Co esponding au ho : Anie ie Jonah Udoh
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Ba ie s o human capi al de elopmen in he educa ion sec o o Akwa Ibom S a e,
Nige ia
Anie ie Jonah Udoh 1, *, Chigozie Sabina Nwagu 1, M on E iong Asuquo 2, Enyongama Sunday Thomas 1 and
Vic o E. Ben 3
1 Legisla i e Cen e o Secu i y Analysis (LeCeSA), Na ional Ins i u e o Legisla i e and Democ a ic S udies (NILDS),
Na ional Assembly, Abuja.
2 Depa men o Sociology and An h opology, Facul y o social sciences, Akwa Ibom S a e Uni e si y, Obio Akpa Campus.
3 Depa men o Sociology and An h opology, Facul y o Social Sciences, Uni e si y o Uyo, Uyo.
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(02), 1015-1029
Publica ion his o y: Recei ed on 05 July 2025; e ised on 12 Augus 2025; accep ed on 14 Augus 2025
A icle DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.30574/wja .2025.27.2.2955
Abs ac
Educa ion is a pi o al componen o human capi al de elopmen . Howe e , ba ie s o human capi al de elopmen exis ,
pa icula ly in he educa ion sec o o Akwa Ibom S a e. This necessi a ed he s udy o assess he ba ie s o human
capi al de elopmen in educa ion sec o o Akwa Ibom S a e, Nige ia. Using Becke 's Human Capi al Theo y (1964) o
guide he s udy, h ee (3) objec i es and esea ch ques ions we e o mula ed. The desc ip i e su ey design, in ol ing
he Focus G oup Discussion and In-dep h in e iews aided he collec ion o p ima y da a. The pu posi e sampling
echnique was used o selec a sample o 285 esponden s. The da a ob ained we e analysed in hemes. The esul s
e ealed ha insu icien unding limi s access o quali y eache s, lea ning ma e ials, and in as uc u e, leading o
o e c owded class ooms and high d opou a es. In as uc u e de iciencies, such as inadequa e class ooms, poo
sani a ion, and lack o elec ici y, u he weaken he lea ning en i onmen . High po e y exace ba es hese challenges,
as many amilies canno a o d school expenses, o cing child en in o labou o ea ly ma iages. Malnu i ion also a ec s
concen a ion and lea ning ou comes. These ac o s collec i ely hinde human capi al de elopmen by educing
educa ional a ainmen and limi ing u u e economic oppo uni ies. The s udy ecommended ha go e nmen should
be commi ed o alloca e a subs an ial and consis en po ion o he budge o educa ion. Also, a di e si ied plan is
needed o he go e nmen o imp o e he academic ou comes o s uden s li ing in po e y, and his needed o be
ocusing on add essing issues ela ed o bo h he social and educa ional needs o he s uden s o a be e socie y.
Keywo ds: Ba ie ; De elopmen ; Human Capi al; Human Capi al De elopmen ; High Po e y Le els
1. In oduc ion
A guably, educa ion is he co ne s one o human capi al de elopmen , bu he e a e many ba ie s o e ec i e and
quali a i e educa ion in he wo ld (Singh, Kuma and Kuma , 2022). These ba ie s a e no limi ed o inadequa e
unding, insu icien go e nmen budge alloca ion, poo in as uc u e, insu icien ICT equipmen , gende bias, bu
also include eache sho ages and quali ied eache s, high po e y le els, go e nmen and managemen policy
implemen a ion gaps, exclusion o child en wi h disabili ies, insecu i y and social un es , ine icien and poo educa ion
managemen , inadequa e oca ional and echnical educa ion, and a lack o lea ning ma e ials, among o he s (Schul z,
2022).
Acco ding o Becke (2020), he Uni ed Na ions es ima es o e 262 million child en and young adul s a ound he wo ld
who s ay ou o school which demands he wo ld leade s o ake ac ion and conc e e s eps o change na a i es. I is
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ob ious ha child en’s access o educa ion has he powe o end po e y, de elop socie ies, imp o e heal h and
wellbeing, g ow economies, and e en end malnu i ion which a e he p ocesses o b inging imp o emen s in gene al
wel a e o he people. In a nu shell, educa ion is he answe o he bigges challenges acing he de eloping coun ies o
he wo ld, pa icula ly he Sub-Saha an A ica.
Since Nige ia gained independence om he B i ish ule in 1960, educa ion sec o in he coun y has s uggled wi h
pe sis en ba ie s anging om po e y, gende inequali y, lack o esou ces, and inadequa e in as uc u e among
o he de e io a ing ac o s. Despi e a subs an ial po ion o he na ional budge alloca ed o educa ion om he
es ablishmen o Uni e sal Basic Educa ion (UBE) p og amme o 1999 P esiden Olusegun Obasango’s adminis a ion
which p o ides ee, compulso y, and uni e sal basic educa ion o all child en up o age 15, ha led o F ee Uni e sal
Basic Educa ion Ac o 2004, he Na ional Policy on Educa ion (NPE) 2013 and he Compulso y Educa ion (Glewwe and
Mu alidha an, 2022); e en he es ablishmen o sys em-wide policies o comp ehensi ely o e haul he educa ion sec o
o imp o e lea ning and skill de elopmen , inc ease en olmen , and ensu e he academic secu i y o he na ion’s
child en in Nige ia in 2024 by P esiden Bola Tinubu, he coun y’s educa ion sec o o en ail o mee up wi h i s
objec i es as a esul o co up ion ha is e ec ing he ins i u ions o he coun y. This has ho ible consequences ha
lead o inadequa e in as uc u e, ou da ed educa ional ma e ials, poo ly equipped class ooms and sho age o quali ied
eache s.
The numbe o ou -o -school child en be ween 2015 and 2023, howe e , inc eased a he han educed. The Uni ed
Na ions Educa ional Scien i ic and Cul u al O ganiza ion (UNESCO) (2022) s a ed ha almos 20 million Nige ian
child en we e ou o school. Acco ding o he da a, he seconda y school ou -o -school popula ion had g own by 61 pe
cen , om 6.3 million in 2000 o 10.1 million in 2019. Acco ding o Mus apha (2023), he numbe o p ima y school-aged
child en who we e no in school had also inc eased by 50 pe cen , om 6.4 million in 2010 o 9.7 million since 2023.
This b ough Nige ia on he hi d le el among coun ies wi h he highes numbe o child en dep i ed o educa ion,
a e India and Pakis an.
In Nige ia, huge amoun o money is budge ed o educa ion annually. Fo ins ance, in 2020, N607 billion was budge ed
o educa ion, ep esen ing 5.74 pe cen o he en i e budge o he coun y. In 2021, i inc eased o N771.46 billion. In
2022, N900 billion was he coun y’s o al alloca ion o educa ion, while in 2023, he adminis a ion se aside 4.95 pe
cen o he o al budge o he sec o (Mus apha, 2023). The e ec s o poo educa ion sec o ex end beyond s uden le el
and di ec ly a ec na ional de elopmen . This is because, a wo k o ce ha lacks he necessa y skills and compe encies
hampe s inno a ion, en ep eneu ship and p oduc i i y (Mince , 2020). This in u n a ec economic g ow h and
encou age dependency on o eign p o iciency and supp ess Nige ia's po en ial o compe e wi h a global s anda d.
Ne e heless, he de iciency o quali y and e ec i e educa ion sec o con ibu es o social un es , insecu i y and
ins abili y. I is in iew o hese ha his s udy seeks o un a el he ba ie s which include: inadequa e unding,
insu icien go e nmen budge alloca ion, poo in as uc u e, insu icien ICT, eache sho age, high po e y le els,
policy implemen a ion gaps, insecu i y and social un es , insu icien educa ion managemen and inadequa e oca ional
and aining educa ion o human capi al de elopmen in he educa ion sec o o Akwa Ibom S a e, Nige ia.
1.1. S a emen o he Resea ch P oblem
The idea o human capi al de elopmen can be aced back o he 18 h cen u y du ing he Indus ial Re olu ion. Adam
Smi h e e ed o he concep in his book “An Inqui y in o he Na u e and Causes o he Weal h o Na ions”, in which he
explo ed he weal h, knowledge, aining, alen s, and expe iences o a na ion (Becke , 1993). Adams sugges ed ha
imp o ing human capi al h ough aining and educa ion leads o a mo e p o i able en e p ise ha , which adds o he
collec i e weal h o he socie y, and makes i a win o e e yone. Human capi al consis s o he knowledge, skills, and
heal h ha people accumula e h oughou hei li es, enabling hem o ealize hei po en ial as p oduc i e membe s o
socie y. To end ex eme po e y and c ea e mo e inclusi e socie ies, he e is need o p omo e human capi al. Wi hou
human capi al de elopmen in educa ion sec o , coun ies canno sus ain economic g ow h, will no ha e a wo k o ce
ha is p epa ed o he mo e highly-skilled jobs o he u u e, and will no compe e e ec i ely in he global economy.
The cogni i e explana ion cen es on he pe sonalized and in e nal na u e o human beha iou which a ec he
in e p e a ion o economic si ua ions (Ukpong and Ikoh, 2014). This is ue because go e nmen s o policy ac o s
ha e a lead ole in implemen ing he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals’ (SDGs) plans h ough he policies hey make and
he educa ion sys em hey a e esponsible o , o ensu e ha educa ion sec o is imp o ed o de elop all ci izens
i espec i e o he ibe, gende , ace o language hey speak (Le Blanc, 2015).
One o he ba ie s o human capi al de elopmen in he educa ion sec o ha s ands as usual way o li e in Akwa Ibom
S a e o Nige ia is co up ion. Acco ding o Eze (2024) and UNESCO (2014), Nige ia is one o he 37 coun ies losing
money ha we e mean o spen on educa ion. Ano he ba ie is lack o supe ision, which is he p ocess ha
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educa ional expe s will mo e om one school o ano he o p o ide p o essional ad ice ha would assis he s uden s,
eache s and he managemen o he school o imp o e he quali y o he sys em. Lack o implemen a ion o educa ion
policy is also a ba ie o educa ion sec o in Akwa Ibom S a e. Poo in as uc u e such as buildings, labo a o ies,
machine y, u ni u e and elec ical ix u es. Sho age and inadequa e p o essional eache s. Un o una ely, educa ion
sec o in Akwa Ibom S a e appea acing he p oblem o eache sho age ac oss schools (Obo , 2025). O he ba ie s
include: insu icien go e nmen budge alloca ion; insu icien In o ma ion Communica ion Technology (ICT);
inadequa e oca ional and echnical educa ion; insecu i y and Social Un es ; high po e y le els; poo unding among
o he ba ie s.
Becke ’s heo y posi ed ha educa ion and aining a e he mos impo an in es men s in human capi al. Becke
a gued ha s udies ha e shown ha high schools a e g ea ly aise a pe son's income, e en a e ne ing ou di ec and
indi ec cos s o schooling, and e en a e adjus ing o he ac ha people wi h mo e educa ion end o ha e highe
in elligence and be e -educa ed and iche pa en s. I is impo an o unde s and ha cul u es and economic sys ems
o he people di e s om coun y o coun y especially he de eloping coun ies like Nige ia ha aces many challenges
o co up ion bo h wi hin and ou side he educa ion sec o . In Nige ia, achie ing e ec i e and ha ing access o quali y
educa ion is a huge p oblem.
Ukpong (2010) elucida ed ha he challenge he e in A ica, Nige ia inclusi e, cen es on he inabili y o he go e nmen
o p o ide he enabling en i onmen o e icien pe o mance. Many young people o p ima y and seconda y school
age do no a end school while many en olled bu d op ou because hei pa en s a e no able o a o d school ees and
o he school necessi ies. Some do no ha e he possibili y o ake he school-lea ing examina ion quali ying hem o
en e highe educa ion o o g adua e om school as he i s s ep owa ds being quali ied o wo k, while many
g adua es become job seeke s o decades. Acco ding o UNESCO (2022), in sub-Saha an A ica, only wo in h ee
child en comple e hei p ima y and seconda y school educa ion.
The economy o China o example, become a de eloped economy oday because a g ea e junk o he populace a e in o
echnology and indus ializa ion which p opel he economy o i s en iable heigh globally (Nwachukwu, 2024). Bu , in
ou own clime, he case is he e e se, whe e e en young g adua e a i s class le el decides o join poli ics ins ead o
in en ions o p opel indus ializa ion o economic de elopmen . This con ibu ed immensely o he economic
down u n o he coun y. Howe e , he communal money ha is mean o be used o he good o all is packaged by a
ew indi iduals a he op and sen in o hei p i a e accoun s, lea ing he masses o hei a e.
S udies ha e been conduc ed on he need o unde s and he ba ie s o human capi al de elopmen in he educa ion
sec o . Fo ins ance, Nwachukwu (2024) conduc ed a s udy on human capi al de elopmen as a d i e o educa ional
imp o emen in Nige ia, and he esul s e ealed ha human capi al de elopmen is c ucial o educa ional p og ess in
Nige ia because i enhances educa ional ou comes and imp o es wo k o ce eadiness. I ejika (2017) ocused on he
challenges o accumula ing human capi al in Nige ia, wi h ocus on educa ion and heal h ca e se ices wi hou in-dep h
easons o no achie ing his goal. Im an (2015), in his “ba ie s o human capi al de elopmen : measu emen s, gende
dispa i ies and de e minan s” whe e he s udied Towns and Dis ic s o Punjab, concen a ed mo e on ba ie s o
educa ion a ainmen and gende pa i ies. Howe e , none o hese s udies ocused on he ba ie s o human capi al
de elopmen in he educa ion sec o o Akwa Ibom S a e, Nige ia, which is he gap ha his s udy has illed in he body
o knowledge.
Objec i es o he S udy
The main objec i e o he s udy was o assess he ba ie s o human capi al de elopmen in he educa ion sec o o
Akwa Ibom S a e, Nige ia. The speci ic objec i es we e o:
• Asce ain how in as uc u e de iciency hinde s human capi al de elopmen in educa ion sec o .
• Examine how inadequa e unding a ec s human capi al de elopmen in educa ion sec o o akwa ibom s a e.
• In es iga e how high po e y le els a ec human capi al de elopmen in educa ion sec o .
1.2. Resea ch Ques ions
• Wha a e he in as uc u e de iciency ha hinde human capi al de elopmen in educa ion sec o ?
• Why does inadequa e unding a ec human capi al de elopmen in educa ion sec o ?
• How do high po e y le els a ec human capi al de elopmen in educa ion sec o ?
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1.3. Signi icance o he S udy
This s udy holds signi ican impo ance o poli ical ac o s, s akeholde s in minis y o educa ion, school p incipals,
eache s, pa en s, s uden s, communi y leade s, labou ma ke and de elopmen expe s. I p o ides insigh s o he
e ec i e educa ion sec o ha will impac on human capi al de elopmen in Akwa Ibom S a e. The s udy con ibu es
o he exis ing li e a u e on human capi al de elopmen h ough educa ion, policy de elope s and s uden s whose ocus
is o de elop human capi al. Fu he mo e, his s udy p o ides inpu o policy and lawmake s o enhance and boos hei
abili y o make e icien policies and p og ammes ha will add ess he ques o imp o ed educa ion sec o in Akwa
Ibom S a e. The s udy would b ing immense alue in policy ecommenda ions and academic discou se on he dynamics
o human capi al de elopmen in he educa ion sec o o Akwa Ibom S a e, Nige ia.
1.4. Scope o he S udy
This s udy was conduc ed in Akwa Ibom S a e, whe e seconda y schools we e selec ed in Uyo, Iko Ekpene, Abak and
Mkpa Enin Local Go e nmen A eas cu ing ac oss he h ee sena o ial dis ic s o he s a e. The majo a iables o
in es iga ion we e: inadequa e unding; in as uc u e de iciency and high po e y le els as hey a ec human capi al
de elopmen in he educa ion sec o . The s udy was guided by he assump ions o Be ge ’s Human Capi al Theo y,
de eloped in 1964. The scope o his s udy spanned be ween 2015 and 2023.
2. Li e a u e and Empi ical Re iew
Human capi al de elopmen has been desc ibed as an end o objec i e o de elopmen o any na ion. I is a way o ul il
he po en ials o people by inc easing hei capabili ies, and his necessa ily implies empowe ing he people in a way
ha enable hem o pa icipa e ac i ely in hei own de elopmen and p og ess. Human capi al de elopmen
s eng hens he skills, knowledge, p oduc i i y, c ea i i y and in en i eness o people. The e o e, human capi al
de elopmen is people and no goods o p oduc ion-cen ed s a egy no in as uc u al de elopmen . Essen ially, i is
he empowe men o people o iden i y hei own p io i ies and po en ials in o de o implemen p og ammes and
p ojec s o di ec bene i o hem. This in u n implies he ac i e pa icipa ion o people in he de elopmen p ocess and
he consequen need o e ol e ins i u ions ha pe mi and indeed encou age ha pa icipa ion (O u, and Adenuga,
2006).
UNESCO (2022), is o he iew ha human capi al de elopmen is a p ocess o ac i ely imp o ing and enhancing he
knowledge, skills, abili ies, and heal h o indi iduals wi hin a popula ion o wo k o ce, essen ially in es ing in people
o maximize hei po en ial and con ibu e e ec i ely o economic g ow h and socie al de elopmen . The p ocess
in ol es ini ia i es like educa ion, aining, heal hca e, and pe sonal de elopmen p og ams o build a skilled and
p oduc i e wo k o ce.
Mo eo e , i has been a gued ha human capi al de elopmen aises he income o he poo in a na ion, he e o e,
aising he income sp ead be ween he poo and he ich which o cou se is a wo ldwide objec i e o educa ion
(Akpoghelie, 2016). I has also been main ained ha human capi al de elopmen is closely ied o he issues o
educa ion, economic g ow h and de elopmen . Economic g ow h and de elopmen a e la gely a unc ion o human
capi al, which is an embodimen o educa ion, good heal h, knowledge, skills, a i udes, expe ise and echnological
known-how (Nwankwo, 1981; Babalola 2003; Adeyemi and Akpo u, 2004).
The Nige ian go e nmen plays a key ole in p omo ing human capi al de elopmen h ough policies ha suppo
access o quali y educa ion a all le els, including p ima y, seconda y, and e ia y educa ion (Adebayo, 2020). The
i s a ie y o he Na ional Policy on Educa ion was in oduced in 1977, which o med he amewo k o he
cu en basic educa ion igh s o Nige ian child en. They include he Na ional Policy on Educa ion (NPE) 2013 ha laid
Nige ia’s philosophical ounda ion o basic educa ion. The said policy emphasizes he uni e sal igh o educa ion,
p o ec ed unde Nige ia’s Child Righ s Ac 2003 as well as he Compulso y, F ee Uni e sal Basic Educa ion Ac o 2004.
The 2003 Child Righ s Ac was inspi ed by he 1999 Con en ion on he Righ s o he Child, o mally ensh ined he igh
o Nige ian child en o basic educa ion. Basic educa ion policy co e s child en aged 0-15 yea s, wi h Ea ly Child Ca e
and De elopmen Educa ion a e sing om 0-4 yea s and o mal schooling ex ending o en yea s.
Buha i’s led go e nmen had on di e en occasions, p omised o imp o e he sec o , including inc easing budge a y
alloca ions o educa ion, esol ing long-s anding issues wi h he Academic S a Union o Uni e si ies (ASUU), and
imp o ing he quali y o p ima y and seconda y educa ion. The go e nmen had also pledged one ee meal ( o include
ui s) daily, o public p ima y school pupils o encou age child en o en ol o be educa ed and educe he numbe o
ou -o -school child en. Unde he Wo ld Bank-suppo ed Inno a ion De elopmen and E ec i eness in he Acquisi ion
o Skills (IDEAS) P ojec , app o ed in 2020, US$200m was in es ed in Abia, Benue, Eki i, Gombe, Kano, and Edo S a es
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as well as in 20 Fede al Science and Technical Colleges na ionwide. In 2021, Nige ia gua an ees he igh o all lea ne s,
eache s and o he school use s o ecei e educa ion in sa e and secu e lea ning en i onmen s h ough Na ional Policy
on Sa e y, Secu i y and Violence- ee schools in Nige ia (Wo ld Bank. (2022).
Minis y o educa ion is conside ed o be a key Minis y in Akwa Ibom S a e, wi h he zonal o ices in 10 Local
Go e nmen A eas including Uyo, Iko Ekpene, Ikono, E inan, Iko Abasi, O on, I u, Abak, Ukana un and Eke . The s a e
is s ill ba ling wi h he p oblems o e ec i e implemen a ion o educa ion policies ha could aides he s a e o achie e
he p e-de e mined objec i es, as Ekanem (2003), belie es ha e e y public policy a ms a sol ing a social p oblem.
Educa ion is a consuming passion o he people and he Go e nmen o Akwa Ibom S a e. F om 2007 when ee and
compulso y educa ion was in oduced in Akwa Ibom S a e ill da e educa ion mo ed om uins and commodi ies
beyond each o ci adels o equal oppo uni ies p ac icing well-a icula ed and S a e Go e nmen o i ied Uni e sal
Basic Educa ion (UBE) scheme, wi h go e nmen egula ly aising s anda ds o ensu e g ea e pe o mance in he
sec o .
Educa ion sec o in Akwa Ibom has g own in leaps and bounds o become a majo componen o s a e economic
empowe men and de elopmen s a egy wi h 1,110 p ima y schools, 230 seconda y schools and 11 e ia y
ins i u ions equipped wi h class ooms, lib a ies, wo kshops and labo a o ies, besides, 5 S a e lib a ies, oge he wi h
he e-Lib a y. All hese we e p o ided o deepen eading cul u e and p omo e educa ion sec o capable o p oducing
sel -independen s Akwa Ibomi es wi h ull po en ials including c i ical hinking, p oblem sol ing, inancial secu i y,
con iden iali y, li elong lea ning, pe sonali y de elopmen , economic g ow h as well as imp o ed men al and physical
heal h. These isions ha e been bas a dized wi h ba ie s including inadequa e unding, insu icien go e nmen budge
alloca ion, poo in as uc u e, insu icien ICT, eache sho age and quali y, high po e y le els, policy implemen a ion
gaps, insecu i y and social un es , ine icien educa ion managemen , inadequa e oca ional and echnical educa ion
amongs o he ba ie s.
Many schools in Akwa Ibom S a e lack basic in as uc u e o suppo sa e, heal hy and e ec i e lea ning en i onmen s
Ene iok (2025), due o poo unding, co up ion, p ojec abandonmen , poo planning, poo main enance and o he
ac o s. School In as uc u e e e s o he s uc u es, acili ies and sys ems ha con ibu e o he unc ion o an
ins i u ion. These also include buildings, oads, b idges, powe supplies, wa e and sani a ion supplies,
elecommunica ion sys ems and mo e. When hese in as uc u es a e no ope a ing p ope ly, he chain o lea ning is
dis up ed (UNESCO, 2022). This dis up ion hinde s e ec i e and e icien lea ning, which, in u n, causes low s anda ds
o lea ning.
Poo in as uc u e in schools ha e ad e se impac on lea ning and achie emen . I can lead o highe d opou a es and
lowe eache e en ion. Fac o s ha con ibu e o poo in as uc u e in Schools a e, bu no limi ed o poo unding,
inadequa e use o esou ces, poo main enance, co up ion and Lack o p io i iza ion by adminis a ions (Wo ld Bank,
2022). Poo in as uc u e can hampe s uden s' lea ning and p og ess. O e c owding, noise pollu ion as well as
inadequa e sani a ion can b ing s uden s om concen a ion o dis ac ion. Fo ins ance, some public schools in Nige ia,
eache s a e expec ed o each o e 90 s uden s, and some s uden s sha e desks and chai s while some si on a ba e
loo (Io dye and Ja o, 2023)
Mo eo e , p o ec ing s uden s agains biological, physical, and chemical dange s ha can c ea e unheal hy and
imp ope lea ning en i onmen impo an . Wa e bo ne in ec ious diseases and physical pi alls associa ed wi h poo
cons uc ion and main enance p ac ices a e posing g ea isks o child en in Nige ian schools. The e o e, a well-
designed school en i onmen ha is ee o hese biological, physical, and chemical dange s is an in eg al pa o e o s
o se ing a posi i e school one o s uden success in he Nige ia. School en i onmen indi ec ly a ec s s uden
achie emen om i s di ec impac on eache s. This is because eache s a e pa amoun on he lis o ac o s equi ed
o s uden achie emen , and eache s equi e good physical en i onmen s o be e ec ual in bee up lea ning ou comes
(Rice, 2003; Aus alian Go e nmen , 2016).
On a su ey o p ima y school child en in Ondo S a e, Nige ia, i was disco e ed ha he pupils’ sa is ac ion in school
was ema kably ela ed o he school in as uc u e (Aina, 2015). Ano he s udy on eache s in u al public seconda y
schools in Ibadan, Oyo S a e, Nige ia ound ha physical en i onmen al school ac o s accoun ed o 29.2 pe cen o he
dispa i y in ins uc ional quali y (Raji, 2019).
The esul o poo in as uc u e in educa ion sec o s a s wi h in es men s owa d schools’ in as uc u al
de elopmen in communi ies ac oss he s a e, and bo h p i a e and public agencies should p ocu e unding o help
accele a e he implemen a ion o social and economic in as uc u e p ojec s especially in educa ion because, educa ion
in as uc u e sho ages a e a ba ie o lea ning a all le els, wi h pa icula impac on schools in sub-Saha an A ica
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(02), 1015-1029
1020
(Wo ld Bank, 2022). S uden s eel mo e a ease and ocused when hei su oundings a e well main ained wi h su icien
class oom space, p ope ligh ing and en ila ion, com o able u ni u e and access o echnology, can con ibu e o
e ec i e and e icien lea ning.
Inadequa e unding o educa ion is a majo issue ha h ea ens he u u e o he A ica’s child en (Wo ld Bank,
2022). Lack o unding has leads o millions o child en being denied access o quali y educa ion, and his ha e se ious
consequences no only o he child en and hei amilies, bu on he economy o he na ion in gene al. Acco ding o
UNESCO (2022), millions o c isis-a ec ed gi ls and boys ac oss he A ican con inen a e being denied hei human
igh o a quali y educa ion. This is because he inancial mean ha can p o ide a quali y educa ion a e no in place, and
his equally s agna e hem om enjoying he same igh s as he es o he child en om he de eloped coun ies.
In he 1960s, a e Nige ia had independen , educa ional unding was he only way Nige ian na ionalis s used o
empowe and de elop ou people. Du ing his pe iod, he go e nmen ook o e he con ol and adminis a ion o
educa ion sec o om he missiona ies, and s a ed unding schools h ough budge a y and policies ha enhanced
e ec i e educa ion. Funding educa ion is p ima ily he esponsibili y o he go e nmen a all le els. To a g ea ex en ,
he le el o unding de e mines he quali y o educa ion. Th ough unding, ele an ins uc ional ma e ials a e
pu chased, and an adequa e numbe o human esou ces a e p o ided o ealize he objec i es o he school (INEYE-
BRIGGS, 2023).
Akwa Ibom S a e need a new ision ha is based on human igh s o all, and educa ion is a he co e o such ision. No
jus educa ion o he ew o he p i ileged, bu educa ion o all o Akwa Ibom child en. To deli e on his, we need o
emb ace human igh s in ac ion, based on he p omises ou lined in he Con en ion on he Righ s o he Child and he
A ican Cha e on he Righ s and Wel a e o he Child (UNESCO, 2022). The acquisi ion o e ec i e and quali y
educa ion es s on he a ailabili y o unds o p o ide adequa e eaching and lea ning ma e ials. Howe e , mos school
buildings a e dilapida ed and many s uden s s udy unde such condi ions. The e is also a widesp ead sho age o
eaching manpowe , dilapida ed class ooms, u ni u e, ex books, ICT acili ies and ins uc ional ma e ials. I is no
longe news ha schools in Akwa Ibom S a e expe ience he loss o acili ies, he de e io a ion o equipmen , and
uncomple ed school p ojec s as a esul o poo unding. Due o poo unding, he quali y o educa ion o e ed is a ec ed
by poo a endance and inadequa e p epa a ion by eache s; he mo ale o eache s is low due o poo se ice condi ions
and low sala ies (INEYE-BRIGGS, 2023).
One o he easons o poo unding in educa ion sec o in Akwa Ibom is ha poli ical class does no summon su icien
poli ical will o in es in educa ion (Obo , 2025). This has led o he poli icisa ion o some educa ional p og ammes.
O he easons include ha de aul s in school ees paid by pa en s o gua dians con ibu e o ine ec i e unding o
educa ion by he go e nmen , he poli ical class some ime may no be willing o in es in educa ion, Akwa Ibom S a e
spend mo e on deb epaymen han educa ion, eg essi e axa ion policies can educe he amoun o money a ailable
o educa ion, o he sec o s o he economy, like heal h, secu i y, e c. compe e o esou ces, he apidly g owing school-
aged popula ion c ea es a high demand o educa ion and o e bi ing po e y le els. In summa y, educa ion is he mos
capi al-in ensi e en u e ha equi es e e y s akeholde o con ibu e o i s unding because go e nmen alone canno
bea he inancial bu den (Analaba and Jack, 2023; Chuku, 2023).
One way o ackling po e y is o indi iduals and o ganiza ion o di ec a en ion owa d in es ing in educa ion.
In es ing in educa ion, acco ding o Ijaiya (1998), could ake di e en o ms, such as massi e expansion o educa ional
acili ies, oca ionalisa ion o educa ion, adequa e unding o educa ion, e c. Many o he poo es amilies in A ica a e
no able o a end school, and he school emains oo expensi e and child en a e o ced o s ay a home doing cho es o
wo k hemsel es. Families emain locked in a cycle o po e y ha goes on o gene a ions. In many coun ies
h oughou A ica, while educa ion is heo e ically ee, in p ac ice “in o mal ees” see pa en s o ced o pay o
“compulso y i ems” like uni o ms, books, pens, ex a lessons, exam ees, o unds o suppo he school buildings. In
o he places, he lack o unc ioning public (go e nmen -suppo ed) schools means ha pa en s ha e no choice bu o
send hei child en o p i a e schools ha , e en i hey a e “low- ee,” a e una o dable o he poo es amilies who isk
making hemsel es des i u e in hei e o s o ge hei child en be e li es h ough educa ion.
Acco ding o he Na ional Bu eau o S a is ics, 63 pe cen o he Nige ian popula ion (133 million)
su e ed mul idimensional po e y in 2022. Mul idimensional po e y conside s ac o s such as dep i a ion o
educa ion, heal h, and be e li ing s anda ds in i s e m designa ion (Wo ld Bank, 2022). Po e y and educa ion in
Akwa Ibom S a e a e closely linked. People wi h no o li le educa ion a e mo e likely o li e in po e y, and po e y can
limi access o educa ion (Ba ne and Hus ed , 2020). I is ob ious ha Sa iSense, he da a ech company had eleased
ha Akwa Ibom s a e has he la ges numbe o people li ing in mul idimensional po e y in he Nige Del a egion. I
was culled om he 2022 mul idimensional po e y epo o he Na ional Bu eau o S a is ic (NBS) ha he people o
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(02), 1015-1029
1021
Akwa Ibom S a e do no only lack money, bu hey also lack access o educa ion which is he bed ock o de elopmen
o any socie y. The epo e eals ha Akwa Ibom has 5.08 million mul idimensionally poo people which ep esen s
71% o i s popula ion (E im, 2023).
Akwa Ibom has ea ned o e N4 illion in FAAC alloca ion, de i a ion income and IGR. Bu i is sad o say ha he s a e
po e y le el is s ill popping up and he people a e s ill li ing in po e y because hei huge esou ces a e no p ope ly
managed, and he go e nmen is no only eckless, hough less and was e ul, i s o icials we e la gely pil e ing. NBS has
consis en ly lis ed he s a e as being home o some o he poo es people in he coun y despi e i s amed oil weal h. The
NBS s a is ics s imula ed he o me Go e no , Udom Emmanuel o cas aspe sions on he in eg i y o NBS and claimed
ha he NBS was pa isan and en ious o his achie emen s in he s a e and was he e o e ou o emba ass him ins ead
o add essing he issue o po e y in a holis ic manne .
In summa y, he agenda o Sus ainable De elopmen Goals is a plan o ac ion o people, coun ies, s a e and local
go e nmen dwelle s o mo e om po e y o p ospe i y. I also explo es o heigh en uni e sal peace and a highe
quali y eedom. Khan, Hasan and Islam (2021), ecognised ha he ques o e adica e po e y in all aspec s and
dimensions, including ex eme po e y, is he g ea es uni e sal challenge and a necessa y demand o human capi al
de elopmen . All coun ies and all s akeholde s including policy make s need o ac in collabo a ion and pa ne ship o
implemen he goal. One way o ee he human ace om he y anny o po e y and wan and o heal and secu e ou
land is h ough e ec i e educa ion. This is a call ha leade s (s a ing om he g ass oo s) should be de e mined o
ake he bold and ans o ma i e s eps which a e u gen ly needed o mo e he wo ld on o a sus ainable and esilien
pa h h ough quali y educa ion.
3. Theo e ical F amewo k
Becke 's human capi al heo y (1964) was adop ed o he s udy. Becke posi s ha in es ing in he knowledge, skills,
and expe ience ha indi iduals possess will in u n inc ease hei p oduc i i y as well as ea nings. Becke a gued ha
human capi al, like physical capi al, can be in es ed in and inc eased h ough educa ion, aining, and expe ience. I is
ce ain ha people can inc ease hei p oduc i i y and e iciency by in es ing in hei educa ion, aining, and heal h. I
is based on he idea ha an educa ed popula ion is a mo e p oduc i e popula ion.
Human capi al heo y es s on he assump ion ha o mal educa ion is highly is highly ins umen al and necessa y o
imp o e he p oduc i e capaci y o a popula ion. In sho , human capi al heo is s a gue ha an educa ed popula ion is
a p oduc i e popula ion. Human capi al heo y emphasizes how educa ion inc eases he p oduc i i y and e iciency o
wo ke s by inc easing he le el o cogni i e s ock o economically p oduc i e human capabili y, which is a p oduc o
inna e abili ies and in es men in human beings (Okolie, 2020). The p o ision o o mal educa ion is seen as an
in es men in human capi al, which p oponen s o he heo y ha e conside ed as equally o e en mo e wo hwhile han
ha o physical capi al.
Becke posi ed human capi al as "ac i i ies ha in luence u u e mone a y and psychic income by inc easing esou ces
in people" (Becke 1994, 11), and i s main o ms we e schooling and on- he-job aining, al hough he also conside ed
medical ca e, mig a ion, and sea ching o in o ma ion abou p ices and incomes.
Acco ding o Becke , human capi al is he se o skills ha he wo k o ce possesses” (Goldin, 2016). S a ing om his
de ini ion, I in end o discuss in his sec ion he main ideas and deba es a ound he heo y o human capi al, gi en he
close connec ion be ween i , he uni e si y en i onmen and he labou ma ke . Whe he we a e alking abou gene al
human capi al, o one speci ic o ce ain asks, he co e o his heo y is he decision he indi idual makes when
balancing he cos s and bene i s o an ac ion such as admission o college. Mo e speci ically, in his case, human capi al
ep esen s he skills and compe ences ha an indi idual would lea n du ing he pe son’ s udies, as well as gains
ob ained a a job o which indi idual has p epa ed.
The heo y has some weak poin s on he g ound o assuming ha people a e a ional ac o s whe eas public se an s do
no make decisions based on hei belie s, goals and in o ma ion a ailable o hem, hey s i e o b ing ou hei bes in
hei o ganiza ions. The heo y assumes ha wo ke s as indi iduals wi hou conside ing he collec i ely o public
se ice aims and hei goal o ien ed me hods o ope a ion.
Human capi al heo y also conside s public se an s, businessmen and en ep eneu s as people who ha e p i a e
p ope y igh s. I is wo hy o no e ha e en he public se an himsel does no ha e con ol o e his li e. This is
because, e en a public wo ke has code o conduc ha egula e his ac i i ies which means ha he s a is ea ed as
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(02), 1015-1029
1022
go e nmen (o i s agency) asse s, a he han a p i a e indi idual. Again, public p ope y is secu ed by laws ha a e
clea ly de ined and en o ced by go e nmen s.
4. Me hods and Ma e ials
The s udy was conduc ed in Akwa Ibom S a e. The s udy adop ed a desc ip i e su ey esea ch design ha employed a
quali a i e me hod o da a collec ion whe e in e iew schedule was used as a ool o p ima y da a collec ion. The da a
o he s udy we e collec ed om p ima y sou ces.
The s udy was conduc ed in Akwa Ibom S a e which is one o he 36 s a es in Nige ia, and i si ua ed in Sou h-Sou h
geopoli ical zone o he coun y. The s a e has 31 local go e nmen a eas, wi h Uyo as he s a e capi al. Akwa Ibom S a e
is segmen ed in o h ee (3) sena o ial dis ic s (Akwa Ibom No h Eas , Akwa Ibom No h Wes and Akwa Ibom Sou h
Sena o ial Dis ic s). Acco ding o Na ional Popula ion Commission (NPC), in yea 2022, Akwa Ibom was es ima ed o
ha e a popula ion o 7,200,000 popula ions (NPC, 2023). The s a e sha es bounda ies wi h Abia S a e in he No h,
Ri e s S a e in he Eas , C oss Ri e S a e in he Wes and he Gul o Guinea in he Sou h. Akwa Ibom S a e has h ee
majo e hnic g oups and languages a e Ibibio, Annang and O o. The p e alen eligion is Ch is iani y. The e a e ew
o he ai h – based o ganiza ions in he s a e. The majo economic ac i i ies a e ading, a ming (mos ly o upland
dwelle s), ishing ( o i e ine coas al dwelle s), a isanship and whi e – colla jobs. Akwa Ibom S a e is accessible by
ai , land and wa e . Rich in cul u e, a s and c a s, which p o ide en ancing expe iences o ou is s. I is he la ges
oil-p oducing and e enue con ibu o o he Fede al Republic o Nige ia’s economy.
The popula ion o his s udy consis s o 25 pa en s; 10 s a om Akwa Ibom S a e Minis y o Educa ion; s a and
s uden s om he i e (5) selec ed seconda y schools in Akwa Ibom No h Eas , Akwa Ibom No h Wes and Akwa Ibom
Sou h Sena o ial Dis ic s. The schools we e selec ed using pu posi e sampling me hod. The schools a e: Communi y
High School A aha-Obong, Abak (30 s uden s and 20 s a ), Fede al College Iko Ekpene (30 s uden s and 23 s a ),
Go e nmen Technical College, Iko Aka a (30 s uden s and 25 s a ), O o Ukwa Seconda y School, Obio O o , Uyo (30
s uden s and 25 s a ), and Adiaha Obong Seconda y, Uyo (30 s uden s and 23 s a ). The o al numbe o s uden s
pa icipa ed in his s udy we e 150, while he numbe o school s a pa icipa ed in his s udy we e 118 which o m he
o al popula ion o 303. Fo he pu pose o his s udy, i y (50) esponden s we e selec ed om each school; 25
esponden s we e selec ed om he ca ego ies o pa en s; while 10 esponden s we e selec ed om he Akwa Ibom
S a e Minis y o educa ion; and he popula ion o his s udy is wo hund ed and Eigh y - i y (285) esponden s d awn
om he selec ed s udy a eas.
The o al numbe o seconda y schools in Abak Local Go e nmen A ea is 16, bu 5 seconda y schools we e selec ed
using pu posi e sample me hod. A pu posi e sampling, acco ding o Gua e and Baa ios (2006), is a andom selec ion
o sampling uni s wi hin he segmen o he popula ion wi h he mos in o ma ion on he cha ac e is ic o in e es . The
popula ion om he i e selec ed schools we e 268 s uden s and 272 s a . Using quo a sampling me hod, 55 we e
alloca ed o s a and s uden s a Communi y High School A aha-Obong, Abak; 53 we e alloca ed o Fede al College Iko
Ekpene; 55 we e alloca ed o Go e nmen Technical College, Iko Aka a; 50 we e alloca ed o O o Ukwa Seconda y
School, Obio O o , Uyo; while 55 we e alloca ed o Adiaha Obong Seconda y, Uyo. F om his popula ion, a subse o
indi iduals we e chosen using p opo ional alloca ion o selec he sample size o 50 esponden s om each school, o
his s udy. This ga e unbiased ep esen a ion o wo hund ed and i y (250) esponden s. The esponden s ep esen ed
he s a o seconda y schools and minis y o educa ion, s uden s as well as pa en s/ca egi e s in Abak Local
Go e nmen A ea, Akwa Ibom S a e.
Me hod o p opo ional alloca ion was adop ed by he esea che . This was done by di iding he s a and s uden s in o
subg oups called s a a based on gende , and andomly selec ed he sample size using p obabili y sampling me hod o
s a i ied sampling. In Fede al College Iko Ekpene, he whole s a we e 53 while he s uden s we e 36. The s a and
s uden s we e g ouped in o wo s a a – male and emale. Male s a we e 28 and 25 emales. Using s a i ied sampling,
only 50 esponden s we e selec ed. The s a and s uden s om Go e nmen Technical College, Iko Aka a we e 81 (48
s a and 33 s uden s), bu 50 we e selec ed o he s udy. A O o Ukwa Seconda y School, Obio O o , Uyo, om a o al
numbe o 57 s a and 38 s uden s, 50 we e selec ed. F om a o al numbe o 50 s a o Communi y High School, A aha-
Obong he en i e 50 bo h eaching and non eaching s a we e selec ed. While 50 we e equally selec ed om he o al
s a o 56 a Adiaha Obong Seconda y, Uyo. F om he s a a, he sample was selec ed by applying s a i ied sampling
selec ion on each s a um. F om he Akwa Ibom S a e Minis y o Educa ion, Abak was selec ed using pu posi e
sampling echnique, and 10 esponden s we e selec ed using simple andom sampling. 25 pa en s/gua dians we e
equally selec ed using same simple andom sampling. This make he o al sample size o wo hund ed and Eigh y – Fi e
(285) o his s udy.
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Da a we e collec ed in his s udy h ough in e iew schedule ha acili a ed e ec i e in e iews wi h he esponden s.
The in e iew schedule was lexible and cus omized in o de o ob ain key in o ma ion abou he esponden s. The
in e iew schedule s a ed wi h a c a ing opening s a emen which helped o es ablished a posi i e appo wi h he
esponden s. Socio-demog aphic cha ac e is ics we e go en h ough ligh e ques ions ha allowed he esponden s
o in oduce hemsel es h ough open-ended and closed-ended ques ions. The ques ions on he in e iew schedule
we e aised in line wi h he speci ic and o e all objec i es o he s udy. The seconda y da a collec ion was ex ensi e
e iew o he ela ed li e a u e d awn om seconda y sou ces o ex books, o icial gaze es jou nals, newspape s,
magazines, websi es, p e ious esea ches e c.
The p incipal ins umen o p ima y da a collec ion o he s udy was in e iew guide ha was s uc u ed wi h an
opening in oduc ion ha made he esponden s eel welcomed and indica ed he objec i es o he in e iew. The s udy
elied on a mode a ely scheduled in e iew ha ocused on majo ques ions ha aligned wi h he ba ie s o human
capi al de elopmen in he educa ion sec o wi h p obing ques ions unde . The closing con ained he summa y o he
subjec ma e . The en i e exe cise was conduc ed wi h he help o wo esea ch assis an s wi h a eco de and w i ing
ma e ials o p ope cap u ing.
In he cou se o his s udy, he p ima y da a ob ained o he s udy we e o ganized by ansc ibing he in e iews and
de eloping a coding sys em o ca ego ized ele an in o ma ion. Codes we e assigned o he segmen ed da a and
analysed using hema ic analysis.
The pu pose o he s udy was communica ed o he P incipal, managemen o he minis y o educa ion and s a o he
s udy a eas be o e he ield wo k. They we e also no i ied on he subjec ma e . This made he pa icipa ion o he
esea ch comple ely olun a y. The p incipals p o ided o al consen o hei s a be o e he s udy commenced, and
he e was 100 pe cen pa icipan a e wi h ull assu ance o hei con iden iali y, and ha hey we e ee o decline o
sign o pa icipa ion i hey we e no com o able.
Also, he esea che did no allow biases o in luence he conduc o he s udy and inding de i ed he e om.
5. Findings and Discussions
In his sec ion, da a collec ed om he ield a e p esen ed and analysed on quali a i e me hod using a Thema ic Analysis
on he basis o esponses om he in e iew schedule. The p o iles o he esponden s which a e: sex, age, wo k s a us,
income s a us, place o wo k, eligious a ilia ion and ma i al s a us we e p esen ed and analysed using simple
pe cen age.
Table 1 The socio-demog aphic cha ac e is ics o he esponden s (N=285)
Cha ac e is ics
F equency
Pe cen age (%)
Sex
Male
157
55.1
Female
128
44.9
Age B acke s
15-20
150
52.6
21-25
8
2.8
26-30
14
4.9
31-35
21
7.4
36-40
40
14.0
41-45
32
11.2
46-50
20
7.0
Income S a us
40k – 50k
12
4.2
