o people)
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Figu e 22. The sha e o Hunga ian ci izens in he municipali ies (abo e) and poli ical dis ic s (below) o Aus ia by
2011.
Sou ce: S a is ics Aus ia
21
21
h ps://www.s a is ik.a /a las/?mapid= hem_be oelke ung_s aa sangehoe igkei &laye id=laye 1&sublaye id=sub
laye 0&languageid=0&bbox=738088,5661575,2153090,6457743,7
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Figu e 23. The sha e o Hunga ian ci izens in he municipali ies (abo e) and poli ical dis ic s (below) o Aus ia by
2022.
Sou ce: S a is ics Aus ia
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5.5 The Aus ian popula ion s ock in Hunga y
Un il 2005, he numbe o Aus ian ci izens li ing in Hunga y was ela i ely s able a a ound
500-1,000 pe sons. In he subsequen i e yea s, he size o he Aus ian popula ion s ock
expe ienced a six- old inc ease, and eached almos 4,000. A e a conside able luc ua ion
du ing he 2010s, hei numbe has been g owing again dynamically since 2019. On 1 Janua y
2022, a o al o 4,637 Aus ian na ionals li ed in Hunga y (Figu e 24).
Thei sex a io is s ongly biased, wi h he p opo ion o males eaching 60.6%. Acco ding o
he 2011 popula ion census, hei age s uc u e is one o he oldes among he o eign
popula ion s ocks in Hunga y. While he p opo ion o indi iduals belonging o he 15-39
yea -old ca ego y was only 24% ( a below he coun y a e age o 34%), mo e han one- hi d
o he Aus ian ci izens we e olde han 60 (Figu e 25).
In 2011, almos 70% o hem we e concen a ed in he wes e n pa o Hunga y: in Győ -
Moson-Sop on (1,258 pe sons), he Vas (436) and Zala coun ies (472), as well as in he
capi al, Budapes (521 indi iduals) (Figu e 26). The esul s o he 2022 popula ion census will
be a ailable sho ly.
Figu e 24. The numbe o Aus ian ci izens (s ock da a) in Hunga y, 1995-2022.
Sou ce: Hunga ian Cen al S a is ical O ice.
22
Own igu e.
22
h ps://www.ksh.hu/s ada _ iles/nep/hu/nep0023.h ml
0
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