Jou nal o A abic and Islamic S udies • 25.1 (2025): 89–107
© Ali Moughania, G adua e School o A s and Sciences,
Columbia Uni e si y in he Ci y o New Yo k, USA
ISSN 0806-198X
DOI 10.5617/jais.12442
Lea ning E ique e His o y in an Age o Con essional
Ambigui y: Two Islamic Lea ning T ea ises?
ALI MOUGHANIA (Columbia Uni e si y, New Yo k)
Abs ac
The e iden simila i y be ween he lea ning e ique e ea ises ʾĀdāb al-mu aʿallimīn by (pseudo) Naṣī al-
Dīn al-Ṭūsī (597-672 /1201-1274) and Taʿlīm al-mu aʿallim by Bu hān al-Islām al-Za nūjī ( l. be ween
576/1180 and ca 640/1242) aises he ques ions o wha dis inguishes he wo ea ises and how di e gences
be ween hem unc ion. Close eading o he no able in e en ions ha (Ps.) al-Ṭūsī’s ʾĀdāb al-mu aʿallimīn
ep esen s allows o modeling hem as se ing he o ma ion o a Muslim lea ne who is no speci ically
Sunnī, e en i no pa icula ly Shīʿī ei he . The analysis sheds ligh on he ole o in ellec ual bo owing and
i s place in he mids o con essional ambigui y.
Key wo ds: His o y o e hics • lea ning • ḥawzah • mad asah • philosophy o law
In oduc ion
Con empo a y ele ance o a medie al ea ise
Wi hin he adi ional ci cles o lea ning in he ḥawzah ʿilmiyyah o Naja , I aq, he desc ip o
‘al-Ṭūsī’ e e s mos eadily ei he o shaykh al-ṭāʾi ah ( he head o he eligious communi y),
Muḥammad b. al-Ḥasan al-Ṭūsī (d. 460/1067), who is bu ied in he icini y o Imām ʿAlī’s
sh ine and is g ea ly esponsible o es ablishing Naja ’s las ing legacy as a cen al hub o he
ḥawzah (ḥawza / howzeh) communi y; o o Naṣī al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī (597–672/1201–1274), he
enowned polyma h whose Taj īd al-iʿ iqād con inues o be a key ex o philosophical and
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heological s udy and commen a y in he ḥawzah cu iculum. Many beginne s in he ḥawzah,
howe e , a e in oduced—in one way o ano he — o he la e al-Ṭūsī h ough a ea ise
amously a ibu ed o him, summa izing he p ope e ique e o lea ne s, called ʾĀdāb al-
mu aʿallimīn.
The con empo a y ele ance o his ea ise becomes appa en upon conside a ion o he
con ex in which he ea ise’s ideas con inue o ci cula e—wi hin he so-called al-ḥawzah
al-ʿilmiyyah communi y. Linguis ically, ḥawzah can e e o a ‘ egion/a ea/side’ (nāḥiyah)
and is e ymologically ela ed o he no ion o ‘collec ing/acqui ing/accumula ing’ (ḥawz).
The ḥawzah associa ed wi h knowledge/s udy/lea ning (ʿilm) is ‘al-ḥawzah al-ʿilmiyyah’.
While his ph ase has aken on a e minological coinage in he con empo a y (albei ela i ely
adi ional) Islamic lea ning ci cles and semina ies o Qom, Naja , Ka bala, and o he
Twel e Shīʿī Muslim hubs o s udy, he ph ase ‘ḥawzah [o he Muslims]’ ( he lea ned
among hem being he mos ob ious examples) appea s in some o he ea lies Muslim
supplica ion li e a u e. Fo ins ance, in a p aye o Muslim on ie smen, a ibu ed o he
Imam ʿAlī b. al-Ḥusayn (d. 95/713), one asks God o, “gua d hei ḥawzah.”
1
In an ea lie
le e o Muʿāwiya (d. 60/680), his g and a he , he Imam ʿAlī b. ʾAbī Ṭālib (d. 40/661),
epo edly w o e abou ending o God’s eligion/law and/o he pe son and s anding o he
P ophe Muḥammad (d. 11/632), using he ph ase, “and so God willed i o us o de end his
ḥawzah.”
2
When i comes o he con empo a y coinage o Twel e Shīʿī cen e s o lea ning,
al hough he discussions o ecen echnical de ini ion a emp s a e in o ma i e, he ollowing
desc ip ion (no a s ic de ini ion, bu a desc ip ion in o med by his au ho ’s e hnog aphic
insigh )
3
a guably be e cap u es he ange o e e ences o he e m ḥawzah among
con empo a y Twel e Shīʿī Muslims pu suing adi ional eligious lea ning: The ḥawzah is
a cen e o knowledge in he adi ional Islamic con ex , a hub o seeking sac ed lea ning
ha is mean no only o engage he in ellec bu cul i a e he cha ac e o i s communi y
membe s. Al-ḥawzah al-ʿilmiyyah is o en ansla ed as an Islamic ‘semina y’ o so s, bu i
is pe haps mo e accu a ely desc ibed as a schola ly communi y o mas e s and seeke s o
knowledge, in which membe ship and ank depend on bo h schola ly me i as well as up igh
cha ac e , including he obse ance o adi ional e ique e. When used o e e o such a
collec i e ne wo k wo ldwide, he so-called al-ḥawzah al-ʿilmiyyah communi y has con-
cen a ed hubs o in ellec ual ac i i y cen e ed a ound his o ical holy si es, mos no ably he
sh ine o Imām ʿAlī in he holy ci y o Naja , I aq, and he sh ine o Lady Fāṭimah Maʿṣūmah
(d. 201/ 816) in he holy ci y o Qom, I an. Membe ship wi hin ha b oade communi y
would depend mo e on obse ing i s leading schola s’ widely accep ed app oaches and no ms
han on s udying a a pa icula loca ion. Bu he e m ḥawzah ʿilmiyyah o plainly ḥawzah
1
ʿAlī b. al-Ḥusayn ZAYN al-ʿĀBIDĪN al-SAJJĀD, al-Ṣaḥī ah al-Sajjādiyyah al-kāmilah, ed. Muḥammad
Bāqi al-ṢADR (d. 1980 CE), Bei u : Muʾassasa al-Aʿlamī lil-Maṭbūʿā , n.d.: 127.
2
ʿAbd al-Zah āʾ al-ḤUSAYNĪ al-KHAṬĪB, Maṣādi Nahj al-Balāghah wa-asānīduh, 4 h ed., 4 ols., Bei u :
Dā al-Zah āʾ, 1988, iii: 204.
3
I p esen ed he ini ial ske ch o his wo king de ini ion o he ḥawzah, as I expe ienced i , a a i ual
ound able discussion o Columbia Uni e si y’s Sha īʿah Wo kshop in 2020. A p ime wi h a mo e
ho ough ea men is o hcoming. Seyed Masoud NOORI e al., “Round able Discussion: The Ḥawzah
and he Sha iah” (Sha īʿah Wo kshop, Columbia Uni e si y in he Ci y o New Yo k; Online, Oc obe 22,
2020).
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can also e e o speci ic loca ions o lea ning in pa icula (i.e. no jus he ci y hubs, bu
speci ic ins i u ions wi hin he ci y), such ha he e exis a plu al ḥawzā h oughou he
wo ld, ypically whe e e he e a e quali ied mas e s om wi hin he adi ion who o e see
lea ning ci cles, each adi ional ex s acco ding o he e ique e/no ms o he b oade ḥawzah
communi y, and os e an a mosphe e o in ellec ual igo and spi i uali y. Membe s o he
ḥawzah communi y a e con inuously e alua ed by mo e senio schola s, pee s and,
po en ially, quali ied s uden s, on hei in ellec ual achie emen and cha ac e , and so o mal
‘deg ees/ce i ica es’ a e no adi ionally ega ded as he inal wo d on any gi en communi y
membe ’s c eden ials as a ḥawzah schola /s uden . To some ex en , his e en applies o
w i en o o al license/au ho iza ion (ijāzah) o ij ihād. Tha is because an indi idual’s
in ellec ual and e hical pe o mance would con inue o be moni o ed h oughou li e o any
se ious lapses o me hod o cha ac e , po en ially disquali ying he pe son om he
license/au ho iza ion o any o he ecommenda ion/endo semen a ilia ed wi h he ḥawzah.
To sum up a key poin he e, he wo d ḥawzah is used o desc ibe:
• a speci ic local ins i u ion o adi ional Twel e Shīʿī eligious lea ning;
• a communi y o such lea ning cen e ed a ound a holy sh ine, including bu no limi ed
o he o me ;
• and/o he collec i e global communi y consis ing o he o me .
4
The ci cula ion o he ea ise which is he subjec o his a icle among he ḥawzah al-
ʿilmiyyah communi y, hus, makes i pa o a global con e sa ion as ele an o he his o y
o ideas as i is o he ongoing ( e) o ma ion o Muslim communi y membe s. Mo eo e ,
lea ning e ique es a e, a once, he ini ia o y and sus aining elemen s o membe ship in his
global communi y. The nex sec ion will also emphasize how his con e sa ion is by no
means limi ed o Shīʿī-speci ic ele ance wi hin Islamic in ellec ual his o y.
ʾĀdāb al-mu aʿallimīn and Taʿlīm al-mu aʿallim
ʾĀdāb al-mu aʿallimīn
—
a ibu ed o he Shīʿī Naṣī al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī—exhibi s s iking
simila i ies ela i e o Taʿlīm al-mu aʿallim by he Sunnī Bu hān al-Islām al-Za nūjī ( l.
be ween 576/1180 and ca. 640/1242). The sou ce-c i ical ema ks below a e, hus, me ely
4
See Ismāʿīl b. Ḥammād al-JAWHARĪ (d. 393/1003), Tāj al-lughah wa-ṣiḥāḥ al-ʿa abiyyah, ed. Aḥmad
ʿAbd al-Gha ū ʿAṬṬĀR, 4 h edn., 6 ols., Cai o: Dā al-ʿIlm li-l-Malāyīn, 1987, iii: 875–6. Also conside
sec ion ‘6.3.5. The ḥawzah’ o he EI³ a icle on ‘Educa ion, Gene al (up o 1500)’ (Sebas ian GÜNTHER).
Fo a discussion o echnical de ini ions ha ha e been p oposed o al-ḥawzah al-ʿilmiyyah, o jus
ḥawzah o sho , see: ʿAlī Aḥmad al-BAHĀDLĪ, al-Ḥawzah al-ʿilmiyyah ī l-Naja : maʿālimuhā wa-
ḥa akā uhā al-ʾiṣlāḥiyyah, Bei u : Dā al-Zah āʾ li-l-Ṭibāʿah wa-l-Nash wa-l-Tawzīʿ, 1993: 86–94;
ʿAdnān Fa ḥān ĀL QĀSIM, Tā īkh al-ḥawzā al-ʿilmiyyah wa-l-madā is al-dīniyyah ʿinda l-Shīʿah al-
ʾimāmiyyah, 1s edn., 6 ols., Bei u : Sha ika Dā al-Salām, 2016, i: 92–9. An addi ional ou olumes
a e expec ed o be published. Fo mo e ecen s a emen s, conside , o ins ance: ʿAlī Riḍā al-ʾAʿRĀFĪ e
al. (eds.), [Con e ence P oceedings], in Muʾ ama al-dhik ā al-miʾawiyyah li-iʿāda aʾsīs al-ḥawzah al-
ʿilmiyyah ī Qom, Qom: Wikāla Anbāʾ al-Ḥawzah, May 7-8, 2025, h ps://a .hawzahnews.com/pho o/
372945/ روصلاب-رمتؤم-ىركذلا-ةي وئملا- ةداعإل-سيسأت-ةزوحلا-ةيملعلا-يف-مق ; Muḥammad ʿAlī BAḤR al-ʿULŪM, Ṣa aḥā
min ā īkh al-Ḥawzah (Āl Baḥ al-ʿUlūm), Podcas bi-Tawqī al-Naja , in e iew by Ak am al-
MURAWWIJ, accessed May 22, 2025, h ps://www.you ube.com/wa ch? =hVzMaQpe4FI.
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pa o in oducing he ea ise a ibu ed o al-Ṭūsī, opening up possibili ies o u he
examina ion by in e es ed esea che s. Bo h ex s ha e been in luen ial in hei espec i e
Shīʿī and Sunnī ci cles o lea ne s, and he la e ex in pa icula has been ecognized as a
key con ibu ion in he his o y o Islamic w i ings dealing wi h he e ique e o schola s and
lea ne s (ʾadab al-ʿālim wa-l-mu aʿallim).
5
The wo ea ises ollow he same ou line o abou
12 sec ions, ep esen ing hei sha ed con en , and which can be app oxima ely econs uc ed
as ollows:
Sec ion 1: The De ini ion and Me i o Knowledge.
Sec ion 2: The In en ion.
Sec ion 3: Choosing he Knowledge [ o be s udied], he Teache , and he S udy
Pa ne ; and S ead as ness.
Sec ion 4: Diligence, Pe sis ence and Mo i a ion.
Sec ion 5: Ini ia ing [One’s] S udies, he [Cou se] Load, and he Sequence.
Sec ion 6: Relying [on God].
Sec ion 7: The Time o Acqui ing [Knowledge].
Sec ion 8: Compassion and Ad ice.
Sec ion 9: Bene i ing [in Te ms o Knowledge].
Sec ion 10: Pie y in he Pu sui o Knowledge.
Sec ion 11: Fac o s Helping wi h Memo iza ion and O he s Leading o Fo ge ulness.
Sec ion 12: Fac o s ha In i e Sus enance; P e en Sus enance; Inc ease Longe i y;
and Dec ease I .
Pu pose o his s udy
F om ci iliza ional dema ca ions aken o g an ed when discussing scien i ic ad ancemen s
o sec a ian bounda ies ha a e assumed o de elop in ela i e isola ion, unacknowledged/
unde acknowledged in ellec ual in luences con inue o ha e a - eaching consequences on
na a i es, wo ld iews, and u u es. Geo ge Saliba’s wo k on he Islamic scien i ic adi ion
had highligh ed p oblems o esol e, “no only in o de o unde s and he ex en o which
Islamic science was in eg al o he science o he Renaissance, bu also in o de o unde s and
he e y na u e o he Renaissance science i sel .”
6
De in S ewa had in es iga ed he
sou ces o Munya al-mu īd ī ʾādāb al-mu īd wa-l-mus a īd by he Twel e Shīʿī Zayn al-
Dīn al-ʿĀmilī [al-Shahīd al-Thānī] (d. 965/1558) as one example o a la ge phenomenon, “o
in ellec ual bo owing and adap a ion ac oss wha we e o en iewed and con inue o be
5
Fo ins ance, conside Sebas ian GÜNTHER, ‘“You educa ional achie emen s shall no s op you e o s
o seek beyond’: p inciples o eaching and lea ning in classical A abic w i ings”, in Mujadad ZAMAN
and Nadeem A. MEMON (eds.), Philosophies o Islamic Educa ion, New Yo k: Rou ledge, 2016: 72–93.
6
Geo ge SALIBA, Islamic Science and he Making o he Eu opean Renaissance, Camb idge/Massa-
chuse s and London/England: MIT P ess, 2007 (T ans o ma ions: S udies in he His o y o Science and
Technology), 20-22, 193-196; Geo ge SALIBA, “Whose Science Was A abic Science in Renaissance
F ance?”, 1999, h ps://www.columbia.edu/~gas1/p ojec / isions/case1/sci.1.h ml.
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• 25.1 (2025): 89–107
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iewed, as igid sec a ian bounda ies.”
7
Wi h a sligh ly di e en analy ical pu pose, he
p esen s udy examines he unc ion o in e en ions in ano he se o lea ning e ique e
manuals–– he ea ise ʾĀdāb al-mu aʿallimīn ela i e o he wo k Taʿlīm al-mu aʿallim. I
highligh he sub le in e en ions ha ʾĀdāb al-mu aʿallimīn ep esen s and in e p e hem as
se ing he o ma ion o a dis inc ype o lea ne ( ha is, di e en han he one likely
en isioned by he au ho o Taʿlīm al-mu aʿallim).
Meaning o ‘ʾĀdāb al-mu aʿallimīn’
The i le o he ea ise, ʾĀdāb al-mu aʿallimīn, speaks o he con en o he ea ise as a
collec ion o p esc ip ions o he conduc and compo men o lea ne s. The singula o m
o ʾādāb, ʾadab, has been de ined as ‘ he good o m ha a alid ac ion should ake shape as—
whe he i be in ma e s o eligion o in ma e s ele an o easonable indi iduals [mo e
b oadly] in hei collec i e […]’.
8
This is ela ed o bu o be dis inguished om ʾakhlāq (sing.
khuluq), which can be hough o as ‘s ead as , ac i e condi ions (malakā ) o he soul, in he
ga b o which one d apes onesel ’.
9
In o he wo ds, while he ʾādāb cha ac e ize he
p esc ip ible o m ac ions ake, and a e ypically d i en in o ac ion by ʾakhlāq, ʾakhlāq de-
sc ibe he s able cha ac e ai s acco ding o which a pe son bea s onesel well/badly owa d
eelings. Wi h some ese a ion (as expec ed e en when ‘ ansla ing’ wi hin he same
‘language’), hen, one migh ansla e ʾādāb as ‘e ique e(s)’ and ʾakhlāq as ‘e hics’ o
‘ i ues/ ices’. Thus, ʾĀdāb al-mu aʿallimīn is ende ed The E ique e o Lea ne s.
As he con empo a y ḥawzah schola Muḥammad Riḍā al-Jalālī, who published an
anno a ed edi ion o he ea ise, ecoun s,
7
De in STEWART, “No es on Zayn al-Dīn al-ʿĀmilī’s Munya al-mu īd ī ādāb al-mu īd wa-l-mus a īd”,
Jou nal o Islamic S udies, 21.2 (2010): 235–70, 235.
8
Muḥammad Ḥusayn al-ṬABĀṬABĀʾĪ (d. 1402/1981), Sunan al-Nabī (ṣ), ed. Muḥammad Hādī al-FIQHĪ,
3 d ed., Qom: Muʾassasa al-Nash al-Islāmī, 1427 AH: 35-36: عورشملا لعفلا ]اـ[ـهيلع عقي نأ يغبني يتلا ةنسحلا ةئيهلا
ف ءالقعلا دنع وأ نيدلا يف امإ ي مهعمتجم al-hayʾa u l-ḥasana u lla ī yanbaghī ʾan yaqaʿa ʿalayh[ā] l- iʿlu l-mash ūʿu
ʾimmā ī l-dīni ʾaw ʿinda l-ʿuqalāʾi ī muj amaʿihim […] – I make e e ence o his de ini ion by a no able
inhe i o o he Islamic adi ion o he pu pose o app oxima ing a syn hesized ecep ion ecognized as
belonging o he adi ion being s udied, on he one hand, and, on he o he , o speci y he pa icula sense
o he e m unde s ood in his con ex . Tha being said, ele an s udies explo ing he concep ion o ʾadab
in he Islamic adi ion include: I a M. LAPIDUS, “Knowledge, i ue, and ac ion: he classical Muslim
concep ion o ʾadab and he na u e o eligious ul illmen in Islam,” in Ba ba a D. METCALF (ed.), Mo al
Conduc and Au ho i y: The Place o Adab in Sou h Asian Islam, London: Uni e si y o Cali o nia P ess,
1984: 38-61; and mo e ecen ly: Rüdige SEESEMANN, “ʿIlm and Adab Re isi ed: Knowledge T ans-
mission and Cha ac e Fo ma ion in Islamic A ica,” in Michael KEMPER and Ral ELGER (eds.), The
Pie y o Lea ning: Islamic S udies in Hono o S e an Reichmu h, Leiden: B ill, 2017: 15–37, h ps://
doi.o g/10.1163/9789004349841_003; Luca PATRIZI, “The me apho o he di ine banque and he o igin
o he no ion o adab,” in Sebas ian GÜNTHER (ed.), Knowledge and Educa ion in Classical Islam:
Religious Lea ning be ween Con inui y and Change, 2 ols., Leiden: B ill, 2020, h ps://b ill.com/
edcollbook/ i le/56045. A u u e s udy would compa e he con empo a y, adi ion “inhe i o ,” ecep ion
o lea ne ʾadab wo ks ( he app oach I ha e op ed o in e e encing al-Ṭabāṭabāʾī abo e) wi h a
comp ehensi e his o ical su ey o lea ne ʾadab ecep ion in ligh o insigh s o e ed by he s udies ci ed
he e.
9
al-ṬABĀṬABĀʾĪ, Sunan al-Nabī (ṣ), 36: سوفنلا اهب سبلتت يتلا ةيحورلا ةخسارلا تاكلملا يه قالخألا al-ʾakhlāqu hiya
l-malakā u l- āsikha u l- ūḥiyya u lla ī a alabbasu bihā l-nu ūs.
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The schola s ha e ex ended ex ensi e ca e o his book. Fo hey emphasize [ he
impo ance o ] s udying i , eading i , and a emp ing o apply i and ac on i .
Mo eo e , in ou days o seeking [knowledge], we used o hea he g and shaykhs
epea sen ences om i s ph ases, ci ing i s ex as e idence. Pe haps he clea es
eason o choosing i and emphasizing i [in pa icula ] is he b e i y o i s main ex
and he cla i y o i s p ose, making i easie o unde s and and memo ize o he
beginne , in addi ion o i s comp ehensi e and exhaus i e ea men o he mos
impo an gi ens and he necessi ies o p ope educa ion/discipline.
10
Backg ound on he a ibu ion o ʾĀdāb al-mu aʿallimīn
Al-Jalālī u he ci es he p eponde ance o manusc ip s and ea ly p in edi ions o he
ea ise, i s inclusion in educa ional collec ions, and i s ansla ions and commen a ies, as
e idence o he in luence and ci cula ion o his ea ise.
11
Why his ea ise, speci ically,
gained so much ac ion is likely due in pa o he e y same eason i is belie ed o be
au ho ed by Naṣī al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī—in all e sions, i is a ibu ed o none o he han him.
12
Complica ing he a ibu ion o al-Ṭūsī, howe e , is he e iden simila i y be ween he
ex o ʾĀdāb al-mu aʿallimīn and he ea ise Taʿlīm al-mu aʿallim
13
a ibu ed o Bu hān al-
Islām al-Za nūjī
14
( l. be ween 576/1180
15
and ca. 640/1242
16
). The basic ou line o he wo
10
Naṣī al-Dīn al-ṬŪSĪ (d. 672/1274), ʾĀdāb al-mu aʿallimīn, ed. Muḥammad Riḍā al-JALĀLĪ, Shī āz:
In ishā ā -i Ki ābkhāna-i Mad asa-i ʿIlmiyyah-i Imām-i ʿAṣ , 1416AH: 17–18. (T ansla ions om A abic
a e my own h oughou .)
11
Al-ṬŪSĪ, ʾĀdāb al-mu aʿallimīn, 18–19.
12
Ibid., 20.
13
Taʿlīm al-mu aʿallim a ac ed he a en ion o Gus a e Edmund VON GRUNEBAUM and Theodo a Mead
ABEL who in oduced and published a ansla ion o i in o English in 1947. See Bu hān al-Dīn ZARNŪJĪ,
Ins uc ion o he S uden , ansl. Gus a e Edmund VON GRUNEBAUM, New Yo k: King’s C own P ess,
1947. Fo a e iew o ele an li e a u e on al-Za nūjī’s ea ise, see MOCHTAR AFANDI, The me hod o
Muslim lea ning as illus a ed in al-Za nuji’s “Taʿlīm al-mu aʿallim ṭa īq al- aʿallum”, hesis, Mon eal:
McGill Uni e si y, 1993.
14
Appa en ly in associa ion wi h ‘Zu nūj’, which YĀQŪT al-Ḥamawī (d. 626/1229) desc ibes as ‘a amous
own o T ansoxiana […]’. In his ab idged and edi ed e sion o Yāqū ’s Muʿjam al-buldān, howe e ,
ʿAbd al-Muʾmin al-Baghdādī (d. 739/ 1338) appea s o lis he p onuncia ion as, ‘Za nūj’. See: YĀQŪT b.
ʿAbd Allāh al-Ḥamawī, Muʿjam al-buldān, Bei u : Dā Iḥyāʾ al-Tu ā h al-ʿA abī, 5 ols., 1979), iii: 139;
ʿAbd al-Muʾmin b. ʿAbd al-Ḥaqq al-BAGHDĀDĪ, Ma āṣid al-iṭṭilāʿ ʿalā ʾasmāʾ al-ʾamkinah wa-l-biqāʿ, ed.
ʿAlī Muḥammad al-BAJĀWĪ; Bei u : Dā al-Jīl, 3 ols., 1992, ii: 664.
15
Al-Za nūjī indica es ha he hea d poe y eci ed by Ḥammād b. Ib āhīm b. Ismāʿīl al-Ṣa ā ī al-Anṣā ī (d.
576/1180), implying ha al-Za nūjī had likely begun his s udies p io o Ḥammād’s dea h in 576 AH.
See: Bu hān al-Islām al-ZARNŪJĪ, Taʿlīm al-mu aʿallim, ed. Ṣalāḥ Muḥammad al-KHAYMĪ and Nadhī
ḤAMDĀN; Bei u : Dā Ibn Ka hī , 3 d edn., 2014: 41–2; ʿAbd al-Qādi al-Qu ashī al-ḤANAFĪ (d.
775/1373), al-Jawāhi al-muḍiyyah ī ṭabaqā al-Ḥana iyyah, Ka achi: Mī Muḥammad Ku ub Khāna, 2
ols., n.d., i: 224.
16
ʿAbd al-Qādi al-Qu ashī al-Ḥana ī men ions ha his al-Za nūjī is a con empo a y o al-Nuʿmān b.
Ib āhīm al-Za nūjī, who is said o ha e died in 640 AH. See: al-ḤANAFĪ, al-Jawāhi al-Muḍiyyah, ii: 312;
Riyāḍ Zādeh al-ḤANAFĪ (d. 1078/1667), Asmāʾ al-ku ub al-mu ammim li-Kash al-Ẓunūn, ed. Muḥammad
al-TŪNJĪ, Damascus: Dā al-Fik , 3 d edn., 1983: 301.
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ea ises and many o hei ph ases h oughou a e no ably simila .
17
Al-Jalālī a gues, con a y
o Muḥammad Taqī Dānish-Pazhūh (d. 1996), ha ʾĀdāb al-mu aʿallimīn su icien ly di e s
in i s examples and b e i y o a guably wa an i s ecep ion as an independen ex .
18
I one
is o main ain he a ibu ion o ʾĀdāb al-mu aʿallimīn o al-Ṭūsī hen i would be easonable
o assume ha al-Ṭūsī was e e ing o Taʾlīm al-mu aʿallim while w i ing ʾĀdāb al-
mu aʿallimīn o ha bo h ea ises d ew on an ea lie wo k which did no su i e in i s o iginal
o m. Con e sely, he possibili y ha he b ie e ex was ac ually he o iginal, which migh
ha e been elabo a ed on and hen la e a ibu ed o al-Za nūjī as Taʿlīm al-mu aʿallim, is less
likely gi en ha one would seldom an icipa e mo i a ion o alsely a ibu e a ex o a less
p ominen igu e (assuming he pu pose o alse a ibu ion is o inc ease ci cula ion by
associa ion wi h he said igu e).
While al-Jalālī p esen s a con incing case a ibu ing ʾĀdāb al-mu aʿallimīn o al-Ṭūsī,
especially gi en ha i has no been a ibu ed o anyone besides al-Ṭūsī, i is di icul o
dismiss how he celeb a ed schola o he s a s supposedly desc ibed ‘knowledge o he s a s’
as analogous o disease in ʾĀdāb al-mu aʿallimīn. ʾĀdāb al-mu aʿallimīn appea s me ely o
summa ize Taʿlīm al-mu aʿallim on his, s a ing, ‘Knowledge o he s a s is analogous o
illness—lea ning i is o bidden. [I is o bidden] because i causes ha m and does no cause
bene i . [Tha is] excep he ex en o [which such knowledge is needed] o iden i y he qibla
[di ec ion o i ual p aye ], he imes o p aye and o he hings— o , indeed, ha is no
o bidden.’
19
I may be a gued ha al-Ṭūsī used such d as ic language, ollowed by he
excep ion, in o de o keep beginne s om being dis ac ed away om hei co e cu iculum
wi h knowledge ou side o hei specializa ion o om ha ing a spi i ually ha m ul
connec ion o as ology. While his is possible, i is a - e ched. Fo he ac ha al-Ṭūsī was
publicly associa ed wi h knowledge ela ed o he s a s, and his being sough a e o i , is
no eadily econcilable wi h such es ic i e language abou i . One would ha e expec ed al-
Ṭūsī o modi y he s a emen o o quali y i by cla i ying when, beyond s ic necessi y, a
schola would explo e knowledge o he s a s. I i we e known o a ac ha he ea ise is
he wo k o al-Ṭūsī, hen he e would be a eason o seek o jus i y he uncomp omising
s a emen . Bu since he a ibu ion o he wo k o him is ounded on he accumula ion o
clues and an assessmen o likelihood, he said s a emen a guably se es o dis ance al-Ṭūsī
om he ea ise. Rega dless o he au ho ’s pe sonal iden i y, he p esen conce n pe ains o
examining he mo es made in ʾĀdāb al-mu aʿallimīn ela i e o Taʿlīm al-mu aʿallim and
seeking insigh in o he ype o lea ne - o ming p ojec al-Ṭūsī (o pseudo-al-Ṭūsī) in es ed
in by making such in e en ions.
17
Fo a desc ip ion o he ʾĀdāb al-mu aʿallimīn ea ise’s con en s, see: Ma yam MOAZZEN, ‘Shīʿī highe
lea ning in he p e-Sa a id pe iod: schola s, educa ional ideals, p ac ices, and cu icula’ in Sebas ian
GÜNTHER (ed.), Knowledge and Educa ion in Classical Islam, ii: 829–35.
18
al-ṬŪSĪ, ʾĀdāb al-mu aʿallimīn, 21.
19
al-ṬŪSĪ, ʾĀdāb al-mu aʿallimīn, 61: دَق ّالإ ،ُعفني الو رضي هَنأل مارح هملعتف ،ضرملا ةلزنمب موجنلا ُملعَو َر ُي امع ُةل بِ قلا هب ُفَر
مارحب سيل هّنإف ،كلذ ريغو ةالصلا ُتاقوأو wa-ʿilmu l-nujūmi bi-manzila i l-ma aḍ, a- aʿallumuhu ḥa āmun li-
ʾannahu yaḍu u wa-lā yan aʿu, ʾillā qad a mā yuʿ a u bihi l-qibla u wa-ʾawqā u l-ṣalā i wa-ghay u
dhālik, a-ʾinnahu laysa bi-ḥa āmin.
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Analyzing no able di e ences be ween he wo ea ises
Upon a sys ema ic close eading o he wo ea ises, he ollowing obse a ions appea o be
ep esen a i e o he di e gences p esen . While mos o he obse a ions I make no e o can
be be e explained by he in e p e i e model I p opose la e he e, he e a e expec edly some
obse a ions ha can be explained by addi ional models. Fo he la e , I o e analy ical
ema ks ha , pending u u e s udies, may wa an a complemen ing in e p e i e model.
On b e i y
The mos no able di e ence is he b e i y o al-Ṭūsī’s ea ise—a b e i y he decla es is
in en ional a he beginning o he documen
20
and which is also an indica ion ha he was
likely e e ing o al-Za nūjī’s sligh ly mo e elabo a e ea ise (i no some ea lie sha ed
e e ence) while w i ing his own. Fo example, a e no ing ha he P ophe p esc ibed he
pu sui o knowledge as an obliga ion o e e y Muslim, male o emale, he wo au ho s
quali y his by explaining ha only seeking knowledge equi ed o add ess one’s (immedia e)
s a e (al-ḥāl) is an obliga ion, bu al-Za nūjī elabo a es by p o iding examples while al-Ṭūsī
does no .
21
This in e en ion may be in e p e ed in a leas wo ways: Fi s ly, by al-Ṭūsī’s
day, he scope o obliga o y lea ning had al eady been consolida ed/cla i ied and he poin
could simply be summa ily made wi hou need o examples. Secondly, elabo a ion wi h
examples would be le o he ins uc o ’s disc e ion as s/he explained he b ie s a emen o
s uden s. The la e consequence would all in line wi h a pedagogical choice cha ac e is ic
o mu ūn (sing. ma n), which we e highly condensed educa ional ex s o en made he ocus
o me a ex s ha commen ed and elabo a ed on hem. The ins uc o ’s in e ening ole would
hus be emphasized as ha o a companion acili a ing he lea ne ’s educa ion, as opposed o
enabling he lea ne o ocus on lea ning om books alone wi hou e e ence o a li ing
schola ly ne wo k. Mo eo e , examples o en include e e ence o an ins uc o ’s schola ly
ne wo k o in ellec ual genealogy, ea u es o which can be in oked i e a i ely o se e a
sec a ian lea ne - o ma ion p ojec . By omi ing e e ence o speci ic examples ci ing Sunnī
schola s, such as Muḥammad b. al-Ḥasan [al-Shaybānī (d. 189/805)],
22
o e e ing o
pa icula ex s,
23
al-Ṭūsī allows he ea ise o be app op ia ed o al e na i e o o he wise
b oade lea ne - o ma ion aims.
20
al-ṬŪSĪ, ʾĀdāb al-mu aʿallimīn, 55: َو ِباّتُكلا يف ُت يأَ ر ام ىلع ،ِراصِت خالا ليبَس ىلع ،ملعتلا َقيرط َنيَبُا نأ ُتدرأف َسم ُتع
يلوُا يذيتاسأ نمملعلا a-ʾa ad u ʾan ʾubayyina ṭa īqa l- aʿallum, ʿalā sabīli l-ikh iṣā , ʿalā mā aʾay u ī l-
ku ābi wa-samiʿ u min ʾasā īdhī ʾūlī l-ʿilm.
21
Ibid., 58.
22
Al-ZARNŪJĪ, Taʿlīm al-mu aʿallim, 32.
23
Al-Za nūjī e e s he eade o a book on e hics (al-ʾakhlāq) by ‘ he ma y Nāṣi al-Dīn Abū l-Qāsim’,
saying ha , ‘i is obliga o y o e e y Muslim o memo ize i [o p ese e i ] (ḥi ẓuhā)’, while al-Ṭūsī
me ely asse s he gene al p inciple ha i is obliga o y o seek knowledge equi ed o ul ill one’s
eligious esponsibili ies. The ‘Nāṣi al-Dīn Abū l-Qāsim’ ha al-Za nūjī e e s o is likely he Ḥana ī
ju is Muḥammad b. Yūsu al-ʿAlawī al-Sama qandī (d. 556/1161), who au ho ed Bayān iyāḍa ʾakhlāq
al-na s (abb e ia ed o ‘Riyāḍa al-ʾakhlāq’ o ‘al-ʾAkhlāq’; pe haps mis ead ‘al-ʾaḥqāq’ o ‘al-ʾikh āq’).
Al-Za nūjī also e e s he eade o Abū Ḥanī a’s (d. 150/767) al-Waṣiyyah, which he w o e o Yūsu b.
Khālid al-Sam ī (d. 189/805). Al-ZARNŪJĪ, Taʿlīm al-mu aʿallim, 35, 45; al-ṬŪSĪ, ʾĀdāb al-mu aʿallimīn, 60.
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On excep ions o omi ing names o au ho i y igu es
The e a e, none heless, wo no able excep ions o his obse a ion. Fi s , bo h al-Za nūjī and
al-Ṭūsī e e o a ‘Muḥammad b. al-Ḥasan’ who would s ay up a nigh in s udy and when he
igu ed ou he answe s o in ellec ual p oblems, he would exclaim, ‘Whe e a e he child en
o kings when i comes o hese pleasu es[!]’.
24
Appa en ly, his is he same Muḥammad b.
al-Ḥasan e e ed o ea lie in al-Za nūjī’s ea ise—Muḥammad b. al-Ḥasan al-Shaybānī. I
is s iking ha al-Ṭūsī ci es his example because al-Shaybānī is a Ḥana ī Sunnī au ho i y, on
he one hand, and he e a e no dis inc ly Shīʿī au ho i ies e e ed o in he ea ise. Then
again, a Shīʿī eade would likely ha e no immedia e eason o assume his ‘Muḥammad b.
al-Ḥasan’ is al-Shaybānī—he is no men ioned ea lie in al-Ṭūsī’s ea ise no is i common
o e e ence al-Shaybānī in such a ex w i en by a Shīʿī au ho (unless in he con ex o
indica ing di e ences among Islamic legal schools). Mo eo e , some e sions o al-Ṭūsī’s
ea ise add ‘al-Ṭūsī’ a e he name ‘Muḥammad b. al-Ḥasan’, implying ha he sc ibe
unde s ood he indi idual being e e enced o be shaykh al-ṭāʾi ah, he leading Shīʿī au ho i y
who passed away in he yea 460/1067, o pe haps e en he au ho o he ea ise himsel ,
Naṣī al-Dīn Muḥammad b. Muḥammad b. al-Ḥasan al-Ṭūsī.
25
Rega dless o which
possibili y was in ended by al-Ṭūsī, his mo e can be modeled as one including a e e ence
exclusi e o one school o hough only i i is su icien ly ambiguous and/o can be easily
app op ia ed wi hin his own amewo k o lea ne - o ma ion. In o he wo ds, i is no oo
impo an — o al-Ṭūsī’s in e en ion o unc ion acco ding o his model—who Muḥammad
b. al-Ḥasan is, and, indeed, he e could be mo e han one. Wha ma e s o al-Ṭūsī is ha he
lea ne eading his manual an icipa es and expe iences he enjoymen o in ellec ual deligh s
a ailable o hose who s ay up a nigh o esol e in ellec ual p oblems.
The second no able excep ion o al-Ṭūsī’s omission o speci ic examples pe ains o he
ci a ion o an in luen ial ex ela ed o medicine. A he end o hei ea ises, bo h al-Za nūjī
and al-Ṭūsī u ge he eade o engage in lea ning some hing abou medicine and o be blessed
‘by he epo s [a ibu ed o he P ophe ] abou medicine, which ha e been compiled by Abū
al-ʿAbbās al-Mus agh i ī [d. 432/1041] in his Ṭibb al-Nabī [The P ophe ’s Medicine]’.
26
Al-
Ṭūsī ci ing a Ḥana ī schola ’s compila ion o epo s asc ibed o he P ophe suppo s he
a gumen ha his ea ise is mean o se e beyond sec a ian bounda ies, on he one hand,
and ha he is modeling o his eade s he ideal o seeking use ul knowledge whe e e i may
o igina e. Thus, al-Ṭūsī can be ead as a emp ing o s ike a balance be ween his s a ed
pu pose o desc ibing a summa y o lea ne e ique e, and his selec i i y as i plays ou in
making his ea ise less sec a ian while modeling inclusi i y owa d use ul knowledge
beyond his own school a ilia ion.
24
al-ZARNŪJĪ, Taʿlīm al-mu aʿallim, 106; al-ṬŪSĪ, ʾĀdāb al-mu aʿallimīn, 110: يلايللا رهس اذإ نسحلا نب دمحم ناك
نم كولملا ءانبأ نيأ لوقي تالكشملا هل تلحناو تاذللا هذه kāna Muḥammad b. al-Ḥasan ʾidhā sahi a l-layālī wa-
nḥalla lahū l-mushkilā u yaqūlu ʾayna ʾabnāʾu l-mulūki min hādhihi l-ladhdhā .
25
Āghā Buzu g al-ṬIHRĀNĪ, al-Dha īʿa ʾilā aṣānī al-Shīʿa, 3 d edn, 26 ols., Bei u : Dā al-ʾAḍwāʾ, 1983,
i: 27.
26
al-ZARNŪJĪ, Taʿlīm al-mu aʿallim, 137–8; al-ṬŪSĪ, ʾĀdāb al-mu aʿallimīn, 149–50: نم اًئيش ملعتي نأ دب الو
يبنلا بط ىمسملا هباتك يف يرفغتسملا سابعلا وبأ مامإلا خيشلا اهعمج يتلا بطلا يف ةدراولا راثآلاب كربتي و بطلا wa-lā budda
ʾan ya aʿallama shayʾan min-a l-ṭibbi wa-ya aba aka bi-l-ʾā hā i l-wā ida i ī l-ṭibbi lla ī jamaʿahā l-
shaykhu l-ʾimāmu ʾAbū l-ʿAbbās al-Mus agh i ī ī ki ābihi l-musammā Ṭibbu al-Nabī.
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p eceding i : ‘[ he lea ne should seek success and] guidance om God […], o indeed God
Almigh y guides he one who seeks [His] guidance’,
59
and does no add any hing pa icula ly
Shīʿī. This indica es ha pseudo-al-Ṭūsī was w i ing he ea ise o wide ci cula ion, o be
sui able o he o ma ion o lea ne subjec s ac oss sec a ian bounda ies. In his model o
eading he ea ise, he au ho o ʾĀdāb al-mu aʿallimīn migh as well ha e been a Sunnī
au ho whose aim was o shape lea ne s in o aiming o being among ‘ he people o wha is
igh ’, bu wi hou wishing o hose lea ne s o ake i as a p econcei ed no ion ha one
sec a ian a ilia ion o ano he necessa ily en ailed ha one was o was no among hem. The
emphasis o his eading is, hen, in how he ea ise(s) would be an icipa ed o unc ion in
hei espec i e ci cles o ci cula ion, no so much he ac ual in en o he au ho s o hei
sec a ian iden i y.
Conclusion
Analyzing he di e ences be ween he wo ea ises illus a es ha [pseudo-] al-Ṭūsī’s ʾĀdāb
al-mu aʿallimīn is in es ed in he o ma ion o a specialized ype o lea ne who is a guably
less impac ed by he sec a ian iden i y o schola ly examples and is, a he , conce ned wi h
obse ing he e ique e and cul i a ing he unde lying e hic. This an icipa ed unc ion is o en
ead in be ween he lines o omissions, a he han addi ions. Whe he o no al-Ṭūsī
consciously in ended i (o e en w o e he ea ise himsel ) is o li le signi icance once he
in e en ions a e con incingly in e p e ed o ha e (o likely ha e) such a unc ion. Jus as al-
Za nūjī’s Taʿlīm al-mu aʿallim’s elabo a ions and examples can ha e o ma i e unc ions
allowing ce ain e ique es o ‘hi home’ in ways ha ʾĀdāb al-mu aʿallimīn’s b e i y lacks,
so ʾĀdāb al-mu aʿallimīn’s omissions and modi ica ions allow o he e ique es o hi home
wi hou being associa ed wi h a pa icula sec a ian iden i y. Among he conclusions o be
d awn om his analysis, hen, is ha we ha e he e an ins ance o pos -Mongol in asion
‘con essional ambigui y,’ no h ough a display o ʿAlid loyalism (as is a guably p e alen
du ing he La e Middle Pe iod o Islamica e his o y), bu in he appa en ly delibe a e
emo al o Sunnī-speci ic e e ences.
60
59
al-ZARNŪJĪ, Taʿlīm al-mu aʿallim, 95; al-ṬŪSĪ, ʾĀdāb al-mu aʿallimīn, 100: ةيادهلاو قيفوتلا هللا نم بلطيو ،
اه ىلاعت هللا نإفهادهتسا نمل د wa-yaṭluba min-a llāhi l- aw īqa wa-l-hidāyah, a-inna llāha aʿālā hādin li-
man-i s ahdāh.
60
Fo a discussion o con essional ambigui y s. pola iza ion du ing his pe iod, see: Judi h PFEIFFER,
‘Con essional ambigui y s. con essional pola iza ion: poli ics and he nego ia ion o eligious bounda ies
in he Ilkhana e’ in Judi h PFEIFFER (ed.), Poli ics, Pa onage and he T ansmission o Knowledge in
13 h–15 h Cen u y Tab iz, Leiden: B ill, 2014), 129–68. P ei e ollows John E. Woods in he use o he
e m ‘con essional ambigui y’ in his con ex . See John E. WOODS, The Aqquyunlu: Clan, Con ede a ion,
Empi e, e ised and expanded edi ion, Sal Lake Ci y/UT: Uni e si y o U ah P ess, 1999: 4. – E alua ing
he b oade na a i es o hese s udies would go beyond he scope o his a icle, bu he p esen analysis
o he ʾĀdāb al-mu aʿallimīn ea ise can con ibu e o add essing hem in u u e s udies.
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Acknowledgemen s
This a icle de eloped ou o an independen s udy p ojec ansla ing and commen ing on
he ʾĀdāb al-mu aʿallimīn ea ise, beginning in he Sp ing o 2016 a Columbia Uni e si y.
I hank B inkley Messick o his commen s du ing hose ini ial discussions and subsequen
engagemen . Co espondence wi h Hossein Moda essi on an ea lie d a o his pape also
honed i s analysis, pa icula ly on he a ibu ion o al-Ṭūsī, o which I am g a e ul. Ske ches
o he Ḥawzah desc ip ion we e i s p esen ed a Columbia’s Sha īʿa wo kshop in Oc obe
2020. Special g a i ude o my p o esso s and colleagues, as well as hose unnamed o
anonymous, o whom c edi is due o hese indings in ways ha a e unde acknowledged o
un ecognized.
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