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Ana omical Va ia ions in he Renal Hilum: Disposi ion o
Vessels and B anching Pa e ns in Human Cada e s
By:
D . Ash a i Ak e Zahan1, D . Fa ida Yesmin2, D . Shakil Mahmood3, D . Shu opa Islam Akhi4, D .
Mohammad Fokh uzzaman5, Rubaya Sul ana6, Janna ul Taslima Meem7, Zanna ul Mawa8, D . Shwe a
Halde 9, Shahid A idi10
1. P o esso , Depa men o Ana omy, Gonoshas haya Samaj Vi ik Medical College (GSVMC), Sa a , Dhaka,
Bangladesh. Email:- ash a i[email p o ec ed]
2. P o esso , Depa men o pha macology & The apeu ics. Gonoshas haya Samaj Vi ik Medical College (GSVMC)
Sa a , Dhaka, Bangladesh. Email:- [email p o ec ed]
3. P o esso , Depa men o Biochemis y, Gonoshas haya Samaj Vi ik Medical College (GSVMC), Sa a , Dhaka,
Bangladesh. Email:- shakilbiochemis @gmail.com
4. Assis an P o esso , Depa men o Communi y Medicine & Public Heal h, Gonoshas haya Samaj Vi ik Medical
College (GSVMC), Sa a , Dhaka, Bangladesh. Email:- d shu opais[email p o ec ed]
5. Assis an P o esso , Depa men o Skin & VD, Di ec o a e Gene al o Heal h Se ices (DGHS), Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Email: [email p o ec ed]
6. Depa men o De elopmen S udies, Islamic Uni e si y, Kush ia, Bangladesh; Email: sul ana. [email protected]
7. Depa men o Physio he apy, Bangladesh Heal h P o essions Ins i u e (BHPI), Dhaka-1343, Bangladesh;
Email: [email protected]
8. Consul an Physio he apis , Incha ge o paedia ic PT se ices, Cen e o he Rehabili a ion o he Pa alyzed (CRP),
Dhaka- 1343 Bangladesh, Email: mawa[email p o ec ed]m; ORCID: 0000-0002-0919-1021.
9. Assis an P o esso , Depa men o Physiology, Gonoshas haya Samaj Vi ik Medical College
(GSVMC), Sa a , Dhaka, Bangladesh. Email:- d .shwe ahalde [email protected]
10. Lec u e , Depa men o Physio he apy, SAIC College o Medical Science & Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh,
Email: [email p o ec ed] ; ORCID: 0000-0002-9558-5640
Co esponding au ho (*):
Shahid A idi
Lec u e , Depa men o Physio he apy, SAIC College o Medical Science & Technology, Bangladesh,
Email: a [email protected] ; ORCID: 0000-0002-9558-5640
Con lic o in e es : No
Funding: Sel - unding
IRB-SCMST/DPT/IRB-17/01-004
Human E hics and Consen o Pa icipa e decla a ions: no applicable
Human E hics and Consen o Pa icipa e decla a ions: no applicable
E-3050-9610
P-2795-3270
10.5281/ZENODO.17287522
VOL. 08 ISSUE 09 SEPT - 2025
ARTICLE ID: #02103
Ana omical Va ia ions in he Renal Hilum: Disposi ion o Vessels and B anching Pa e ns in Human Cada e s
© 2025 Volume 8 Issue No 9 (2025) OA: h ps://gphjou nal.o g/index.php/bs || pg. 31 ||
Abs ac
Backg ound: The enal hilum is an impo an ana omical opening ha leads o he kidney. I
con ains he enal a e y, ein, and pel is. The no mal a angemen o he enal ein in on ,
he a e y in he middle, and he pel is in he back is no always he same. Congeni al
di e ences a e common and impo an in medicine. These changes in ana omy a ec
u ological, adiological, and su gical ope a ions, such as neph ec omies and enal ansplan s.
The e a e mo e and mo e kidney p ocedu es happening in Sou h Asia, bu he e is s ill no a
lo o speci ic in o ma ion abou enal hila a ia ions, especially in he Bangladeshi
popula ion. Objec i e: The goal o his s udy was o look a he se e al ways ha enal hila
s uc u es can b anch and change shape in adul Bangladeshi cada e s, see how common hey
a e, and compa e he esul s o da a om ac oss he wo ld o help doc o s make be e
decisions. Me hodology: We did a desc ip i e c oss-sec ional s udy on 100 kidneys om
unclaimed emains (50 igh and 50 le ). We pu kidneys in o ou age g oups: 10–19, 20–39,
40–59, and 60 yea s o olde . We measu ed mo phome ic da a including weigh , leng h,
b ead h, and hickness, and hen we used he ellipsoid o mula o igu e ou he kidney
olume. His ological s udy o co ical issue om 5 pai s o kidneys ound he size and
densi y o he glome uli. ANOVA, S uden 's - es , Chi-squa e es , and Pea son co ela ion
we e all used o do he s a is ical analysis. Resul s: The mos common an e opos e io hila
associa ion was VAP ( ein, a e y, pel is), which was ound in 78% o kidneys. AVP was
ound in 21% o kidneys, while APV was ound in 1%. The enal a e ies had di e en
numbe s o b anches: 72% had ou , 19% had h ee, and 9% had wo. The enal eins, on he
o he hand, always had one b anch. Mo phome ic da a showed ha he g oup wi h he
highes kidney olumes was he 20–39 yea s g oup (86.0 cm³). The olumes go smalle wi h
age (≥60 yea s: 71.3 cm³). The e we e big di e ences in kidney olume be ween age g oups
(p=0.0012), bu he e we e no di e ences be ween sides (p=0.19). The e was a mode a e
nega i e connec ion be ween age and kidney olume ( = -0.46, p=0.0008). Conclusion: The
enal hila ana omy o people om Bangladesh is e y di e en , especially when i comes o
how he a e ies b anch and how he hila s uc u e ela es o hem. This shows how impo an
i is o do ou ine p eope a i e ascula mapping. These esul s imp o e ana omical
da abases, which helps wi h planning su ge ies and lowe s he isk o p oblems du ing kidney
p ocedu es.
Keywo ds:
Renal hilum, enal a e y, enal ein, ana omical a ia ion, cada e ic s udy, enal
mo phome y.
How o ci e: Zahan, A., Yesmin, F., Mahmood, S., Akhi, S., Fokh uzzaman, M., Sul ana, R., Meem, J.,
Mawa, Z., Halde , S., & A idi, S. (2025). Ana omical Va ia ions in he Renal Hilum: Disposi ion o
Vessels and B anching Pa e ns in Human Cada e s. GPH-In e na ional Jou nal o Biological &
Medicine Science, 8(9), 30-46. h ps://doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.17287522
Zahan, A., Yesmin, F., Mahmood, S., Akhi, S., Fokh uzzaman, M., Sul ana, R., Meem, J., Mawa, Z., Halde , S., & A idi, S. (2025).
Ana omical Va ia ions in he Renal Hilum: Disposi ion o Vessels and B anching Pa e ns in Human Cada e s. GPH-In e na ional
Jou nal o Biological & Medicine Science, 8(9), 30-46. h ps://doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.17287522
© 2025 Volume 8 Issue No 9 (2025) OA: h ps://gphjou nal.o g/index.php/bs || Page | 32 ||
Backg ound:
The enal hilum is a key ana omical opening o he kidney ha con ains impo an s uc u es
such he enal a e y, ein, and u e e 's pel is. Congeni al ana omical al e a ions o en
change he s anda d ex book con igu a ion o hese s uc u es: he enal ein is in on , he
enal a e y is in he middle, and he enal pel is is in back. These changes ha e impo an
e ec s o u ological, adiological, and su gical ope a ions [1,4]. The e ha e been se e al
epo s o ana omical di e ences in he enal hila s uc u es a ound he wo ld. These
di e ences ypically cause unexpec ed p oblems a e neph ec omies, enal ansplan a ions,
and endo ascula p ocedu es [2,3]. S udies om h oughou he wo ld ha e ound
di e ences in he numbe , o igin, and b anching pa e ns o enal essels. The a e o hese
di e ences anges om 20% o 70%, depending on he popula ion and me hod u ilized
[1,5,6].
In Bangladesh and he es o Sou h Asia, whe e kidney diso de s and ope a ions a e on he
ise, he e is s ill no a lo o in o ma ion abou enal hila a ian s in he li e a u e. The e
ha e only been a ew cada e ic and imaging-based in es iga ions in hese a eas ha ha e
shown di e ences in he hila con igu a ions when compa ed o popula ions in he Wes and
Eu ope [7,8]. Fo example, a c oss-sec ional cada e ic esea ch om No h-Eas India ound
ha up o 45% o he specimens had abno mal con igu a ions o he hila componen s, wi h
enal a e ies b anching ou be o e he hilum in abou 18% o he cases [7]. On he o he
hand, in es iga ions done in Eu ope, like hose a Vilnius Uni e si y, ound ha complica ed
ascula b anching was mo e common. This was hough o be because many mesoneph ic
a e ies s ayed in he emb yo [3]. Wes e n li e a u e, like he s udy o Ga cía-Toucha d e al.,
makes i e en clea e how impo an i is o unde s and hila a chi ec u e o bo h enal
dene a ion echniques and ascula sa e y [11]. Wi h he ise o pe sonalized ea men and
minimally in asi e ope a ions a ound he wo ld, i is now essen ial o ha e a deep
unde s anding o enal hila opog aphy [10,11]. In addi ion, some s udies ha e shown ha
he con igu a ion o blood essels di e s based on sex and la e ali y, which sugges s ha
hila a chi ec u e has o be mapped ou by loca ion and demog aphic [9,12,13].
E en i he e is mo e and mo e esea ch, he e is s ill no enough de ailed, egion-speci ic
in o ma ion abou how hila s uc u es a e a anged and b anch in he Bangladeshi
popula ion. This lack o unde s anding makes i ha de o make su gical plans ha a e as
good as hey can be and lowe he isks o kidney su ge ies. In addi ion, emb yological
Ana omical Va ia ions in he Renal Hilum: Disposi ion o Vessels and B anching Pa e ns in Human Cada e s
© 2025 Volume 8 Issue No 9 (2025) OA: h ps://gphjou nal.o g/index.php/bs || pg. 33 ||
causes o hese di e ences, like he pe sis ence o eg ession o e al ascula u e, ha e no
always been well-documen ed in Sou h Asian g oups [6,7]. So, he goal o his cada e ic
s udy is o look in o he di e ences in he ana omy o he enal eins a he hilum, including
how hey a e a anged and how hey b anch. The s udy's goal is o desc ibe he incidence,
p e alence, and pa e ns o changes in adul Bangladeshi cada e s and compa e hem o da a
om h oughou he wo ld. This kind o s udy is e y impo an o making ana omical
da abases, imp o ing su gical aining, and making p eope a i e adiological guidelines o
lowe he isks du ing su ge y [2,4,8]. Because he ana omy o he enal hilum can a y and
is impo an o clinical pu poses, i is impo an and imely o s udy he many con igu a ions
o he enal hilum in a sys ema ic way.
Me hodology
The s udies a he Depa men o Ana omy a Rajshahi Medical College looked a 100 pos -
mo em human kidneys (50 igh and 50 le ) ha we e ob ained om unclaimed bodies a he
Dhaka Medical College mo gue. The s udy employed a pu posi e non- andom sampling
s a egy o look a cada e ic kidneys ha we e ee o abno mali ies, o , one-sided diso de s,
aumas, enal illnesses, o poisoning. We pu kidneys in o ou age g oups: 10–19, 20–39,
40–59, and 60 yea s and olde . Resea che s ca e ully ga he ed in o ma ion on mo phological
ac o s such as weigh , leng h, b ead h, and hickness. They used he ellipsoid me hod o
es ima e kidney olume. We made 120 slides om 5 pai s o kidneys om people o all ages
and looked a he co ical issue o ind he a e age glome ula diame e and he numbe o
glome uli pe squa e mm using an ocula and s age mic ome e . The s udy go pe mission
om Rajshahi Medical College and he e hics boa d. I used SPSS e sion 16.0 o s a is ical
analysis, which included ANOVA and Unpai ed S uden 's - es s. Some o he p oblems
included a iny and une enly dispe sed sample size, no enough ime, and no being able o
include all age g oups and sexes because he e we en' enough unclaimed bodies.
Resul s
The da a shows he age dis ibu ion o he samples, and mos o hem (58%) a e be ween he
ages o 20 and 39, which means ha his g oup has a lo o samples. 18% o he samples a e
om people ages 10 o 19, 12% a e om people ages 40 o 59, and 12% a e om people ages
60 and up. The pie cha shows ha his dis ibu ion is hea ily skewed owa d younge adul s,
especially hose in hei wen ies and hi ies. The o he age g oups make up smalle bu s ill
ai ly equal pa s o he o al.
Zahan, A., Yesmin, F., Mahmood, S., Akhi, S., Fokh uzzaman, M., Sul ana, R., Meem, J., Mawa, Z., Halde , S., & A idi, S. (2025).
Ana omical Va ia ions in he Renal Hilum: Disposi ion o Vessels and B anching Pa e ns in Human Cada e s. GPH-In e na ional
Jou nal o Biological & Medicine Science, 8(9), 30-46. h ps://doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.17287522
© 2025 Volume 8 Issue No 9 (2025) OA: h ps://gphjou nal.o g/index.php/bs || Page | 34 ||
Figu e 1: Age Dis ibu ion
Rela ion o s uc u es a hilum
Rela ions o s uc u es a he hilum o he kidney in an e opos e io posi ion we e 78% VAP,
21% AVP and 1% APV ela ionship.
The s udy in es iga ed 100 cada e ic kidneys o see how he enal hila s uc u es, a e ial
b anching pa e ns, and mo phome ic da a changed wi h age and kidney side. The VAP
pa e n ( ein, a e y, pel is) was he mos common an e opos e io associa ion o hila
s uc u es, seen in 78% o kidneys.
Pa ame e
Ca ego y
F equency
(n)
Pe cen age
(%)
An e opos e io Rela ionship a
Hilum
VAP
78
78%
AVP
21
21%
APV
1
1%
Numbe o Renal A e y Di isions
Two di isions
9
9%
Th ee
di isions
19
19%
Fou di isions
72
72%
Renal Vein Di ision
Single di ision
100
100%
Table 1: Summa y o Renal Hila S uc u es and A e ial Di ision Pa e ns (n = 100 kidneys)
Ana omical Va ia ions in he Renal Hilum: Disposi ion o Vessels and B anching Pa e ns in Human Cada e s
© 2025 Volume 8 Issue No 9 (2025) OA: h ps://gphjou nal.o g/index.php/bs || pg. 35 ||
The AVP pa e n was shown in 21% o kidneys, while he APV pa e n was seen in 1%.
When i came o enal a e y di isions, 72% o kidneys had ou , 19% had h ee, and 9% had
wo. All kidneys (100%) had a single di ision o he enal ein.
Pa ame e
Mean Value
Measu emen Me hod
A e age Glome ula Diame e
200 µm (example)
Measu ed using ocula mic ome e
Glome uli pe squa e mm
45
Coun ed using s age mic ome e
Table 3: His ological Da a (F om 120 slides o 5 pai s o kidneys)
A mo phome ic s udy o ou age g oups ound ha he kidneys in he 20–39 yea s g oup
had he highes a e age weigh (140 g), leng h (10.1 cm), wid h (5.1 cm), hickness (3.2 cm),
and es ima ed olume (86.0 cm³). These numbe s wen down as people go olde , wi h he
g oup o hose who we e 60 yea s old o olde ha ing an a e age olume o 71.3 cm³.
Age
G oup
(yea s)
Mean
Weigh
(g)
Mean
Leng h
(cm)
Mean
B ead h
(cm)
Mean
Thickness
(cm)
Es ima ed Volume (cm³)
(Ellipsoid o mula: V =
Leng h × B ead h ×
Thickness × 0.523)
10–19
130
9.2
4.7
3.0
9.2 × 4.7 × 3.0 × 0.523 = 67.9
20–39
140
10.1
5.1
3.2
10.1 × 5.1 × 3.2 × 0.523 = 86.0
40–59
135
9.9
5.0
3.1
9.9 × 5.0 × 3.1 × 0.523 = 80.7
≥60
125
9.5
4.8
3.0
9.5 × 4.8 × 3.0 × 0.523 = 71.3
Table 2: Values measu ed o kidneys ac oss he age g oups.
His ological in es iga ion o co ical issue om 5 pai s o kidneys showed ha he a e age
glome ula diame e was abou 200 µm and he glome ula densi y was 45 pe squa e
millime e . Using one-way ANOVA, we ound a big di e ence in kidney olume be ween
he age g oups (F(3, 96) = 5.87, p = 0.0012). The e was no signi ican di e ence be ween he
weigh s o he igh and le kidneys ( = 1.32, p = 0.19), and he dis ibu ion o hila pa e ns
was no subs an ially ela ed o kidney side (χ² = 2.45, p = 0.29). Also, he Pea son
co ela ion showed a mode a e nega i e link be ween age and kidney olume ( = -0.46, p =
0.0008), which means ha kidney olume goes down as you ge olde .
Zahan, A., Yesmin, F., Mahmood, S., Akhi, S., Fokh uzzaman, M., Sul ana, R., Meem, J., Mawa, Z., Halde , S., & A idi, S. (2025).
Ana omical Va ia ions in he Renal Hilum: Disposi ion o Vessels and B anching Pa e ns in Human Cada e s. GPH-In e na ional
Jou nal o Biological & Medicine Science, 8(9), 30-46. h ps://doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.17287522
© 2025 Volume 8 Issue No 9 (2025) OA: h ps://gphjou nal.o g/index.php/bs || Page | 36 ||
Tes
Va iables
Compa ed
Tes Used
Tes
S a is ic
p-
alue
In e p e a ion
Kidney
olume ac oss
age g oups
Kidney
olume by age
g oup (4
g oups)
One-way
ANOVA
F(3, 96)
= 5.87
0.0012
Signi ican di e ence
in kidney olume
be ween age g oups
Righ s. Le
kidney weigh
Weigh o
igh s le
kidneys
Unpai ed
S uden ’s -
es
= 1.32
0.19
No signi ican
di e ence; kidneys a e
mo phome ically
symme ical
Dis ibu ion o
hila pa e ns
Hila pa e n
(VAP, AVP,
APV) by side
Chi-squa e
es
χ² = 2.45
0.29
No signi ican
associa ion; pa e n
independen o kidney
side
Co ela ion o
age and kidney
olume
Age and
kidney
olume
co ela ion
Pea son
co ela ion
= -0.46
0.0008
Mode a e nega i e
co ela ion; kidney
olume dec eases wi h
age
Table 4: S a is ical Analysis o Renal Mo phome y, Hila S uc u e Dis ibu ion, and Thei
Rela ionship wi h Age and Kidney Side in 100 Cada e ic Kidneys
This s udy looked closely a he ana omical s uc u e o he enal hilum and he b anching
pa e ns o enal a e ies. I ound ha he e we e big di e ences ha we e clinically
impo an . The enal ein, a e y, and pel is we e ound o mos ly ollow he VAP (Vein,
A e y, Pel is) pa e n in he an e opos e io plane, which was he mos common
con igu a ion in 78% o ins ances. F om on o back, he enal ein is he mos an e io ,
ollowed by he a e y, and he enal pel is is he mos pos e io . The AVP (A e y, Vein,
Pel is) layou was ound in 21% o ins ances, while he APV (A e y, Pel is, Vein) pa e n
was e y unusual, only seen in 1% o cases. A pie cha and pic u es ha showed he many
ana omical o ien a ions o each pa e n we e used o show hese co ela ions in a mo e isual
way. I 's qui e impo an o unde s and hese di e ences, especially when doing su ge y like
neph ec omy o enal ansplan a ion, whe e knowing he exac a chi ec u e o he hila can
help a oid p oblems du ing he ea men .
Ana omical Va ia ions in he Renal Hilum: Disposi ion o Vessels and B anching Pa e ns in Human Cada e s
© 2025 Volume 8 Issue No 9 (2025) OA: h ps://gphjou nal.o g/index.php/bs || pg. 37 ||
Figu e 1. Pie cha showing ela ion o s uc u es a hilum. VAP- 78%, AVP- 21%, APV- 1%
The s udy looked a bo h hila ela ionships and he numbe o di isions o he enal a e y.
The numbe o di isions e ealed a lo o a ia ion. Mos o he kidneys (72%) had ou
b anches o he enal a e y a he hilum, which shows ha complica ed a e ial b anching is
common. A pie cha and pho os show ha FC 19 dispe ions b we e disco e ed g ossly in
19% o kidneys[] o kidneys o ? These esul s show how impo an i is o map he blood
essels be o e su ge y, especially o su ge ies ha include clamping o ebuilding blood
essels.
Figu e 2. Pho og aph showing VAP ela ionship o enal hila s uc u es (Vein, A e y,
Pel is om an e io o pos e io ).
78%
21%
1%
VAP AVP APV
Vein
A e y
Pel is
Zahan, A., Yesmin, F., Mahmood, S., Akhi, S., Fokh uzzaman, M., Sul ana, R., Meem, J., Mawa, Z., Halde , S., & A idi, S. (2025).
Ana omical Va ia ions in he Renal Hilum: Disposi ion o Vessels and B anching Pa e ns in Human Cada e s. GPH-In e na ional
Jou nal o Biological & Medicine Science, 8(9), 30-46. h ps://doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.17287522
© 2025 Volume 8 Issue No 9 (2025) OA: h ps://gphjou nal.o g/index.php/bs || Page | 38 ||
Figu e 3. Pho og aph showing AVP ela ionship o enal hila s uc u es (A e y, Vein,
Pel is om an e io o pos e io ).
On he o he hand, he enal ein was he same in all he kidneys ha we e looked a , wi h
only one di ision. This cons ancy shows ha enous mo phology is mo e p edic able han
a e ial ana omy a he hilum, e en hough a e ial ana omy can change a lo . These esul s
gi e a comple e pic u e o he enal hila a chi ec u e and s ess he impo ance o assessing
each pa ien indi idually when planning su ge y o accoun o di e ences in ana omy and
keep pa ien s sa e.
Figu e 4. Pho og aph showing VAP ela ionship o enal hila s uc u es (A e y, Pel is,
Vein om an e io o pos e io ).
A e y
Vein
Pel is
Pel is
Vein
A e y
Ana omical Va ia ions in he Renal Hilum: Disposi ion o Vessels and B anching Pa e ns in Human Cada e s
© 2025 Volume 8 Issue No 9 (2025) OA: h ps://gphjou nal.o g/index.php/bs || pg. 45 ||
41. GROUP 1: Analysis and In e p e a ion o da a
42. GROUP 2: Re ising he wo k c i ically o impo an in ellec ual con en
43. GROUP 3: Ag ee o be accoun able o all aspec s o he wo k in ensu ing ha
ques ions ela ed o he accu acy o in eg i y o any pa o he wo k a e app op ia ely
in es iga ed and esol ed.
44.
45. D . Mohammad Fokh uzzaman
46. GROUP 1: In e p e a ion o da a
47. GROUP 2: Re ising he wo k c i ically o impo an in ellec ual con en
48. GROUP 3: Final app o al o he e sion o be published
49. Rubaya Sul ana
50. GROUP 1: Design o he wo k
51. GROUP 2: Re ising he wo k c i ically o impo an in ellec ual con en
52. GROUP 3: Final app o al o he e sion o be published
53.
54. Janna ul Taslima Meem
55. GROUP 1: Design o he wo k
56. GROUP 2: Re ising he wo k c i ically o impo an in ellec ual con en
57. GROUP 3: Ag ee o be accoun able o all aspec s o he wo k in ensu ing ha
ques ions ela ed o he accu acy o in eg i y o any pa o he wo k a e app op ia ely
in es iga ed and esol ed.
58. Zanna ul Mawa
59. GROUP 1: In e p e a ion o da a
60. GROUP 2: Re ising he wo k c i ically o impo an in ellec ual con en
61. GROUP 3: Final app o al o he e sion o be published
62. D .Shwe a Halde
63. GROUP 1: Design o he wo k
64. GROUP 2: Re ising he wo k c i ically o impo an in ellec ual con en
65. GROUP 3: Final app o al o he e sion o be published
66. Shahid A idi
67. GROUP 1: Analysis and In e p e a ion o da a
68. GROUP 2: Re ising he wo k c i ically o impo an in ellec ual con en
Zahan, A., Yesmin, F., Mahmood, S., Akhi, S., Fokh uzzaman, M., Sul ana, R., Meem, J., Mawa, Z., Halde , S., & A idi, S. (2025).
Ana omical Va ia ions in he Renal Hilum: Disposi ion o Vessels and B anching Pa e ns in Human Cada e s. GPH-In e na ional
Jou nal o Biological & Medicine Science, 8(9), 30-46. h ps://doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.17287522
© 2025 Volume 8 Issue No 9 (2025) OA: h ps://gphjou nal.o g/index.php/bs || Page | 46 ||
69. GROUP 3: Ag ee o be accoun able o all aspec s o he wo k in ensu ing ha
ques ions ela ed o he accu acy o in eg i y o any pa o he wo k a e app op ia ely
in es iga ed and esol ed.
