Co esponding au ho : Neha Aga wal
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Physiochemical assessmen o i e Indian i e sys ems: A s udy o ha dness and pH
Sh eem Mish a and Neha Aga wal *
Depa men o Chemis y, Na yug Kanya Maha idyalaya, Uni e si y o Lucknow, Lucknow, India.
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(02), 1035-1040
Publica ion his o y: Recei ed on 04 July 2025; e ised on 11 Augus 2025; accep ed on 13 Augus 2025
A icle DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.30574/wja .2025.27.2.2915
Abs ac
Ri e s a e he li elines o India, sus aining i s people, ag icul u e, and ecosys ems while holding deep cul u al and
spi i ual signi icance. Thei wa e quali y di ec ly in luences public heal h, biodi e si y, and he socio-economic ab ic
o he egions hey low h ough. Regula scien i ic assessmen o i e wa e quali y is essen ial o de ec eme ging
ecological h ea s and guide e ec i e conse a ion policies. This s udy p esen s a compa a i e assessmen o wa e
quali y ac oss i e majo Indian i e loca ions: he Ganges a Ha idwa , he Yamuna a Ma hu a, he Gom i a Lucknow,
he Sa ayu a Ayodhya, and he T i eni Sangam a P ayag aj. Two key physicochemical pa ame e s, pH and wa e
ha dness, we e e alua ed o de e mine he heal h o hese i e sys ems. Wa e samples we e collec ed be ween
Janua y and Ap il using s anda dized p o ocols o minimize con amina ion. Labo a o y analyses we e conduc ed using
a digi al pH me e and complexome ic i a ion wi h EDTA. The pH le els ac oss all i e samples we e ound o be
wi hin he WHO- ecommended ange, indica ing a gene ally s able acidic-alkaline balance. Howe e , ha dness
measu emen s e ealed mode a e o high mine al con en , indica ing he p esence o signi ican dissol ed calcium and
magnesium ions in ce ain loca ions. This s udy highligh s he need o localized wa e quali y moni o ing and
con ibu es baseline da a o u u e compa a i e esea ch in i e ecology and public heal h policy.
Keywo ds: Wa e Quali y; pH; Wa e Ha dness; Ri e Pollu ion; EDTA Ti a ion; Physicochemical Analysis
1. In oduc ion
Ri e s ha e long se ed as he a e ies o human ci iliza ion, suppo ing li e, ag icul u e, and indus y ac oss
gene a ions. F om he e ile banks o he Ganges o he spi i ual con luence a P ayag aj, India's i e sys ems con inue
o sus ain no jus ecosys ems bu also deeply oo ed cul u al and economic p ac ices. Howe e , inc easing
u baniza ion, indus ial discha ge, ag icul u al uno , and eligious p ac ices ha e placed immense s ess on he quali y
o hese eshwa e bodies [1].
Moni o ing i e wa e quali y is c ucial o main aining ecological heal h and ensu ing public sa e y. The pH le el o
wa e e lec s i s acidi y o alkalini y, in luencing biological ac i i y and he solubili y o me als. Ex emely acidic o
alkaline wa e s can dis up aqua ic li e, educe biodi e si y, and in e e e wi h na u al biochemical cycles. Ha dness,
p ima ily caused by dissol ed calcium and magnesium ions, impac s bo h en i onmen al sys ems and human use, which
con ibu es o scaling in pipelines, a ec ing aqua ic lo a and auna, and al e ing wa e chemis y.
2. Li e a u e Re iew
Wa e quali y assessmen oday elies on physical, chemical, and biological pa ame e s—many o which a e
ecommended by he Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion (WHO). Among he mos c ucial indica o s o i e heal h a e pH and
ha dness, as hey di ec ly a ec bo h aqua ic ecosys ems and human usage [2-5].
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2.1. pH o Wa e
The pH o wa e e lec s i s hyd ogen ion concen a ion and is measu ed on a loga i hmic scale anging om 0 o 14.
Neu al wa e has a pH o 7, while alues below 7 a e acidic and abo e 7 a e alkaline. De ia ions in pH can lead o
ecological dis up ions. Low pH le els may cause:
• Inc eased me al leaching om i e sedimen s
• Reduced mic obial ac i i y
• Highe ish mo ali y
Con e sely, high pH le els can:
• Dis up gill unc ion in aqua ic li e
• Inc ease ammonia oxici y, which is ha m ul o bo h ish and plan species
These luc ua ions no only damage aqua ic biodi e si y bu also in luence he wa e ’s sui abili y o domes ic,
ag icul u al, and indus ial use [6].
2.2. Wa e Ha dness
Wa e ha dness p ima ily a ises om he p esence o dissol ed calcium (Ca²⁺) and magnesium (Mg²⁺) ions. I is
classi ied in o:
• Tempo a y ha dness, caused by bica bona es, is emo able h ough boiling o ea men wi h sodium
ca bona e
• Pe manen ha dness, caused by sulpha es and chlo ides, is emo able only h ough mo e ad anced me hods
like he pe mu i p ocess
The o al ha dness is he sum o bo h ypes and is gene ally exp essed in millig ams pe li e (mg/L) o calcium
ca bona e (CaCO₃). Acco ding o he s anda d classi ica ion:
• 0–60 mg/L is conside ed so
• 61–120 mg/L is mode a ely ha d
• 121–180 mg/L is ha d
• Abo e 180 mg/L is e y ha d
Ha d wa e has mul iple implica ions. While no ypically ha m ul o heal h, i can:
• Al e i e bed chemis y
• Lead o scaling in pipes and i iga ion sys ems
• A ec he solubili y o o he pollu an s
• In luence aqua ic plan and animal physiology
3. Me hodology
3.1. Sample Collec ion
Wa e samples we e collec ed om i e loca ions ac oss no he n India: The Ganges a Ha idwa , he Yamuna a
Ma hu a, he Gom i a Lucknow, he Sa ayu a Ayodhya, and he T i eni Sangam a P ayag aj.
Samples we e d awn using ai igh plas ic con aine s, app oxima ely 2 ee om he i e bank o a oid con amina ion
om su ace deb is and sho eline sil . The collec ion was conduc ed be ween Janua y and Ap il, wi h e o s made o
ensu e uni o m condi ions ac oss all si es. A e sedimen a ion, isible sil deposi s we e ca e ully decan ed o main ain
cla i y du ing es ing.
3.2. Sample S o age
Samples we e s o ed o 2 o 3 days in a cool, shaded en i onmen , a oiding exposu e o di ec sunligh . This helped
p ese e chemical s abili y be o e analysis.
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(02), 1035-1040
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3.3. Ins umen s and Reagen s Used
Digi al pH Me e : Calib a ed be o e each use wi h s anda d bu e able s o pH 4, 7, and 9. The elec ode was kep
imme sed in po assium chlo ide (KCl) solu ion be ween eadings o main ain sensi i i y and p ecision.
Complexome ic Ti a ion: Ha dness was measu ed ia EDTA i a ion. The eagen s used included: E ioch ome Black
T indica o , Ammonia bu e o main ain pH ~10, S anda d EDTA solu ion p epa ed and s anda dized be o e i a ion
3.4. Ha dness Analysis
The ha dness o each wa e sample was de e mined using a complexome ic i a ion me hod. A 0.1 M solu ion o
disodium e hylenediamine e aace ic acid (EDTA) se ed as he i an . The bu e was p epa ed by dissol ing 5 g o
ammonium chlo ide in 25 mL o concen a ed ammonia, hen dilu ing i o 50 mL wi h dis illed wa e . E ioch ome Black
T was used as he indica o . In he p esence o calcium and magnesium ions, he solu ion u ned wine ed, which shi ed
o g een-blue a he end poin , indica ing comple e complexa ion.
Resul s we e calcula ed in mg/L o CaCO₃, which is equi alen o pa s pe million (ppm). Obse a ions we e compiled
in o ables and ba g aphs o easie in e p e a ion and compa a i e isualiza ion.
3.5. Theo e ical No es
The digi al pH me e ope a es on he p inciple o he elec ochemical po en ial di e ence be ween he measu ing glass
elec ode and a e e ence elec ode. Fo ha dness i a ion, he EDTA o ms s able chela es wi h Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ ions,
allowing quan i ica ion o o al ha dness.
3.6. P ecau ions
3.6.1. Fo pH measu emen
• The glass elec ode should emain mois when no in use.
• Gen ly blo he elec ode wi h issue; do no ub.
• A oid apped ai bubbles in he elec ode bulb.
3.6.2. Fo ha dness i a ion
• The ammonia bu e mus be eshly p epa ed and igh ly sealed.
• A oid o e hea ing o di ec sunligh exposu e du ing i a ion.
• Always clean and inse he appa a us be ween samples o p e en c oss-con amina ion.
4. Resul s
Table 1 pH Obse a ions
Ri e Loca ion
pH Value
Yamuna a Ma hu a
8.10
Ganga a Ha idwa
7.80
Sa yu a Ayodhya
7.50
T i eni Sangam a P ayag aj
8.20
Gom i a Lucknow
8.15
All measu ed pH alues all wi hin he accep able ange o 6.5 o 8.5 se by WHO o su ace wa e s. This indica es ha
he sampled i e s a e sligh ly alkaline, a ypical ai o many Indian i e s due o mine al dissolu ion om ocks and
soil. The alues sugges a balanced aqua ic en i onmen wi hou majo acidic o basic pollu an s.
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(02), 1035-1040
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Table 2 Ha dness Obse a ions
Ri e Loca ion
Ha dness (ppm / mg/L)
Yamuna a Ma hu a
185.2
Ganga a Ha idwa
173.1
Sa yu a Ayodhya
111.1
T i eni Sangam a P ayag aj
197.4
Gom i a Lucknow
148.1
Wa e ha dness alues anged om 111.1 ppm o 197.4 ppm, indica ing mode a e o high le els o calcium and
magnesium ions. Based on common wa e ha dness classi ica ion, he Sa yu Ri e (111.1 ppm) is mode a ely ha d,
while he Yamuna, Ganga, Gom i, and T i eni Sangam all app oach o exceed 180 ppm, ca ego izing hem as ha d o
e y ha d wa e s.
5. Discussion
The physicochemical assessmen o hese i e i e sys ems e eals a ela i ely s able pH bu a conce ning end o
inc easing ha dness, pa icula ly in i e s wi h highe u ban o indus ial p oximi y. These indings mus be
con ex ualized wi hin he b oade en i onmen al challenges acing Indian i e s.
5.1. En i onmen al Impac o Ri e Pollu ion
Ri e pollu ion in India s ems om mul iple an h opogenic ac i i ies [8-9]:
● Indus ial discha ge, pa icula ly om anne ies, chemical plan s, and pha maceu ical indus ies [10-11].
● Un ea ed sewage and ag icul u al uno , ich in ni a es and phospha es
● Cul u al p ac ices, including imme sion o idols and mass ba hing e en s
● Open de eca ion ( hough no e y p ominen ) and solid was e dumping
These pollu an s deg ade wa e quali y and con ibu e o:
● Mass ish dea hs
● Declining popula ions o species like he Gange ic dolphin
● Mic oplas ic con amina ion
● Algal blooms and oxic oam, as wi nessed in he Yamuna du ing Chha h Puja
5.2. Human–Ri e In e ac ion
Ri e s se e as he backbone o li elihoods, pa icula ly o :
● Fishing communi ies
● Ag icul u al i iga ion ne wo ks
● Cul u al and spi i ual adi ions
Howe e , pollu ion has dis up ed his ela ionship. Ele a ed coli o m le els and hea y me al con amina ion pose
se ious heal h h ea s, including wa e -bo ne diseases and ch onic exposu e o oxins, pa icula ly in ulne able a eas
like Kanpu ’s lea he indus y zone.
5.3. Policy E o s and Gaps
P og ams such as he Yamuna Ac ion Plan and Namami Gange Mission ha e made p og ess, especially in in as uc u e
de elopmen and awa eness campaigns. Howe e , pe sis en challenges include:
● Weak en o cemen
● Public apa hy
● Lack o eal- ime moni o ing and open da a
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Despi e hese gaps, communi y-led cleanups and local ac i ism o e hope. Globally success ul models such as he
es o a ion o he Ri e Thames in he UK and Saba ma i Ri e on in India show ha poli ical will and public
engagemen can e e se decades o deg ada ion.
6. Conclusion
This s udy p o ided a physicochemical assessmen o i e Indian i e sys ems, ocusing on wo c i ical wa e quali y
indica o s: pH and ha dness. All i e loca ions showed pH alues wi hin he WHO-accep able ange, indica ing a s able
acid–base balance in hese eshwa e sys ems. Howe e , ha dness alues e ealed mode a e o high le els o dissol ed
mine als, wi h se e al si es app oaching o exceeding he h eshold o e y ha d wa e .
These indings hold p ac ical ele ance o ecological heal h, public wa e use, and policy de elopmen . The measu ed
pa ame e s indica e a need o egula moni o ing, pa icula ly in he con ex o apid u baniza ion and inc easing
pollu ion p essu es. The esul s unde sco e ha e en cul u ally sac ed i e s a e no immune o en i onmen al
s esso s.
Mo ing o wa d, a combina ion o echnological in e en ion, policy en o cemen , and communi y pa icipa ion will be
essen ial o sus ain India’s i e sys ems. This epo hopes o se e as bo h a scien i ic con ibu ion and a call o ac ion.
Compliance wi h e hical s anda ds
Disclosu e o con lic o in e es
No con lic o in e es o be disclosed.
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Annexu e: G aphs
G aph 1 pH Values Ac oss Fi e Ri e Loca ions
G aph 2 Ha dness Ac oss Fi e Ri e Loca ions
