Co esponding au ho : Rajinde Singh
Copy igh © 2025 Au ho e ain he copy igh o his a icle. This a icle is published unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion Liscense 4.0.
Beyond P o ocol: Se en y-Six Yea s o Leade - o-Leade Diplomacy Be ween Beijing
and Moscow (1949-2025)
Rajinde Singh *
Punjabi Uni e si y, Pa iala, Depa men o De ence and S a egic S udies, Punjabi Uni e si y Campus, Pa iala. Punjab, India.
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(02), 1078-1093
Publica ion his o y: Recei ed on 05 July 2025; e ised on 10 Augus ; accep ed on 13 Augus 2025
A icle DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.30574/wja .2025.27.2.2937
Abs ac
This esea ch pape p o ides a desc ip i e analysis o pe sonal diplomacy and high-le el engagemen s be ween China
and Russia om 1949 o June 2025, acing he e olu ion o hei s a egic ela ions agains he backd op o global
geopoli ical shi s. Beginning wi h Mao Zedong’s 1949 isi o Moscow and he 1950 T ea y, he s udy examines how
di ec leade in e ac ions, ea ies, and summi s shaped a esilien pa ne ship aimed a coun e ing Wes e n,
pa icula ly U.S., in luence. Key miles ones, including he 1989 Go bache -Deng mee ing, he 1996 Yel sin-Jiang
s a egic pa ne ship, and he 2001 Jiang-Pu in T ea y, highligh ansi ions om ideological alliances o p agma ic
coope a ion. The analysis co e s signi ican e en s like Xi Jinping and Vladimi Pu in’s equen mee ings (e.g., 2013
Moscow summi , 2022 Beijing Olympics), ein o cing hei “no limi s” pa ne ship amid Uk aine ensions and U.S.
sanc ions. U ilizing p ima y sou ces and his o ical na a i es, he pape explo es how pe sonal appo mi iga ed
asymme ies, os e ed economic (e.g., ene gy deals) and mili a y ies, and p omo ed a mul ipola o de ia SCO and
BRICS. Despi e challenges like us issues and egional i al ies, hese engagemen s ha e sus ained a s a egic alliance,
adap ing o mode n dynamics while e lec ing a legacy o an i-Wes e n coo dina ion, culmina ing in he 2025 Vic o y
Day summi .
Keywo ds: China; Russia; S a egic Rela ions; High-Le el Engagemen s; Pe sonal Diplomacy; Con empo a y
1. In oduc ion
The s a egic ela ionship be ween China and Russia, spanning om 1949 o June 2025, ep esen s a compelling case
s udy in he ole o pe sonal diplomacy and high-le el engagemen s in shaping in e na ional alliances. This pe iod,
ma ked by ideological e o , Cold Wa i al ies, and con empo a y geopoli ical ealignmen s, showcases how di ec
in e ac ions be ween leade s ha e been ins umen al in o ging a pa ne ship aimed a coun e ing Wes e n, pa icula ly
U.S., dominance. The es ablishmen o he People’s Republic o China (PRC) in 1949 se he s age o his e ol ing
dynamic, wi h Mao Zedong’s isi o Moscow ini ia ing a communis alliance unde Joseph S alin, o malized by he 1950
T ea y o F iendship, Alliance, and Mu ual Assis ance. This ea ly phase le e aged pe sonal appo o secu e So ie aid,
es ablishing a ounda ion ha , despi e he 1960–1988 Sino-So ie spli , ansi ioned in o a p agma ic pa ne ship pos -
1989 wi h Mikhail Go bache ’s Beijing isi o Deng Xiaoping.
The pos -Cold Wa e a wi nessed a s a egic pi o , exempli ied by Bo is Yel sin and Jiang Zemin’s 1996 mee ings, which
es ablished a “s a egic pa ne ship o coo dina ion” o challenge U.S. unipola i y. This end in ensi ied wi h he 2001
T ea y signed by Jiang and Vladimi Pu in, shi ing ocus om mu ual de ence o economic and mul ila e al coope a ion.
The ad en o Xi Jinping and Pu in’s leade ship ma ked a new e a, wi h o e 45 mee ings ein o cing hei “no limi s”
pa ne ship, no ably du ing he 2013 Moscow summi and 2022 Beijing Olympics. These engagemen s ha e been pi o al
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(02), 1078-1093
1079
in aligning hei policies agains Wes e n sanc ions, pa icula ly ollowing Russia’s 2022 Uk aine in asion, and
p omo ing ini ia i es like he Bel and Road and SCO.
This pape adop s a desc ip i e analy ical app oach, d awing on his o ical eco ds, o icial s a emen s, and media
epo s o ch onicle hese in e ac ions. I examines how pe sonal diplomacy—mani es ed h ough di ec leade
dialogues, s a e isi s, and ideo calls—has mi iga ed his o ical mis us , na iga ed asymme ies, and os e ed economic
(e.g., gas deals), mili a y (e.g., join d ills), and cul u al ies. The s a egic objec i e has consis en ly been o coun e U.S.
hegemony, e ol ing om a Cold Wa communis on o a mode n mul ipola amewo k ia SCO, BRICS, and G20
coo dina ion.
The signi icance o his s udy lies in i s imeliness, gi en he cu en da e o July 22, 2025, which allows inclusion o he
la es de elopmen s, such as he May 8–9, 2025, Vic o y Day summi . This e en , omi ing he “no alliance” clause,
signals a deepening ye ambiguous pa ne ship. The esea ch add esses gaps in exis ing li e a u e by p o iding a
comp ehensi e imeline, analysing he impac o pe sonal appo on policy alignmen , and assessing challenges like
economic dispa i ies and egional i al ies (e.g., Cen al Asia). I explo es how hese engagemen s ha e sus ained a
esilien alliance despi e ideological shi s, economic dependencies, and geopoli ical ic ion, o e ing insigh s in o he
du abili y o China-Russia ies in a unipola - o-mul ipola ansi ion. By syn hesizing p ima y and seconda y sou ces,
he pape aims o illumina e he mechanisms and ou comes o pe sonal diplomacy, con ibu ing o unde s andings o
bila e al ela ions in a apidly changing global o de .
2. De ailed Analysis o Pe sonal Diplomacy and High-Le el Engagemen s
The China-Russia s a egic ela ionship, om he 1950 Sino-So ie T ea y o he 2025 Comp ehensi e S a egic
Pa ne ship, was shaped by high-le el isi s and pe sonal diplomacy. The 1950 ea y, signed a e Mao Zedong’s 1949
Moscow isi wi h S alin, es ablished a communis alliance wi h So ie aid. The 1960s Sino-So ie spli unde
Kh ushche saw no leade exchanges, wi h 1969 bo de clashes ma king hos ili y. No maliza ion began wi h
Go bache ’s 1989 Beijing isi , whe e his appo wi h Deng Xiaoping es o ed ies. In he 1990s, Jiang Zemin’s Moscow
isi s wi h Yel sin esol ed bo de dispu es, leading o he 1996 “s a egic coo dina ion” pa ne ship. The 2001 T ea y
o Good-Neighbou liness, signed du ing Jiang-Pu in summi s, deepened us , ollowed by 2005 join mili a y d ills.
Since 2013, Xi Jinping and Pu in’s o e 40 mee ings, including Xi’s 2019 Moscow isi and Pu in’s 2022 Beijing ip,
o ged a “no limi s” pa ne ship, wi h Xi calling Pu in his “bes iend.” Pu in’s 2024 and Xi’s 2025 isi s ein o ced ade
($240 billion, 2024) and an i-Wes e n alignmen in BRICS and SCO. The de ailed analysis o he high-le el engagemen s
and pe sonal diplomacies which helps in le e aging s a egic pa ne ship be ween China and Russia om 1949 o June
2025 is gi en below: -
2.1. 1949: Mao Zedong’s Visi o Moscow and Signing o T ea y o F iendship, Alliance, and Mu ual Assis ance in
1950
Mao Zedong’s Decembe 1949 isi o Moscow, his i s o e seas ip a e he People’s Republic o China’s (PRC)
ounding on Oc obe 1, 1949, was a pi o al ac o pe sonal diplomacy and high-le el engagemen ha laid he ounda ion
o China-Russia s a egic ela ions[
1
]. This wo-mon h isi in ol ed di ec nego ia ions wi h Joseph S alin o secu e
So ie suppo agains U.S.-backed Na ionalis s and es ablish a communis alliance, culmina ing in he “Sino-So ie
T ea y o F iendship, Alliance, and Mu ual Assis ance” signed on Feb ua y 14, 1950. Mao’s cau ious app oach was
e iden in his h ee s ic o de s o gua d Wang Dongxing—ensu ing con iden iali y, limi ing s ops, and a oiding local
demands— e lec ing his wa iness o So ie dominance and in en o main ain au onomy. S alin’s excep ional ges u es,
such as g ee ing Mao a he K emlin and a ending a Chinese Embassy banque , signalled So ie goodwill, os e ing
mu ual us .
The s a egic objec i e was mul i ace ed: o China, he ea y secu ed US$300 million in So ie loans and echnical
assis ance o kicks a indus ializa ion, add essing he PRC’s weak indus ial base, a p io i y Mao emphasized since
1947. Fo S alin, i ex ended So ie geopoli ical each, using China as a bu e agains Ame ican expansion in Asia,
especially wi h he Ko ean Wa looming. The ea y eplaced he ou da ed 1945 Kuomin ang ag eemen , commi ing
bo h na ions o mu ual de ence, economic coope a ion, and consul a ion on in e na ional issues. I manda ed immedia e
mili a y suppo agains Japanese o allied agg ession, pa icula ly om he U.S., and aimed o s eng hen he socialis
camp by os e ing economic and cul u al ies, enhancing secu i y in he Fa Eas and global peace.
Mao’s pe sonal appo wi h S alin, suppo ed by P emie Zhou Enlai’s delega ion, acili a ed swi nego ia ions, aligning
bo h na ions agains Wes e n capi alism. The ea y emphasised on equali y and non-in e e ence o malized a uni ed
communis on , hough i highligh ed China’s ini ial dependence on So ie aid. This asymme ical pa ne ship allowed
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(02), 1078-1093
1080
Mao o gain esou ces o China’s pos -wa s abiliza ion and indus ialisa ion, while S alin ex ended in luence in Asia.
The commi men o consul on common in e es s aimed o coun e U.S. con ainmen and eshape global powe
dynamics du ing he ea ly Cold Wa .
Despi e i s success, he engagemen sowed seeds o u u e ension due o unequal powe dynamics. Mao’s cau ious
o de s unde sco ed his s a egic in en o p ese e au onomy wi hin he alliance, while S alin’s ges u es enhanced us ,
enabling apid alignmen on mili a y and economic on s. The ea y’s 30-yea e m es ablished a du able, hough
complex, ounda ion o China-Russia ela ions, p omo ing iendship and economic ies while na iga ing ideological
s ains. This high-le el engagemen exempli ied pe sonal diplomacy, le e aging Mao and S alin’s appo o nego ia e a
ea y ha no only add essed immedia e pos -wa challenges bu also se he s age o long- e m s a egic coope a ion,
shaping he socialis camp’s global s ance[
2
].
2.2. 1954, 1958, and 1959: Kh ushche ’s Visi s o China
Kh ushche ’s i s isi o China in 1954 was g ee ed wi h a wa m ecep ion by Chai man Mao Zedong and he Chinese
people. This engagemen , oo ed in a spi i o b o he hood, led o he signing o he “Sino-So ie Economic Coope a ion
Ag eemen ,” whe e he So ie Union commi ed o suppo ing 156 key indus ial p ojec s o bols e China’s economic
ounda ion and align hei s a egic in e es s. Addi ionally, he “Sino-So ie Join Communiqué” and “F iendship
Decla a ion” we e issued, coo dina ing in e na ional a ai s and ein o cing socialis uni y, wi h he s a egic in en o
coun e U.S. impe ialism on a global s age[
3
]. Kh ushche ’s 1958 isi o Beijing occu ed amids he Taiwan S ai
c isis, ini ia ed by China’s shelling o Kinmen and Ma su on Augus 23, 1958, as a bold mo e o eclaim Taiwan and
coun e U.S. in e e ence. Ini ially, Kh ushche exp essed suppo and app ecia ion, p omising nuclea weapons
assis ance o back China’s esol e, bu his suppo wa e ed when he U.S. deployed he Se en h Flee , h ea ening
nuclea e alia ion[
4
]. Kh ushche ’s Oc obe 1959 isi o Beijing was me wi h a ense a mosphe e o indi e ence and
hos ili y om Mao Zedong, e lec ing he deepening ideological and s a egic i s be ween China and he So ie Union.
The engagemen ocused on esol ing dispu es o e Kh ushche ’s ad ocacy o peace ul coexis ence wi h capi alis
coun ies, which Mao s ongly opposed, adhe ing ins ead o a e olu iona y Ma xis -Leninis line ha emphasized
opposing impe ialism and e isionism. Discussions also highligh ed ensions o e nuclea suppo and he Taiwan
S ai , whe e So ie eluc ance u he unde mined China’s con idence in he alliance. This isi culmina ed in he
cancella ion o he “Sino-So ie Economic Coope a ion Ag eemen ” and o he key pac s, signalling a o mal up u e in
hei s a egic pa ne ship as bo h leade s blamed and a acked each o he [
5
].
2.3. 1960-1988: None
1960 o 1988, no signi ican high-le el mee ings occu ed be ween China and he So ie Union due o he Sino-So ie
spli , a majo dis up ion in hei s a egic ela ions. The absence o mee ings s emmed om ideological and geopoli ical
ensions. The spli , igge ed by disag eemen s o e So ie de-S aliniza ion and China’s independen policies, led o he
wi hd awal o So ie aid in 1960 and bo de clashes, no ably a Zhenbao Island in 1969. Du ing his pe iod, China
aligned wi h he U.S. agains he USSR, exempli ied by Nixon’s 1972 Beijing isi . The lack o engagemen hal ed mili a y,
economic, and diploma ic coope a ion, nulli ying he 1950 T ea y’s amewo k. The ou come was a p olonged i , wi h
bo h na ions pu suing di e gen Cold Wa s a egies.
2.4. May 15–19, 1989: Mikhail Go bache Visi s Beijing; Mee s Deng Xiaoping
Mikhail Go bache ’s isi o Beijing om May 15–19, 1989, mee ing Deng Xiaoping ma king a u ning poin in Sino-
So ie s a egic ela ions a e a 30-yea i . Amid Tiananmen Squa e p o es s, his summi aimed o no malize ies,
wi h Go bache seeking o ease Cold Wa ensions and Deng ocusing on economic s abili y. The mee ing, o e shadowed
by 50,000 p o es e s, acili a ed app ochemen , ending hos ili ies and es o ing pa y- o-pa y ela ions. Go bache ’s
add ess, “The wo ld has changed, and so ha e he na u e, ole and place o hese ela ions in wo ld poli ics,” e lec ed a
ision o coope a ion, while Deng’s s ance, “I we can’ g ow as e han he capi alis coun ies, hen we can’ show he
supe io i y o ou sys em,” p io i ized economic e o m o e poli ical change. The s a egic objec i e was o coun e U.S.
in luence, laying g oundwo k o u u e a ms sales and bo de alks[
6
].
2.5. May 1991: Jiang Zemin Visi s Moscow; Mee s Go bache
Jiang Zemin’s isi o Moscow on May 15, 1991, mee ing Mikhail Go bache , signi ican ly ad ancing Sino-So ie s a egic
ela ions pos -1989 i . Ma king he i s Communis Pa y leade s’ summi in 34 yea s, his isi , hos ed wi h a s a e
dinne , aimed o no malize ies amid Cold Wa decline. Jiang’s s a emen , “No mal de elopmen o Sino-So ie ela ions
no only mee s he common aspi a ions and i al in e es s o he peoples o he wo coun ies bu also p omo es peace and
s abili y in Asia and he Paci ic egion and an imp o emen o in e na ional ela ions as a whole,” unde sco ed mu ual
bene i s. Go bache echoed, “The p oblems acing ou wo coun ies a e simila in many espec s,” highligh ing sha ed
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(02), 1078-1093
1081
mode niza ion goals agains U.S. in luence. The s a egic objec i e was o coun e Wes e n con ainmen , culmina ing in
a bo de acco d on May 16, educing oop le els, and enabling a ms sales (e.g., Su-27s). This high-le el engagemen
le e aged pe sonal diplomacy o nego ia e a bo de pac and a ms deals, aiming o coun e U.S. dominance amid he
So ie Union’s economic c isis. The goal was o s abilize egional secu i y, enhance ade, and secu e mili a y echnology
(e.g., space- ela ed), wi h Go bache and Jiang aligning on e o med socialism. I sough o ebuild us pos -
Tiananmen[
7
].
2.6. Ap il 25, 1996: Bo is Yel sin Visi s Beijing; Mee s Jiang Zemin
Bo is Yel sin’s isi o Beijing on Ap il 25, 1996, mee ing Jiang Zemin, a i ing amid a wa m welcome wi h a 21-gun
salu e a Tiananmen Squa e, Yel sin’s alks aimed o build on i e yea s o wa ming ies, despi e na ionalis ensions
o e bo de dispu es. Jiang’s g ee ing, “I ’s e y nice wea he we a e ha ing, and i is a good sign o ou ela ions,”
signalled mu ual goodwill, while Yel sin’s ema k, “ he Fa Eas was and always will be Russian. I is o us and ou
descendan s o li e he e,” e lec ed domes ic p essu es bu p omised e en ual bo de esolu ion. This engagemen
aimed o coun e U.S. dominance pos -Cold Wa , wi h Yel sin and Jiang nego ia ing ag eemen s on ene gy, ade, and
secu i y o s abilize hei bo de and enhance coope a ion. The goal was o p omo e egional peace and economic
in e dependence, despi e bo de dispu e se backs[
8
].
2.7. Ap il 23, 1997: Jiang Zemin Visi s Moscow; Mee s Yel sin
Bo is Yel sin’s s a e isi o Beijing om No embe 9–11, 1997, mee ing Jiang Zemin, signi ican ly ad ancing Sino-
Russian s a egic ela ions pos -So ie no maliza ion. Held in a “ iendly and bene olen a mosphe e,” he alks, in ol ing
P emie Li Peng and NPC Chai man Qiao Shi, ein o ced a “ us ing pa ne ship o equals designed o s a egic
coope a ion in he 21s Cen u y.” Jinag’s s a emen ,
“No mal de elopmen o Sino-So ie ela ions no only mee s he common aspi a ions and i al in e es s o he peoples o
he wo coun ies bu also p omo es peace and s abili y in Asia and he Paci ic egion and an imp o emen o in e na ional
ela ions as a whole.”[
9
]
This s a emen highligh ed mu ual bene i s. The s a egic objec i e was o coun e U.S. in luence, wi h inalized eas e n
bo de dema ca ion and plans o wes e n sec ions, alongside ag eemen s on ene gy, ade, and mili a y coope a ion
2.8. No embe 10, 1997: Yel sin Visi s Beijing; Mee s Jiang Zemin
Bo is Yel sin’s hi d isi o Beijing on No embe 9–10, 1997, mee ing Jiang Zemin, a i ing wi h a appo ha allowed
hem o “ o go o mali ies and ocus on wo k,” Yel sin’s alks aimed o inalize a bo de ag eemen and s eng hen ies,
coun e ing U.S. in luence as UN Secu i y Council membe s. Yel sin’s s a emen , “The bo de dema ca ion alone made i
wo h coming,” highligh ed he acco d’s signi icance, esol ing he eas e n on ie a e six yea s, while he wes e n
bo de emained unde nego ia ion. The s a egic objec i e was o p omo e a non-Cold Wa pa ne ship, wi h Xinhua
no ing, “The p og ess o ce ain bila e al ela ions will no ha m he in e es s o any hi d pa y. In his way, his pa e n
o pa ne ships is o ally di e en om ha du ing he Cold Wa .” This isi ad anced ade o $20 billion by 2000, signed
a gas pipeline memo andum, and discussed a ms sales, deepening economic and mili a y ies[
10
].
2.9. July 16, 2001: Jiang Zemin and Vladimi Pu in Sign T ea y in Moscow
Jiang Zemin’s s a e isi o Moscow on July 16, 2001, mee ing Vladimi Pu in, signed ea y in Moscow signi ican ly
ad anced Sino-Russian s a egic ela ions. The signing o he Good Neighbou ly T ea y o F iendship and Coope a ion
eplaced he 1950 So ie Chinese alliance, aiming o coun e U.S. in luence o e he An i-Ballis ic Missile (ABM) pac .
Pu in and Jiang’s join decla a ion s a ed, “Russia and China s ess he basic impo ance o he ABM ea y, which is a
co ne s one o he s a egic s abili y and he basis o educing o ensi e weapons and speak ou o main aining he ea y
in i s cu en o m,” e lec ing hei s a egic alignmen agains U.S. missile de ence plans. The s a egic objec i e was o
p omo e a mul ipola wo ld, enhance nuclea non-p oli e a ion, and boos economic ies, despi e eplacing he mili a y-
ocused 1950 pac wi h a non- h ea ening pa ne ship. Pe sonal ela ionships, e iden in hei coo dina ed s ance,
os e ed us , con as ing wi h pas i al y, and suppo ed a ms sales (e.g., Su-27s). The ou come s eng hened bila e al
coope a ion, hough ade ($3.8 billion) lagged behind U.S. le els ($115 billion), highligh ing economic dispa i ies[
11
].
2.10. June 2, 2005: Hu Jin ao and Pu in Mee in Moscow; Finalize Bo de Ag eemen
Hu Jin ao isi ed Moscow on June 2, 2005, and me Vladimi Pu in du ing he 60 h anni e sa y o Russia’s Vic o y Day.
As Pu in’s gues , Hu a ended he celeb a ion, using he sidelines o discuss bila e al ies and in e na ional issues, as
Assis an Fo eign Minis e Li Hui no ed, “The wo s a e leade s will discuss majo in e na ional and egional issues o bo h
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(02), 1078-1093
1082
conce n and how o u he bila e al ies.” This mee ing inalized he bo de ag eemen , esol ing a 40-yea dispu e,
enhancing us . The s a egic objec i e was o p omo e he “Sino-Russian s a egic coope a ion pa ne ship,” coun e
U.S. in luence, and ein o ce a mul ipola wo ld, wi h Li adding, “P esiden Hu’s Russia ou is aimed a p omo ing he
Sino-Russian s a egic coope a ion pa ne ship, enhancing poli ical mu ual- us and elabo a ing China’s independen
o eign policy o peace and i s de e mina ion o seek a peace ul de elopmen .” Pe sonal ela ionship e iden in Hu’s
e e an mee ings, os e ing economic and mili a y ies. The ou come s eng hened egional s abili y and SCO
coope a ion[
12
].
2.11. Ma ch 21, 2006: Hu Jin ao Visi s Moscow; Mee s Pu in
Hu Jin ao isi ed Moscow on Ma ch 21, 2006, and me Vladimi Pu in. Ma king he 10 h anni e sa y o hei s a egic
pa ne ship and he 5 h o he 2001 T ea y, Hu welcomed Pu in’s la ge delega ion, s a ing, “The ac ha P esiden Pu in
is heading such a big delega ion o China and will a end he opening ce emony o he Yea o Russia in China demons a es
ha Pu in highly alues he Sino-Russian ela ions.” This isi , ea u ing a closed-doo mee ing and he Yea o Russia
launch, aimed o enhance mu ual unde s anding and coun e U.S. in luence. Pu in echoed, “ he s a o he Yea o Russia
in China… shows ha he cu en Russia-China ela ions ha e eached a e y high le el and laid a be e ounda ion o he
u u e de elopmen o he Russia-China ela ions,” e lec ing hei sha ed goal o a mul ipola o de . The s a egic
objec i e was o deepen mili a y exe cises, ene gy coope a ion, and e i o ial suppo , as Qin Gang no ed, “All in all, he
cu en s age o he China-Russia s a egic pa ne ship has eached a e y high le el, and we ha e di e se and ich p og ess
in ou coope a ion.” This high-le el engagemen le e aged pe sonal diplomacy o nego ia e mili a y exe cises and
ene gy deals, aiming o coun e U.S. dominance h ough a s eng hened SCO amewo k[
13
].
2.12. Ma ch 26, 2007: Hu Jin ao Visi s Moscow; Mee s Pu in
Hu Jin ao’s isi ed Moscow on Ma ch 26, 2007, me Vladimi Pu in a he opening o he ‘Yea o China’ in Russia.
A ending he K emlin ce emony, Hu p aised Russia’s s abili y unde Pu in, s a ing, “Headed by P esiden Pu in, Russia
has wi nessed poli ical s abili y and as economic g ow h. The Russian people a e leading a be e li e, oo,” e lec ing
mu ual admi a ion. The s a egic objec i e was o deepen economic, cul u al, and mili a y ies, as e idenced by hei
call o peace ul esolu ions on I an and No h Ko ea’s nuclea issues. Pu in echoed, “The heme yea s will upli he
bila e al ela ion o a new le el and se e as a ounda ion o he u u e coope a ion be ween he wo peoples,” highligh ing
he e en ’s ole in os e ing us . The ou come s eng hened people- o-people con ac s and implemen ed he 2001
T ea y, wi h 200 cul u al e en s planned. The goal was o p omo e a ha monious, mul ipola wo ld, as Hu pledged,
“China is eady o con inue wo king wi h Russia o u he implemen he Sino-Russian Good-Neighbou ly T ea y o
F iendship and Coope a ion, deepen mu ually-bene icial coope a ion and s a egic coo dina ion, p omo e common
de elopmen and con ibu e o he building o a ha monious wo ld ea u ing las ing peace and common p ospe i y.”[
14
]
2.13. May 23, 2008: Dmi y Med ede Visi s Beijing; Mee s Hu Jin ao
On May 23, 2008, Dmi y Med ede isi ed Beijing, whe e he me Hu Jin ao. As Med ede ’s i s ip as p esiden , he
alks a he G ea Hall o he People celeb a ed 12 yea s o hei s a egic pa ne ship, wi h Hu no ing, “The Sino-Russian
s a egic coope a i e pa ne ship, since i s es ablishmen 12 yea s ago, has sco ed ui ul esul s.” The s a egic objec i e
was o coun e U.S. in luence, deepening poli ical us h ough bo de esolu ions and o e 200 legal documen s, while
expanding ade and mili a y coope a ion. Hu’s ou -poin p oposal emphasized mu ual us , economic ies (e.g., oil,
gas), cul u al exchanges (e.g., Yea o Russia), and mul ila e al coo dina ion ia he UN and SCO, aiming o a mul ipola
wo ld. Med ede a i med, “Russia a aches g ea impo ance o de eloping s a egic coope a i e pa ne ship wi h China
and is eady o wo k wi h i o push o bila e al coope a ion on economy, ade, ene gy, high- ech, en i onmen al
p o ec ion, humani ies and exchanges be ween locali ies.” Pe sonal appo , enhanced by Russia’s ea hquake aid and
Olympic suppo , con as ed wi h he 1950 T ea y’s ideological ocus, os e ing esilience[
15
].
2.14. 2010: Med ede ’s Visi o China
Dmi y Med ede isi ed China om Sep embe 26–28, 2010. This h ee-ci y ou —Dalian, Beijing, and Shanghai—
ollowed he Augus 29 opening o he Russia-China oil pipeline by Pu in, se ing a coope a i e one. In Beijing,
Med ede me Hu Jin ao, signing he “Sino-Russian Join S a emen on Comp ehensi ely Deepening he S a egic
Pa ne ship o Coo dina ion,” enhancing poli ical and economic ies. Hu no ed, “Med ede ’s isi would ‘ha e a powe ul
impac on he de elopmen o Russian Chinese ela ions’,” while Med ede a i med, “I is Russia’s diploma ic p io i y o
de elop i s pa ne ship o s a egic coo dina ion wi h China and will ne e wa e .” The s a egic objec i e was o deepen
in e dependence, coun e U.S. in luence amid Ko ean and China-Japan ensions, and p omo e mul ipola i y h ough
SCO’s Peace Mission 2010. The isi also ad anced ene gy and mili a y- echnical coope a ion, wi h deals on nuclea
powe and po en ial ai c a sales. In Shanghai’s Expo, Med ede ’s “Russia Day” speech highligh ed u u e collabo a ion,
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(02), 1078-1093
1083
s a ing, “ he exhibi ion was a huge es i al ha has b ough oge he g ea numbe s o people, dozens o na ions, and
ocused on he common idea o how a ci y o he u u e will appea .” This engagemen os e ed us and expanded
bila e al amewo ks.
The Beijing alks, suppo ed by Hu and Med ede ’s emphasis on “co e in e es s” and an i e o ism ag eemen s, sough
o s abilize egional secu i y amid Ko ean Peninsula and China-Japan dispu es, as ou lined in he join s a emen . The
s a egic objec i e was o di e si y Russia’s ene gy expo s—shi ing om Eu ope o China ia he Sko o odino-Daqing
pipeline—and secu e China’s ene gy needs, wi h Pu in no ing, “This is an impo an p ojec o us as we a e di e si ying
he supply o ou s a egic commodi y.” Economic esilience was a ge ed h ough nuclea and ade deals, while SCO
exe cises and Expo pa icipa ion ein o ced mul ila e alism. La o ’s op imism, “I am con iden ha i s esul s will be
known in he nea u u e,” highligh ed mili a y coope a ion’s po en ial. Howe e , Russia’s ole as a “ma e ial supplie ”
and p ice dispu es e ealed asymme ies, wi h he goal o a comp ehensi e pa ne ship d i ing long- e m g ow h
agains a unipola wo ld o de [
16
].
2.15. June 17, 2011: Hu Jin ao Visi s Moscow; Mee s Med ede
Hu Jin ao’s s a e isi o Moscow on June 17, 2011, included a mee ing wi h Dmi y Med ede . Ma king he 10 h
anni e sa y o he 2001 T ea y, he leade s signed a join decla a ion pledging mu ual suppo on co e secu i y issues,
wi h Hu no ing he ea y’s ole in egional peace, s a ing, “The s a egic pa ne ship has been a key ac o in he peace
and s abili y o he Asia-Paci ic egion.” The s a egic objec i e was o coun e U.S. in luence, opposing missile de ence
plans and ad oca ing non-in e e ence in global ho spo s like he Ko ean Peninsula and Middle Eas . The decla a ion,
issued du ing a “c i ical ime” amid Middle Eas un es , pe Ji Zhiye, aimed o build a mul ipola o de h ough SCO and
Six-Pa y Talks coo dina ion. The goal was o os e a mul ipola , s able egional o de , as Feng Yujun no ed, “I ’s
impo an o China and Russia, wo majo na ions in Eu asia, o enhance coope a ion in p omo ing peace and s abili y
in he egion,” mo ing beyond he 1950 T ea y’s mu ual de ence amewo k. I sough o deepen mili a y and economic
ies, hough U.S. in e e ence in Asia-Paci ic posed challenges[
17
].
2.16. June 5, 2012: Hu Jin ao Visi s Moscow; Mee s Pu in
Hu Jin ao isi ed Moscow on June 5, 2012, and me Vladimi Pu in. Ma king Pu in’s i s Beijing isi pos -inaugu a ion,
he alks aimed o coun e U.S. in luence by se ing a $200 billion ade a ge by 2020, up om $83.5 billion, as Hu
s a ed, “ h ough close co-ope a ion China and Russia would ‘se he global poli ical and economic o de in a mo e ai and
a ional di ec ion’.” The s a egic objec i e was o balance U.S. ela ions, wi h o e a dozen coope a ion ag eemen s,
including a join ai c a en u e and he Russia-China In es men Fund o imbe and logis ics. Pu in’s a icle in
People’s Daily, “Wi hou he pa icipa ion o Russia and China, wi hou conside ing Russia and China’s in e es s, no
in e na ional ma e o issue can be discussed and implemen ed,” unde sco ed hei global s ance, no ably opposing
Wes e n in e en ion in Sy ia. Pe sonal appo , e iden in Pu in’s isi p io i y, con as ed wi h his o ical dis us ,
os e ing economic ies despi e a delayed gas deal. The ou come s eng hened hei mul ipola agenda, hough analys s
like Dmi i T enin no ed no ue alliance due o linge ing suspicions[
18
].
2.17. Ma ch 22, 2013: Xi Jinping Visi s Moscow; Mee s Pu in
Xi Jinping isi ed Moscow on Ma ch 22–24, 2013 and me Vladimi Pu in amid U.S. and Japanese conce ns. As Xi’s i s
o e seas ip as p esiden , he summi aimed o coun e Wes e n in luence, wi h he leade s o ming an “all a ound
s a egic pa ne ship” o meld hei in e es s. The s a egic objec i e was o challenge U.S. hegemony and he Obama
adminis a ion’s “pi o o Asia,” wi h Xi and Pu in explici ly a i ming suppo o each o he ’s e i o ial claims,
including he Diaoyu Islands and Sou he n Ku iles. This pe sonal appo , exceeding expec a ions, con as ed wi h he
1950 T ea y’s mu ual de ence ocus, os e ing us . The ou come s eng hened hei an i-Ame ican alignmen , ala ming
Tokyo and highligh ing U.S. policy se backs, wi h o e 45 u u e mee ings planned. Pe sonal diplomacy na iga ed global
ensions, laying a ounda ion o a po en ial geopoli ical alliance[
19
].
2.18. Feb ua y 7, 2014: Xi Jinping A ends Sochi Olympics; Mee s Pu in
Xi Jinping a ended he Sochi Win e Olympics opening on Feb ua y 7, 2014, and me Vladimi Pu in. As he i s Chinese
leade o a end a majo o e seas spo s e en , Xi’s p esence, in i ed by Pu in, unde sco ed China’s suppo amid
Wes e n boyco s o e C imea, wi h he leade s holding hei i s 2014 mee ing. Hu no ed, “I shows ha China highly
alues and suppo s he in e na ional Olympic Games, as well as he high le el and dis inc i eness o China-Russia
comp ehensi e s a egic pa ne ship o coo dina ion.” The s a egic objec i e was o deepen hei pa ne ship h ough
sha ed Olympic spi i and planning u u e ela ions. I ein o ced economic and mili a y ies, suppo ing China’s 2022
Olympic bid, while Pu in’s eco d delega ion signalled g owing coope a ion[
20
].
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(02), 1078-1093
1084
2.19. May 20, 2014: Pu in Visi s Shanghai; Mee s Xi Jinping
Vladimi Pu in isi ed Shanghai on May 20–21, 2014, ma king his se en h mee ing wi h Xi Jinping since 2013, and he
isi esul ed in he landma k signing o a 30-yea , US$400 billion gas supply con ac by Gazp om and CNPC, alongside
a 20-yea LNG deal by No a ek, unde sco ing deep economic ies. Pu in’s ema k, “This is an impo an p ojec o us as
we a e di e si ying he supply o ou s a egic commodi y. Un il now mos supplies we e made o Eu ope … and his is a
no iceable compe i ion o he Eu opean ou e,” highligh ed he s a egic pi o owa d China, educing eliance on
Eu opean ma ke s. The join na al exe cise ‘Ma i ime Coope a ion-2014,’ a ended by bo h leade s, u he solidi ied
mili a y us , coun e ing U.S. in luence. The o e a ching goal was o challenge U.S. hegemony, secu e al e na i e
ma ke s, and os e a polycen ic wo ld o de , as e lec ed in hei join decla a ion o “ enounce ‘ he language o
unila e al sanc ions’.” Howe e , Beijing’s es ained suppo on Uk aine and Russia’s eme ging ole as a junio pa ne
exposed unde lying asymme ies. Pu in’s emphasis on pe sonal appo , a key elemen o his China policy, helped
mi iga e con lic isks while aligning e o s on mul ila e al pla o ms like he SCO, hough economic coope a ion beyond
ene gy yielded limi ed esul s. Ye , he summi ’s modes non-ene gy ou comes and China’s g owing le e age in Cen al
Asia unde sco ed Russia’s junio s a us. This long- e m collabo a ion, d i en by he polycen ic o de goal, elied on
pe sonal ies o na iga e backs age con en ious issues, e lec ing a p agma ic ye asymme ical pa ne ship[
21
].
2.20. May 8, 2015: Xi Jinping A ends Moscow Vic o y Day; Mee s Pu in
Xi Jinping’s isi o Moscow’s Vic o y Day om May 8–10, 2015, signi ican ly boos ing China-Russia s a egic ela ions
agains he backd op o he Uk ainian c isis and Wes e n sanc ions. A i ing a e a s op in Kazakhs an, Xi a ended he
70 h anni e sa y WWII pa ade, engaging in alks wi h Vladimi Pu in and Dmi y Med ede , and mee ing wa e e ans,
which highligh ed hei sha ed his o ical na a i e. This isi buil on Pu in’s 2014 gas deal, wi h expec a ions o a join
s a emen o enhance hei pa ne ship, ocusing on ene gy, ae ospace, and cybe coope a ion, including a po en ial
wes e n- ou e gas supply and a Russia-China mili a y helicop e p ojec . Xi’s wo ds, “China and Russia a e each o he ’s
mos impo an s a egic pa ne s. Ou ela ionship is special and signi ican ,” cap u ed hei deepening alignmen . The
Moscow isi aimed o s eng hen China-Russia ies o coun e U.S. and Japanese in luence, suppo Russia’s economy
unde sanc ions, and p omo e a mul ipola wo ld o de . Join na al exe cises and UN Secu i y Council coo dina ion
ein o ced his pa ne ship. Despi e China’s neu ali y on Uk aine and Cen al Asian compe i ion, pe sonal diplomacy
acili a ed expanded ene gy and in es men deals o ease Russia’s economic s ain and di e si y in o Asian ma ke s. Xi’s
pa ade a endance symbolized his o ical solida i y, while cybe and mili a y ag eemen s challenged Wes e n
dominance. As Dmi i T enin no ed, he close “en en e” e lec s hei s a egic pa ne ship, hough Russia’s hea y
eliance on ene gy expo s emains a challenge[
22
].
2.21. June 25, 2016: Pu in Visi s Beijing; Mee s Xi Jinping
Vladimi Pu in isi ed Beijing on June 25, 2016, and me Xi Jinping. The alks sealed ene gy deals, including Rosne ’s
sale o a 40% s ake in VNHK o ChemChina and a 2.4 million- onne oil con ac , wi h Pu in emphasizing economic ies,
s a ing, “We will s ick o he olumes we ha e ag eed on. I is a ound 40 million onnes (pe yea ).” The s a egic objec i e
was o coun e U.S. and NATO in luence, s eng hening global s a egic s abili y by opposing missile de ences, as he
K emlin s a emen u ged na ions o “s ic ly abide by he no ms o in e na ional law, keep mili a y capabili ies a he
minimum le el equi ed o na ional secu i y and e ain om s eps aimed a expanding exis ing mili a y-poli ical
alliances.” This isi enhanced economic in e dependence and mili a y alignmen , suppo ing No h Ko ea alks, despi e
Wes e n c i icism[
23
].
2.22. July 4, 2017: Xi Jinping Visi s Moscow; Mee s Pu in
Xi Jinping’s wo-day s a e isi o Moscow on July 4, 2017, o mee Vladimi Pu in signi ican ly ad anced Sino-Russian
s a egic ela ions amid U.S. policy shi s. Xi decla ed ela ions a hei “bes ime in his o y,” s a ing, “Russia and China
we e each o he ’s ‘mos us wo hy s a egic pa ne s,’” e lec ing hei close pe sonal iendship. The s a egic
objec i e was o coun e U.S. in luence, wi h $10 billion in ag eemen s, including he Russia-China RMB Coope a ion
Fund o OBOR and Eu asian Union p ojec s, and a $882.35 million VEB-CDB deal o blockchain inno a ions. Pe sonal
appo , e iden in hei join s ance agains THAAD, wi h Xi no ing, “ he deploymen o Te minal High Al i ude A ea
De ence (THAAD) in Sou h Ko ea ‘se iously unde mines he s a egic secu i y in e es s o China,’” os e ed us . The
ou come s eng hened economic and secu i y ies, opposing U.S. missile de ences and No h Ko ea exe cises, despi e
Cen al Asian ensions[
24
].
2.23. June 8, 2018: Xi Jinping Visi s Qingdao; Mee s Pu in a SCO Summi
Ma king Pu in’s i s s a e isi pos - e-elec ion, Xi awa ded him China’s F iendship Medal, s a ing, “China-Russia
pa ne ship is a pa adigm o oday’s s a e- o-s a e ela ions, and coo dina ion be ween he wo coun ies se es as a
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(02), 1078-1093
1085
key ac o in main aining he wo ld’s s a egic balance and s abili y.” The s a egic objec i e was o coun e U.S.
in luence, deepening hei “comp ehensi e s a egic pa ne ship” h ough SCO coo dina ion, Bel and Road-Eu asian
Union alignmen , and an i- e o ism coope a ion. The ou come ein o ced economic ies, mili a y in e ope abili y, and
a join s ance agains U.S. sanc ions and I an deal wi hd awal, p omo ing a mul ipola o de [
25
].
2.24. June 5, 2019: Pu in’s isi o Beijing; Mee s Xi
Vladimi Pu in’s isi o Beijing on June 5, 2019, o mee Xi Jinping unde sco ed China’s suppo o Russia du ing i s
Uk aine con lic , s eng hening hei in o mal alliance agains he U.S. and democ a ic na ions. The isi coincided wi h
he 10 h anni e sa y o Xi’s Bel and Road Ini ia i e (BRI), wi h Pu in p aising i in a CCTV in e iew, s a ing, “Yes, we
see ha some people conside i an a emp by he People’s Republic o China o pu someone unde i s humb, bu we see
o he wise, we jus see desi e o coope a ion.” This highligh ed hei economic alignmen , linking BRI wi h Russia’s
Cen al Asian ini ia i es. The s a egic aim was o coun e Wes e n in luence, wi h Pu in and Xi discussing enhanced
economic ies in ene gy, high- ech, and inance, as Alexande Gabue no ed, “Fo Russia, China is i s li eline, economic
li eline in i s b u al ep ession agains Uk aine.” Mili a y coope a ion g ew, ocusing on in e ope abili y and A c ic join
e o s, hough no a ull alliance. This high-le el engagemen ha nessed pe sonal diplomacy o nego ia e BRI in eg a ion
and economic suppo , aiming o mi iga e Russia’s sanc ion p essu es om he Uk aine wa by apping China’s ma ke
o aw ma e ials and echnology. The goal was o challenge U.S. dominance, wi h Xi’s backing o e ing a coun e weigh ,
hough empe ed by China’s balanced app oach o Is ael-Hamas dynamics. The model emphasized mu ual bene i , as
Gabue highligh ed, “Russia is a sa e neighbou ha is iendly, ha is a sou ce o cheap aw ma e ials,” os e ing a
p agma ic pa ne ship[
26
].
2.25. 2020: Xi-Pu in Video Summi
The ideo summi be ween Chinese P esiden Xi Jinping and Russian P esiden Vladimi Pu in on June 28, 2020,
bols e ed China-Russia s a egic ela ions amid global ensions and U.S. policy challenges. Announced by Fo eign
Minis y spokespe son Hua Chunying, his second mee ing wi hin six weeks— ollowing he May 19 g oundb eaking o
he Tianwan and Xudapu nuclea p ojec s—coincided wi h he 20 h anni e sa y o he 2001 T ea y o Good-
Neighbou liness and F iendly Coope a ion. The K emlin no ed he leade s would e iew bila e al ies and in e na ional
issues, wi h Yang Jin s a ing, “The signing o he Russia-China T ea y on Good-Neighbou liness and F iendly Coope a ion
is symbolic in he de elopmen o he China-Russia ela ionship.” The s a egic objec i e was o enhance mu ual us ,
coun e U.S. con ainmen , and p omo e a mul ipola o de , especially as Pu in ema ked in an NBC in e iew, “we ha e
de eloped a s a egic pa ne ship ela ionship - be ween Russia and China ha p e iously had no been achie ed in he
his o y o ou na ions, a high le el o - us and coope a ion in all a eas.” This pe sonal ela ionship ein o ced by i e
phone calls since Ma ch 2020, deepened ene gy and space collabo a ion.
The in en behind his June 28, 2020, online mee ing, whe e “The wo heads o s a e will gi e ull e iew o China-Russia
ela ions and coope a ion in a ious ields his yea ,” and “make op-le el designs o he de elopmen o bila e al ela ions
nex yea ,” d o e hei s a egic alignmen . This high-le el engagemen le e aged pe sonal diplomacy o coun e U.S.-
led Wes e n p essu e, including sanc ions and NATO ensions, wi h Xi and Pu in aiming o ele a e hei pa ne ship
ahead o he CPC’s cen ennial and he ea y’s anni e sa y. The goal was o os e an “all-dimensional and all-wea he ”
ela ionship, as Zhao Lijian a i med, “The sky is he limi o down- o-ea h China-Russia coope a ion,” enhancing
economic esilience h ough nuclea and high- ech p ojec s. I sough o p ojec s abili y amid he COVID-19 pandemic
and EU sanc ions, hough China’s balancing ac on Uk aine and Russia’s eliance on Beijing e ealed limi s. Pe sonal
us na iga ed hese challenges, a ge ing a esilien , mul ipola amewo k, wi h he CPC-So ie his o ical ies adding
symbolic weigh o hei coo dina ion[
27
].
2.26. Feb ua y 4, 2022: Xi Jinping and Pu in Mee a Beijing Win e Olympics
Pu in’s isi o Beijing on Feb ua y 4, 2022, signi ican ly ad ancing China-Russia s a egic ela ions ahead o he Win e
Olympics. Mee ing Xi Jinping, he wo leade s issued a join s a emen opposing NATO expansion and a i ming Taiwan
as pa o China, coun e ing U.S. p essu e amid Uk aine ensions. Xi’s ema k, “This is a s a egic decision ha has a -
eaching in luence on China, Russia and he wo ld,” highligh ed hei commi men o “deepening back- o-back s a egic
coope a ion” agains Wes e n in e e ence. Pu in p aised hei “unp eceden ed” ies, no ing a new gas con ac o 10
billion cubic me e s annually, s a ing, “Fo ou mee ing oday, ou oilmen ha e p epa ed e y good new solu ions o he
supply o hyd oca bons o he People’s Republic o China, and ano he s ep o wa d has been aken in he gas indus y.”
The goal was o p ojec a uni ed on , wi h Xi and Pu in opposing “ he u he expansion o NATO” and suppo ing each
o he ’s secu i y conce ns, as Wang Yi echoed o Blinken. I sough o bols e Russia’s economy agains sanc ions and
enhance China’s global secu i y ole, hough Beijing’s balancing ac wi h he Wes limi ed ull endo semen . Howe e ,
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(02), 1078-1093
1086
egional i al ies and U.S. a ms suppo o Taiwan posed challenges, wi h pe sonal us na iga ing hese ensions o
deepen hei pa ne ship agains a unipola amewo k[
28
].
2.27. Feb ua y 24, 2022: Wang Yi and Se gei La o Phone Call
Wang Yi’s phone call wi h Se gei La o on Feb ua y 24, 2022, signi ican ly ad ancing Sino-Russian s a egic ela ions
as Russia in aded Uk aine. Ma king he con lic ’s onse , La o ou lined Russia’s posi ion, s a ing, “ he US and NATO
iola ed hei commi men s by con inuously expanding owa d he eas , e using o implemen he new Minsk Ag eemen ,
and iola ed he UN Secu i y Council Resolu ion 2202,” jus i ying Russia’s ac ions. Wang esponded, “China always
espec s o he coun ies’ so e eign y and e i o ial in eg i y,” while acknowledging Russia’s secu i y conce ns, e lec ing
mu ual unde s anding. The s a egic objec i e was o coun e U.S. and NATO in luence, wi h Wang ad oca ing, “China
ad oca es ha he Cold Wa men ali y should be comple ely abandoned, and a balanced, e ec i e and sus ainable
Eu opean secu i y mechanism should e en ually be o med h ough dialogue and nego ia ions.” This legacy o engagemen
shaped he “no limi s” pa ne ship, using BRICS and SCO o challenge U.S. dominance, e lec ing a esilien alliance buil
on s a egic dialogue and mu ual suppo , wi h hei s ance on Eu opean secu i y unde pinning pos -2022
coope a ion[
29
].
2.28. Feb ua y 25, 2022: Xi Jinping and Pu in Phone Call
Chinese P esiden Xi Jinping’s phone call wi h Russian P esiden Vladimi Pu in on Feb ua y 25, 2022, add essed
bila e al issues. Conduc ed amid global ension, Xi’s s a emen on CCTV, “China suppo s Russia and Uk aine o esol e
he issue h ough nego ia ion,” e lec ed a balanced s ance while suppo ing Russia agains U.S. and allied p o oca ion.
The s a egic objec i e was o coun e Wes e n in luence, wi h China denouncing sanc ions and blaming he U.S. o
escala ing he c isis, ein o cing hei “no limi s” pa ne ship. This s eng hened an i-Wes e n alignmen , posi ioning
China as a media o while deepening economic and poli ical ies wi h Moscow, despi e mos Asian na ions backing
Uk aine[
30
].
2.29. Ma ch 29, 2022: Wang Yi and La o Mee in Beijing
Chinese Fo eign Minis e Wang Yi me wi h Russian Fo eign Minis e Se gei La o in Beijing on Ma ch 29, 2022. As
La o ’s i s non-Uk aine- ela ed ip since he wa began, Wang decla ed, “China-Russia ela ions ha e wi hs ood he
es o he changing in e na ional si ua ion, ensu ed he igh di ec ion and demons a ed a s ong momen um o
de elopmen ,” signalling esilience agains Wes e n p essu e. The s a egic objec i e was o coun e U.S. dominance,
ein o cing hei Feb ua y 4, 2022, “limi less iendship” pledge by p omo ing a mul ipola o de and opposing
hegemony, as La o no ed, “ac i ely p omo e he p ocess o mul i-pola isa ion.” This high-le el engagemen aiming o
coun e U.S. and NATO in luence amid sanc ions du ing Uk aine Wa . The goal was o p omo e a mul ipola wo ld, wi h
Wang’s call, “In he long un, we should lea n he lessons o he Uk aine c isis, espond o he legi ima e secu i y conce ns
o all pa ies based on he p inciples o mu ual espec and indi isibili y o secu i y,” seeking a Eu ope wi hou U.S.
dominance[
31
].
2.30. July 7, 2022: Wang Yi and La o Mee a G20 in Bali
Chinese Fo eign Minis e Wang Yi me wi h Russian Fo eign Minis e Se gei La o in Bali on July 7, 2022, amid Russia’s
in asion o Uk aine. Held be o e he G20 minis e ial mee ing, Wang and La o ’s bila e al alks, whe e La o s a ed,
“Bo h pa ies unde lined he unaccep able na u e o unila e al sanc ions adop ed by ci cum en ing he UN,” ein o ced
hei an i-Wes e n s ance. The s a egic objec i e was o coun e U.S. and Wes e n isola ion e o s, wi h Beijing
main aining iendly ies despi e global c i icism, suppo ing Moscow’s “denazi y” na a i e. This isi s eng hened
hei “no limi s” pa ne ship, aligning agains unila e al sanc ions, hough Blinken’s a oidance o La o highligh ed
ensions. I sough o bols e Russia’s posi ion, hough China’s neu ali y and Blinken’s s ance posed challenges[
32
].
2.31. July 29, 2022: Wang Yi and La o Mee a SCO Summi in Tashken
Chinese Fo eign Minis e Wang Yi me wi h Russian Fo eign Minis e Se gei La o a he SCO Summi in Tashken on
July 29, 2022. Wang emphasized, “Faced wi h he a duous ask o de elopmen and s abili y, we mus uphold he Shanghai
Spi i ,” highligh ing hei commi men o mu ual us and common de elopmen wi hin he SCO. The s a egic objec i e
was o coun e U.S. in luence, p omo ing a mul ipola wo ld h ough solida i y, secu i y, and sus ainable de elopmen ,
as ou lined in Wang’s i e-poin p oposal. Pe sonal appo , e iden in hei coo dina ed s ance agains Wes e n
in e e ence and suppo o China’s Bel and Road. The SCO membe s ea i ming mu ual us and planning a
De elopmen Bank, enhancing economic and cul u al ies. The goal was o os e a mul ipola o de , opposing “ he alse
na a i e o ‘democ acy agains au ho i a ianism’” and enhancing SCO’s ole. I sough o boos ade and secu i y,
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(02), 1078-1093
1093
[38] Reu e s. (2022, No embe 15). China p aises Russia’s opposi ion o nuclea wa a G20 summi . Reu e s.
h ps://www. eu e s.com/wo ld/china/china-p aises- ussias-opposi ion-nuclea -wa -g20-summi -2022-11-
15/
[39] McCa hy, S. (2023, Ma ch 22). No pa h o peace: Fi e key akeaways om Xi and Pu in’s alks in Moscow. CNN.
h ps://edi ion.cnn.com/2023/03/22/eu ope/china-xi- ussia-pu in- alks- i e- akeaways-in l-hnk-mic
[40] E e, A. (2023, Oc obe 16). Wang, La o mee in Beijing ahead o Bel and Road Fo um. EFE No icias.
h ps://e e.com/en/la es -news/2023-10-16/wang-la o -mee -in-beijing-ahead-o -bel -and- oad- o um/
[41] VOA News. (2024, Ap il 8). Russia’s La o isi s Beijing o discuss Uk aine wa , Asia-Paci ic si ua ion. Voice o
Ame ica. h ps://www. oanews.com/a/ ussia-s-la o - isi s-beijing- o-discuss-uk aine-wa -asia-paci ic-
si ua ion-/7561844.h ml
[42] BBC News. (2024, May 17). Pu in a i es in China’s “Li le Moscow” as allies aim o deepen ade.
h ps://www.bbc.com/news/li e/wo ld-asia-69001137
[43] Kaiwei, Z., & Wenxing, Z. (Eds.). (2024). China, Russia ag ee o s eng hen s a egic consul a ion, coope a ion -
People’s Daily Online. People.cn. h ps://en.people.cn/n3/2024/0911/c90000-20217796.h ml
[44] Dobkin, R. (2024, Oc obe 16). Russia and China announce plans o expanded coope a ion. Newsweek.
h ps://www.newsweek.com/ ussia-china-expanded-coope a ion-shanghai-coope a ion-o ganiza ion-
summi -1970050
[45] Chinese, Russian FMs discuss ies in Rio de Janei o. (2024). News.cn.
h ps://english.news.cn/20241119/c15280a2790340e 9ae1eb4e2879335a/c.h ml
[46] A p. (2025, July 20). Pu in and Xi ou g owing pa ne ship du ing ideo call. The Moscow Times.
h ps://www. hemoscow imes.com/2025/01/21/pu in-and-xi- ou -g owing-pa ne ship-du ing- ideo-call-
a87680
[47] Wang Yi Mee s wi h Russian Fo eign Minis e Se gei La o . (n.d.).
h ps://www.m a.go .cn/eng/wjbzhd/202502/ 20250222_11560491.h ml
[48] Xi Jinping Mee s wi h Sec e a y o he Russian Fede a ion Secu i y Council Se gei Shoigu. (n.d.).
h ps://www.m a.go .cn/eng/xw/zyxw/202503/ 20250303_11566840.h ml
[49] Cg n. (2025, Ap il 2). Wang Yi, La o ow o s eng hen ies in Moscow alks. CGTN.
h ps://news.cg n.com/news/2025-04-01/Wang-Yi-La o - ow- o-s eng hen- ies-in-Moscow- alks-
1CdYnSEOiRO/p.h ml
[50] Wishnick, E. (2025, May 17). The Xi-Pu in summi : a display o China-Russia esilience on Vic o y Day. The
Diploma . h ps:// hediploma .com/2025/05/ he-xi-pu in-summi -a-display-o -china- ussia- esilience-on-
ic o y-day/
Au ho ’s Biog aphy
Rajinde Singh
Rajinde Singh se es as a Senio Resea ch Schola in he Depa men o De ence and
S a egic S udies a Punjabi Uni e si y, Pa iala, Punjab, India. He comple ed his Bachelo
o Science in Non-Medical s udies a DAV College, Malou , which is a ilia ed wi h Panjab
Uni e si y, Chandiga h, in 2018. Subsequen ly, he ea ned a Mas e o A s in De ence and
S a egic S udies om Punjabi Uni e si y, Pa iala, in 2020. Cu en ly, he is pu suing his
Ph.D. unde he guidance o D . Kamal Kinge (P o esso ) and D . Ha sangee Pal Kau
(Assis an P o esso ) in he same depa men , since 2021. His esea ch in e es s
encompass In e na ional Rela ions, he s a egic dynamics among China, Pakis an, and
Russia, as well as Con empo a y Global A ai s.
