Athletes for Good Governance and Rights in Europe - CBA REPORT

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A hle es o Good Go e nance
and Righ s in Eu ope
Deli e able D2.1 CBA REPORT
Augus 2025
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Funded by he Eu opean Union. Views and opinions exp essed a e howe e hose o he au ho (s) only and
do no necessa ily e lec hose o he Eu opean Union o he Eu opean Educa ion and Cul u e Execu i e
Agency (EACEA). Nei he he Eu opean Union no EACEA can be held esponsible o hem.
CBA REPORT
Augus 2025
REPORT AUTHORS
D And ea Ca aneo
Edge Hill Uni e si y
Assis ed by
Nicole Fischhabe and D C is ina Sil es i
P ojec Pa ne s
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Con en s
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................................ 4
1. In oduc ion and P ojec Con ex ......................................................................... 4
2. EU Law and Policy Con ex ................................................................................ 5
3. Key Findings ....................................................................................................... 6
1. Legal ecogni ion a ies — bu he p inciple is uni e sal ................................. 6
2. Spo -speci ic amewo ks a e une en ............................................................ 6
3. CBAs b ing angible bene i s o a hle es and mo e ........................................ 6
4. Decen alisa ion ends equi e ca e ul managemen ...................................... 6
5. Ba ie s o collec i e ba gaining in spo emain signi ican ............................. 7
6. Alignmen wi h EU law s eng hens he case o CBAs ................................... 7
4. Recommenda ions .............................................................................................. 7
1. Recognise and engage wi h a hle e unions ..................................................... 7
2. P omo e sec o al o coo dina ed ba gaining in spo ....................................... 7
3. Use CBAs o add ess p io i y issues o a hle e wel a e .................................. 7
4. Align spo s egula ions wi h EU law h ough CBAs ........................................ 8
5. Le e age EU unding o build capaci y o ba gaining ..................................... 8
6. S eng hen en o cemen and moni o ing ......................................................... 8
7. Encou age ansna ional dialoge…………………………………………………. 8
1. In oduc ion and Me hodology ................................................................................ 9
1.1 Pu pose and Scope o he Repo ................................................................... 10
1.2 Backg ound Con ex ....................................................................................... 10
1.3 Objec i es ....................................................................................................... 11
1.4 Me hodology ................................................................................................... 12
2. Li e a u e Re iew ................................................................................................. 12
2.1 Collec i e Ba gaining Ag eemen s: Concep s and Types ............................... 12
2.2 Employmen Rela ions in Spo ....................................................................... 13
2.3 CBAs in spo : he landscape and ends ........................................................ 14
2.4 T ansna ional E o s in Collec i e Ba gaining ................................................ 16
3. The Legal F amewo k .......................................................................................... 17
3.1 Pa icipa ion, Recogni ion and Wo ke S a us................................................. 17
3.2 E ec s and En o cemen o CBAs .................................................................. 19
3.3 The In e na ional Legal F amewo k ................................................................ 20
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4. The Eu opean Union and CBAs in Spo .............................................................. 21
4.1 EU Compe ence ............................................................................................. 21
4.2 Collec i e Ag eemen s and he In e nal Ma ke .............................................. 22
4.2 The Eu opean Sec o al Social Dialogue ......................................................... 25
4.3 CJEU and Spo .............................................................................................. 26
5. Mapping and Analysis o Exis ing Collec i e Ba gaining Ag eemen s .................. 28
5.2 Classi ica ion by Spo , Ju isdic ion, and Cha ac e is ics ................................ 28
5.3 Common P o isions and Va ia ions ................................................................ 29
5.4 Gaps, T ends, and Eme ging Issues .............................................................. 30
5.5 Key Themes om CBA Analysis ..................................................................... 30
6. Na ional Legal F amewo ks .................................................................................. 31
6.1 Spain .............................................................................................................. 31
6.2 I aly ................................................................................................................. 33
6.3 Uni ed Kingdom .............................................................................................. 35
6.4 I eland ............................................................................................................. 37
6.5 Finland ............................................................................................................ 39
6.6 Compa a i e Obse a ions on Collec i e Ba gaining F amewo ks ................. 41
7. T ansna ional Ag eemen s: Case S udies and Implica ions ................................. 42
7.1.1 Con en ........................................................................................................ 44
8. Findings and Recommenda ions………………………………………………………43
8.2 Challenges, Good P ac ices, and Replica ion Models .................................... 49
8.3 Recommenda ions o S akeholde s ............................................................... 50
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1. In oduc ion and P ojec Con ex
The AGREE (A hle es o Good Go e nance and Righ s in Eu ope) p ojec is a h ee-
yea EU- unded ini ia i e coo dina ed by he EAPA, wi h playe associa ions and an
academic pa ne ac oss mul iple Membe S a es. I s pu pose is clea : o s eng hen
he p o ec ion o a hle es’ igh s and wo king condi ions h ough collec i e ba gaining
ag eemen s (CBAs), unde pinned by e idence-based esea ch and s uc u ed social
dialogue.
The p ojec ecognises ha while spo has unique ea u es, a hle es a e wo ke s
unde EU law when pe o ming unde an employmen ela ionship. Collec i e
ba gaining is he e o e no jus a labou ela ions ool — i is a legal mechanism ha
deli e s ce ain y o go e ning bodies, p o ec s a hle e wel a e, and educes he isk
o li iga ion unde EU compe i ion law, as demons a ed in high-p o ile cases such as
Dia a (C-650/22) and ISU (C-124/21 P).
AGREE is s uc u ed in s ages o ensu e p ac ical impac :
1. Ini ial Resea ch and Repo – Mapping exis ing collec i e ba gaining
a angemen s in Eu opean spo , analysing legal amewo ks, and iden i ying
gaps. This epo is he p oduc o ha s age.
2. Job Shadowing Exchanges – Playe s’ associa ions will lea n om bes
p ac ices in Eu ope and beyond, obse ing how es ablished unions nego ia e
and implemen ag eemen s.
3. Eu opean Minimum S anda d Con ac and CBA F amewo k – The p ojec
eam will iden i y and consolida e minimum s anda ds o ensu e good
go e nance and espec o a hle es’ igh s, c ea ing a empla e o use ac oss
spo s and coun ies.
4. P ac ical Guide on CBAs – A use - iendly bookle compiling ele an
in o ma ion, p ac ical ad ice, and examples o good p ac ices o assis bo h
a hle es and spo s o ganisa ions in ini ia ing and imp o ing collec i e
ba gaining.
This s uc u ed app oach ensu es ha he p ojec will no only p o ide e idence and
ecommenda ions bu also deli e ools, capaci y-building, and angible ou comes o
he spo s sec o .
Spo in Eu ope has a dis inc i e legal and ins i u ional amewo k. I is ecognised in
A icle 165 o he T ea y on he Func ioning o he Eu opean Union (TFEU), which calls
o he p omo ion o ai ness and openness in spo ing compe i ions and he p o ec ion
o he physical and mo al in eg i y o spo speople. A he same ime, a hle es’
employmen condi ions all wi hin he – limi ed – EU’s social policy and labou law
compe ences, wi h impo an implica ions o how employmen igh s and CBAs
ope a e in he spo ing sec o .
The AGREE p ojec builds on hese legal ounda ions and EU p io i ies. I esponds o
g owing conce ns ha while p o essional a hle es in some spo s enjoy comp ehensi e

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CBAs — co e ing wages, wo king ime, heal h p o ec ion, image igh s, and ca ee
ansi ion — many o he s, pa icula ly women, a hle es in smalle ma ke s, o hose in
non- adi ional disciplines, ha e li le o no collec i e p o ec ion. This gap unde mines
he EU’s b oade policy goals on equali y, inclusion, and good go e nance.
Th ough compa a i e legal analysis, coun y case s udies, and di ec engagemen wi h
s akeholde s, he p ojec has documen ed he cu en landscape o CBAs in spo
ac oss di e en Membe S a es, iden i ied s uc u al ba ie s o hei de elopmen , and
o mula ed ecommenda ions o add ess hem. These indings a e in ended no only
o in o m a hle e o ganisa ions, bu o engage go e ning bodies, ede a ions, and
public au ho i ies in cons uc i e dialogue — ecognising ha e ec i e collec i e
ba gaining bene i s he in eg i y, sus ainabili y, and c edibili y o spo i sel .
2. EU Law and Policy Con ex
Collec i e ba gaining in spo is suppo ed no only by na ional labou laws bu also by
he EU’s legal amewo k and case law, which con i m ha social dialogue is bo h
law ul and necessa y o balance economic and social objec i es.
Unde A icles 151–155 TFEU, he EU is commi ed o imp o ing wo king condi ions
and p omo ing social dialogue. The T ea ies explici ly allow social pa ne s o conclude
ag eemen s ha can be implemen ed h ough EU law, highligh ing he legi imacy and
impo ance o CBAs.
The Cou o Jus ice o he EU (CJEU) has epea edly con i med ha collec i e
ag eemen s se ing social policy goals enjoy p o ec ion om EU compe i ion ules. In
Albany (C-67/96) and FNV Kuns en (C-413/13), he Cou uled ha CBAs a e exemp
om an i us es ic ions whe e hey imp o e employmen condi ions. This p inciple is
especially ele an o spo s, whe e go e ning bodies may ea ha CBAs could
con lic wi h compe i ion law.
Recen spo s- ela ed cases ein o ce his message:
• In ISU (C-124/21 P) he CJEU es ablished ha o e ly es ic i e eligibili y ules
can b each compe i ion law whe e hey lack p opo ionali y. The case
unde lines ha spo s egula ions mus be compa ible wi h EU law and ha
social dialogue — including CBAs — can help design p opo iona e ules ha
p o ec bo h compe i ion and a hle es’ igh s.
• In Dia a (C-650/22), he CJEU ound ha ce ain ans e ules imposed
excessi e es ic ions on a playe ’s eedom o wo k. The judgmen
demons a es ha whe e spo s egula ions ha e signi ican e ec s on a hle es’
li elihoods, hey mus be balanced wi h undamen al labou igh s. CBAs o e
a s uc u ed way o achie e ha balance, ensu ing ha ules se e legi ima e
spo ing objec i es wi hou unde mining wo ke s’ eedoms.
EU labou di ec i es also p o ide a loo o igh s ha CBAs in spo can build upon.
Fo example, he Wo king Time Di ec i e (2003/88/EC) and he T anspa en and
P edic able Wo king Condi ions Di ec i e (2019/1152) add ess wo king hou s, es
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pe iods, and con ac ual cla i y — all issues ha can be ailo ed o he speci ic eali ies
o a hle ic ca ee s h ough collec i e ba gaining.
The EU’s Wo k Plan o Spo and he Eu opean Sec o al Social Dialogue u he
encou age s uc u ed dialogue be ween employe s and a hle es’ ep esen a i es. The
AGREE p ojec ’s indings demons a e ha CBAs a e a p ac ical mechanism o
ansla e hese high-le el policy commi men s in o conc e e p o ec ions o a hle es,
aligning spo wi h he EU’s b oade social and economic objec i es.
3. Key Findings
The AGREE p ojec ’s compa a i e esea ch ac oss he Eu opean Union and he UK
e eals wide a ia ion in how collec i e ba gaining ope a es in spo , bu also clea
oppo uni ies o alignmen wi h EU legal and policy goals.
1. Legal ecogni ion a ies — bu he p inciple is uni e sal
All i e coun ies legally ecognise collec i e ba gaining, ei he h ough cons i u ional
p o isions (e.g. Spain, I aly) o s a u o y amewo ks (e.g. UK, I eland, Finland). In
p ac ice, howe e , he scope and en o ceabili y o CBAs di e sha ply. Ci il law
sys ems (Spain, I aly, Finland) end o gi e CBAs no ma i e e ec ac oss en i e
sec o s, while common law sys ems (UK, I eland) ely mo e on olun a y ag eemen s
ha lack au oma ic ex ension.
2. Spo -speci ic amewo ks a e une en
Spain and I aly ha e speci ic legisla ion o p o essional a hle es — such as Spain’s
Royal Dec ee 1006/1985 — and well-es ablished CBAs in spo s like oo ball,
baske ball, and u sal. In Finland, a spo -speci ic CBA exis s in ice hockey, bu
co e age is pa ial. The UK and I eland ha e ewe o mal CBAs in spo , and whe e
hey exis , hey a e o en con ined o ce ain clubs o leagues (e.g. p o essional ugby
in he UK).
3. CBAs b ing angible bene i s o a hle es and mo e
Whe e CBAs exis and a e implemen ed, hey egula e a b oad ange o ma e s:
wages, con ac ual s abili y, aining condi ions, lea e, heal h and wel a e, social
p o ec ion, image igh s, and dispu e esolu ion. In some cases, such as Spanish
women’s oo ball, CBAs ha e been ins umen al in ad ancing gende equali y,
secu ing minimum sala ies, and o malising ma e ni y p o ec ions. CBAs can also be
ins umen al o p omo e he objec i es o Go e ning Bodies: in I aly, he Se ie A
oo ball CBA includes a elega ion clause ha au oma ically educes sala ies by 25%
when clubs d op o Se ie B. This shows ha CBAs can be designed no only o p o ec
a hle es, bu also o p omo e sus ainabili y and compe i i e balance in spo .
4. Decen alisa ion ends equi e ca e ul managemen
Collec i e ba gaining in spo can ake di e se o ms – om sec o al ag eemen s o
club-le el a angemen s. In he Ne he lands, a single ice hockey club concluded a
binding CBA wi h a union, showing ha e ec i e ba gaining can be scaled o di e en
con ex s. Resea ch om Finland shows ha mo ing om cen alised, sec o al
ba gaining o mo e decen alised models (“local po s” o i m-le el ba gaining) can
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agmen p o ec ions and lead o une en bene i s, pa icula ly o blue-colla o lowe -
paid wo ke s. While wage e ec s may be modes in he sho e m, decen alisa ion
wi hou s ong coo dina ion isks c ea ing gaps in a hle e p o ec ion — especially in
spo s wi h weake union p esence.
5. Ba ie s o collec i e ba gaining in spo emain signi ican
E en in coun ies wi h s ong legal amewo ks, a hle es ace challenges:
• Rep esen a ion gaps — agmen ed unions o low membe ship in ce ain
spo s, pa icula ly women’s and semi-p o essional disciplines.
• Employe esis ance — eluc ance by ede a ions o clubs o ecognise a hle e
unions o engage in binding nego ia ions.
• Lack o en o cemen — e en binding CBAs can be unde mined by poo
moni o ing o insu icien legal emedies.
• T ansna ional gaps — no coun y s udied o mally ecognises ansna ional
CBAs, despi e he c oss-bo de na u e o many spo s.
6. Alignmen wi h EU law s eng hens he case o CBAs
The ISU and Dia a cases show ha poo ly balanced spo s egula ions can b each
EU compe i ion o labou law, c ea ing legal unce ain y o go e ning bodies. CBAs
o e a s uc u ed, law ul way o design p opo iona e ules ha p o ec bo h he spo ’s
in eg i y and a hle es’ igh s — educing li iga ion isk and aligning wi h EU p inciples
unde A icles 151–155 TFEU.
4. Recommenda ions
The AGREE p ojec indings poin o a clea conclusion: collec i e ba gaining in spo
is no only a ma e o ai ness — i is a ool o legal ce ain y and alignmen wi h EU
policy goals.
To unlock i s ull po en ial, we ecommend he ollowing ac ions:
1. Recognise and engage wi h a hle e unions
Spo s go e ning bodies and ede a ions should o mally ecognise ep esen a i e
a hle e unions and en e in o s uc u ed nego ia ions. Whe e legal h esholds o
ecogni ion a e unclea (as in he UK and I eland), olun a y ecogni ion can s ill deli e
s abili y, us , and compliance wi h in e na ional good p ac ice.
2. P omo e sec o al o coo dina ed ba gaining in spo
F agmen ed, club-le el ag eemen s isk lea ing many a hle es wi hou p o ec ion —
pa icula ly in women’s and semi-p o essional spo s. Sec o al o coo dina ed CBAs,
as seen in Spain, I aly, and o some ex en Finland, ensu e consis en s anda ds
ac oss leagues and di isions.
3. Use CBAs o add ess p io i y issues o a hle e wel a e
CBAs should be designed o co e :
• Minimum pay;
• T aining and wo kload managemen ;
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• Heal h, sa e y, and insu ance;
• Ma e ni y, pa e ni y, and pa en al lea e;
• Pos -ca ee ansi ion and pension igh s;
• Image igh s and comme cial oppo uni ies.
4. Align spo s egula ions wi h EU law h ough CBAs
The ISU and Dia a cases demons a e he legal isk o imposing ules wi hou
adequa e consul a ion o conside a ion o hei p opo ionali y. Nego ia ed ag eemen s
be ween a hle e unions and go e ning bodies o e a de ensible, EU-complian ou e
o egula ing compe i ion o ma s, ans e sys ems, o disciplina y amewo ks.
5. Le e age EU unding o build capaci y o ba gaining
EU p og ammes, including E asmus+ and he Eu opean Social Fund, can suppo
aining o a hle e ep esen a i es, legal ad ice o nego ia ions, and pilo CBAs in
unde - ep esen ed spo s. Fede a ions and public au ho i ies should ac i ely suppo
such unding applica ions in pa ne ship wi h a hle e unions.
6. S eng hen en o cemen and moni o ing
E en he bes CBAs a e ine ec i e wi hou en o cemen . Fede a ions and public
au ho i ies should wo k wi h unions o es ablish join moni o ing commi ees,
anspa en compliance epo ing, and accessible dispu e esolu ion mechanisms.
7. Encou age ansna ional dialogue
While na ional law go e ns CBA en o ceabili y, many spo s ope a e ac oss bo de s.
Na ional ede a ions should collabo a e h ough Eu opean o in e na ional bodies
(e.g., FIFPRO, EAPA) o align minimum s anda ds and explo e amewo ks o
ecognising ansna ional ag eemen s
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Wo ld Playe s Associa ion (2023) epo ed ha 83% o baske ball playe s, 80% o
c icke playe s, and 73% o ugby playe s a e co e ed by CBAs, indica ing s ong
union p esence in eam spo s. Howe e , CBAs a e less common in women’s spo s,
lowe leagues, and indi idual disciplines due o weake union ep esen a ion and
inancial cons ain s.
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The b ie o e iew p esen ed abo e desc ibes a complex sys em o ela ions and
s a uses, esul ing in disjoin ed o ms and le els o ep esen a ion, which makes i
mo e challenging o a hle es o engage in coo dina ed nego ia ion e o s. Na ional
Olympic Commi ees (NOCs) gene ally hold consul a i e oles and lack he au ho i y
o nego ia e binding ag eemen s o a hle es.
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The p esence o ade unions
speci ically o Olympic a hle es is uncommon, wi h no able excep ions ound in F ance
and Slo enia. In his sys em, a hle es ha e adi ionally enjoyed e y limi ed di ec
ep esen a ion.
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In coun ies such as No way, Finland, and Belgium, indi idual
a hle es may join gene al— a he han spo -speci ic— ade unions, while in o he s,
including Ge many, he Ne he lands, he UK, and Po ugal, independen a hle e
associa ions exis . Thei ole a ies acco ding o he legal amewo k: some ocus
p ima ily on ad ocacy, wi h occasional engagemen in li iga ion o p o ec a hle es’
igh s,
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whe eas o he s, like NL Spo e in he Ne he lands, play a p ominen ole in
ep esen ing all Olympic and o he high-pe o mance a hle es. Finally, a gene al
agmen a ion o employmen ela ions in spo can be obse ed, whe e he p e alence
o non-s anda d con ac s poses s uc u al challenges o e ec i e ba gaining.
Wi hin his mul i-le el ela ionship, e ec i e a hle es’ ep esen a ion migh be impai ed
i SGBs impose he c ea ion o a hle es’ commissions, o e independen unions.
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Fo
example, he IOC A hle es’ Commission is composed o a hle es, nomina ed by hei
NOC o appoin ed by he IOC P esiden . A hle es’ commissions migh be use ul in
in o ming he SGB o issues ele an o a hle es’ wo king condi ions, bu hey
do no equa e o a hle es’ unions: hey a e no independen bodies, and hei
ole is me ely ad iso y. They a e also no ep esen a i e bodies o he pu pose
o collec i e ba gaining. A hle es’ commissions a e signi ican ly less likely o
aise con en ious issues in hei ela ions wi h go e ning bodies, and canno
exe p essu e h ough indus ial ac ion.
Addi ionally, some ede a ions ha e simply esis ed unionisa ion e o s, main aining
con ol o e a hle e con ac s and sponso ship deals.
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ILO Con en ions (No. 87; No.
98) o e p o ec ion agains disc imina o y p ac ices and he igh o unionisa ion;
howe e , ins ances o an i-union beha iou a e p e alen in spo s.
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F ic ions and obs acles in he ela ionship be ween employe s and employees can
lead o indus ial ac ions. While he spo ing indus y p esen s speci ic cha ac e is ics
19
G aham, Ga on and Yellin (n 10), 34.
20
Mi ag e al (n 1) 16.
21
JL Chappele , ‘The uns oppable ise o a hle e powe in he Olympic sys em’ (2020) 23(5) Spo in Socie y 795,
795–809.
22
Mi ag e al (n 1) 25.
23
Mi ag e al (n 8) 15.
24
Panne (n 6) 189.
25
G aham, Ga on and Yellin (n 10) 4.

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ha can mo ph in o cons ain s on bo h sides o his ela ionship, such as unique skills
o he wo k o ce ha canno be easily eplaced ou side he indus y and sho ca ee s
o playe s ha need quick esolu ion o dispu es, indus ial ac ions a e no
unp eceden ed.
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2.4 T ansna ional E o s in Collec i e Ba gaining
In ecen yea s, he landscape o p o essional spo s labou ela ions has seen
inc easing e o s o de elop ansna ional CBAs ha ope a e beyond na ional
ju isdic ions. Wi h he globalisa ion o eli e spo and he mobili y o a hle es ac oss
bo de s, he e is g owing momen um o egula o y amewo ks ha can ha monise
s anda ds in e na ionally.
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In con as o No h Ame ica, whe e majo leagues ope a e
unde a cen alised s uc u e whe e he league unc ions as he o mal employe o
a hle es, c ea ing a ela i ely s aigh o wa d amewo k, p o essional leagues in
Eu ope unc ion p ima ily as go e ning o coo dina ing bodies, while indi idual clubs
a e he employe s. This decen alised employmen s uc u e complica es he collec i e
ba gaining p ocess, especially when a emp ing o in oduce league-wide o c oss-
bo de ag eemen s.
A ele an amewo k o ins i u ional dialogue be ween Social Pa ne s is Social
Dialogue. This ins umen has he po en ial o sui he spo ing indus y, due o i s
olun a y and lexible na u e. In his con ex , he expe ience in p o essional oo ball
ep esen s he o e on o he g adual ‘Eu opeanisa ion’ o he spo s sec o , which
may lead o signi ican p ocedu al and subs an i e changes compa ed o o he majo
spo s.
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Howe e , i is no ed how, al hough SD is becoming inc easingly ecognised,
i emains uncommon in p o essional spo s ac oss Eu ope, a ying by coun y, ype
o spo , and gende .
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The li e a u e sugges s ha Social Dialogue cons i u es an ideal pla o m o a ious
s akeholde s and ad ocacy g oups wi hin he EU's spo s policy amewo k o each
ag eemen s, he eby educing he ecip ocal challenges hey p esen o each o he .
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The ocus on he no ion o dialogue he e is pa icula ly ele an : encou aging
communica ion (be ween spo s o ganisa ions and playe s' unions) and c ea ing
s a egies o enhanced Social Dialogue is seen as essen ial o c ea ing solu ions and
imp o ing wo kplace sa e y, p o ec ing young a hle es, and p omo ing ini ia i es
ela ed o disc imina ion, gende equali y, and ackling gende -based iolence.
31
The
26
O'Lea y (n 11) 12.
27
De Spiegelae e (n 9) and Mi ag e al (n 8)
28
B Kelle , ‘Sec o al Social Dialogue in P o essional Foo ball: Social Pa ne s, Ou comes and P oblems o
Implemen a ion’ [2018] SSRN Elec onic Jou nal 5, 5-43.
29
L Fiege and M Sel mann, ‘Social dialogue in p o essional spo s in Eu ope: owa ds democ a ic go e nance
be ween he Eu opean Spo Model and na ional indus ial ela ions?’ [2024] Jou nal o Eu opean Public Policy
1, 1-33.
30
R Pa ish, ‘Social dialogue in Eu opean p o essional oo ball’ [2011] 17(2) Eu opean Law Jou nal 213, 213–
229.
31
In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion, P o essional A hle es and he Fundamen al P inciples and Righ s a Wo k:
ILO B ie (ILO Technical B ie , ILO 2024) h ps://doi.o g/10.54394/UPJT5382.
17
Eu opean Commission has also s essed he impo ance o engaging wi h Social
Dialogue o build sus ainable communi ies, as i can help econcile economic p og ess
wi h he well-being o wo ke s, encou age inno a ion while na owing income
dispa i ies, suppo social ai ness, and imp o e wo kplace condi ions.
32
3. The Legal F amewo k
The legal amewo k go e ning collec i e ba gaining ope a es a bo h in e na ional and
na ional le els, wi h Eu opean Union (EU) egula ions, In e na ional Labou
O ganisa ion (ILO) con en ions, and coun y-speci ic labou laws in luencing how
CBAs unc ion. In pa icula , ac oss he EU, di e en na ional legal sys ems p o ide
di e en amewo ks o he ecogni ion, legal e ec and en o cemen o CBAs. The
legal amewo k migh be es ablished h ough labou codes in ci il law coun ies (e.g.,
F ance o Ge many) o legal p eceden s in common law coun ies (e.g., he Uni ed
Kingdom).
33
In many EU coun ies, CBAs a e no manda ed by law bu a e ecognised as a
legi ima e ou come o nego ia ions be ween employe s (o hei associa ions) and
wo ke s’ ep esen a i es ( ypically ade unions). Thei legal alidi y depends on
mee ing s a u o y equi emen s conce ning ep esen a i eness, egis a ion, and
scope.
3.1 Pa icipa ion, Recogni ion and Wo ke S a us
Employmen ela ionships a e commonly unde s ood o in ol e s uc u al inequali ies,
wi h employe s gene ally holding g ea e ba gaining powe o e hei coun e pa y.
This imbalance has been acknowledged by he UK cou s: in B aganza,
34
he Sup eme
Cou highligh ed he “signi ican imbalance o powe ” in employmen con ac s. Wi h
speci ic e e ence o oo ball, in Eas ham Newcas le Uni ed Foo ball Club,
35
he High
Cou no ed he dispa i y in nego ia ing powe be ween a p o essional oo balle and
hei club. S a u o y employmen p o ec ions aim o add ess hese inequali ies, bu
Collec i e Ba gaining Ag eemen s can u he p omo e balance by enabling wo ke s
o nego ia e collec i ely.
36
The igh o s ike o ake indus ial ac ion is also a
undamen al means by which wo ke s may asse hei in e es s. Al hough he igh o
32
Eu opean Commission, Di ec o a e-Gene al o Employmen , Social A ai s and Inclusion, ‘Sus ainabili y and
go e nance: he ole o social dialogue’ in Publica ions O ice (ed), Employmen and social de elopmen s in
Eu ope 2019: sus ainable g ow h o all: choices o he u u e o Social Eu ope (Publica ions O ice 2019) 210-
226.
33
Eu ode , ‘Collec i e Ba gaining Ag eemen in EU: Explained’ (Eu ode , 2025)
<h ps://www.eu ode .com/blog/collec i e-ba gaining-ag eemen s-
eu ope#:~: ex =The%20mos %20 undamen al%20aspec s%20o ,wi h%2015%20yea s%20o %20 enu e.>
accessed 3 June 2025.
34
B aganza BP Shipping L d [2015] UKSC 17, pa a 18.
35
Eas ham Newcas le Uni ed Foo ball Club [1964] Ch 413 (ChD), pa a. 14.
36
O'Lea y (n 11) 4.
18
s ike is gua an eed unde he Eu opean Cou o Human Righ s’ (EC HR)
in e p e a ion o A icle 11 o he Eu opean Con en ion on Human Righ s (ECHR),
na ional law may impose equi emen s ha mus be necessa ily sa is ied in o de o
exe cise his igh law ully.
The abili y o en e in o collec i e ag eemen s may depend on he s a us o he pe son
– whe he hey a e employed, wo ke s, o sel -employed. The na u e o he
ela ionship be ween he a hle e and he o ganisa ion o which hey pe o m hei
se ices de e mines he espec i e igh s and obliga ions o each pa y. I mus be
no ed, howe e , ha he ama eu o p o essional label a ibu ed o an a hle e by hei
ede a ion may no necessa ily dic a e he na u e o he se ice p o ided, and hence
hei s a us unde labou law.
37
Employee s a us o e s he bene i o access o
minimum s a u o y employmen igh s and ade union igh s ha may no necessa ily
be a ailable o independen con ac o s o o he non-employee wo ke s.
In gene al e ms, he ela ionship be ween an employee and an employe is
cha ac e ised by h ee main elemen s: con ol, emune a ion and con inui y. The
employe can exe cise con ol o e he ime and mode o pe o ming he se ices;
employees do no bea inancial isks bu hey a e emune a ed by he employe ; he
se ice is p o ided con inuously o a pe iod o ime. In ecen yea s, his dis inc ion
has s a ed o blu , wi h he eme gence o disguised employmen , whe e indi iduals
supply se ices h ough in e media ies bu would be conside ed employees i
con ac ed di ec ly, and alse sel -employed, whe e indi iduals a e labelled as sel -
employed bu wo k unde condi ions akin o employmen .
In eam spo s, i is gene ally accep ed ha an a hle e who has en e ed in o a con ac
wi h a p o essional eam is a wo ke .
38
Con e sely, in indi idual spo s, a hle es may
be conside ed sel -employed, as hey bea inancial isks o hei ac i i y, and hey
s and o make a p o i om i . Fo example, Olympic a hle es equen ly ecei e
minimal o no compensa ion di ec ly associa ed wi h hei in ol emen o
achie emen s.
39
Whe e a hle es in indi idual spo s a e able o challenge hei
classi ica ion as independen con ac o s, and a e ins ead ecognised as wo ke s, hey
will be able o engage in collec i e ba gaining p ocesses. This would also all in line
wi h he ILO Recommenda ion 206 (No 198) on he Employmen Rela ionship, which
s ipula es ha he na u e o he ela ionship should be de e mined wi h e e ence o
he pe o mance o wo k and emune a ion ecei ed, a he han he classi ica ion
s ipula ed by he pa ies.
40
A undamen al equi emen o he collec i e ba gaining p ocess is he ecogni ion o
ep esen a i e employe s’ and wo ke s’ o ganiza ions. Such a ecogni ion migh be
di icul in ci cums ances, whe e employe s e use o nego ia e wi h he ep esen a i e
unions o whe e he e a e dispu es o e he ue ep esen a i e na u e o he unions.
Na ional law may es ablish c i e ia and s a u o y p o isions o ecogni ion. When
ecogni ion is lacking o o he equi emen s a e no me , al e na i e a angemen s may
37
Ibid. and as an example o case law con i ming his in he UK, see Fe guson John Dawson and Pa ne s
(Con ac o s) L d [1976] IRLR 346 (CA) and Au oclenz L d Belche and O he s [2011] UKSC 41 (SC).
38
O’Lea y, Sel mann and Smok ina (n 13) 4
39
Ibid., 27.
40
ILO Employmen Rela ionship Recommenda ion No 198 (2006), a . 9
19
eme ge — such as club-le el ag eemen s, indi idual con ac s, o so law ins umen s
— bu hese o en lack he en o ceabili y and s abili y o CBAs o mally ecognised by
labou law.
3.2 E ec s and En o cemen o CBAs
When collec i e ba gaining leads o an ag eemen , his binds he signa o ies and hose
on whose behal i is concluded, bu in some legal amewo k can also be ex ended o
co e he en i e sec o unde speci ic ci cums ances. These ag eemen s ake
p ecedence o e indi idual con ac s o employmen , unless such con ac s a e mo e
a ou able o wo ke s.
41
In many Membe S a es, CBAs ha e no ma i e o ce and a e conside ed a sou ce o
law wi hin he hie a chy o labou egula ion. They may supplemen s a u o y
s anda ds, and in some ju isdic ions, hey may e en eplace o de oga e om ce ain
legal p o isions, p o ided hey comply wi h p inciples o a ou abili y and minimum
p o ec ion: he e ms o a CBA can de ia e om s a u o y no ms only i hey a e mo e
bene icial o he wo ke s.
42
Fo example, i a CBA p o ides o be e pay condi ions
o wo ke s han he minimum sala y es ablished by law, he supe io le el o
p o ec ion will apply. This has allowed, o ins ance, he F ench p o essional ugby
CBA o es ablish longe paid lea e en i lemen s, imp o ed job secu i y p o isions, and
s onge heal h and sa e y ules han hose con ained in he gene al spo s ag eemen
o na ional law. Simila ly, in he Ne he lands, CBAs in oo ball include p o isions ha
a e mo e a ou able han gene al labou law, while in I eland Rugby, playe s bene i
om holiday en i lemen s and pension igh s ha exceed s a u o y equi emen s.
Howe e , such binding e ec migh be subjec o speci ic equi emen s. In many EU
coun ies a collec i e ag eemen mus be iled o egis e ed wi h labou au ho i ies o
ake e ec . Some legal amewo ks (e.g. he Ne he lands, I aly, Spain) allow o CBAs
o be decla ed gene ally binding by minis e ial dec ee, ex ending hei e ec o all
wo ke s and employe s in a sec o , e en hose no pa y o he ag eemen . In con as ,
in I eland’s ama eu Gaelic spo s con ex , no o mal employmen ela ionship exis s,
meaning CBAs all ou side he scope o na ional labou law and a e ins ead go e ned
by in o mal a angemen s and ax- ela ed compliance ules, while in he UK CBAs a e
no legally binding unless explici ly inco po a ed in o indi idual employmen
con ac s.
43
CBAs o en p o ide o means o esol e dispu es ela ed o hei en o cemen . I a
CBA is o mally binding (as i is in I aly o Spain), i s iola ion can be li iga ed in labou
o ci il cou s, o esol ed h ough join a bi a ion panels. I aly ypically esol es spo s
labou dispu es ia a bi a ion (e.g. he I alian Olympic Commi ee’s ibunals) a he
41
ILO, Collec i e ba gaining: a policy guide (2015)
h ps:// esea ch eposi o y.ilo.o g/esplo o/ou pu s/encyclopediaEn y/Collec i e-
ba gaining/995218593702676# ile-0 Accessed 3 June 2025
42
See o example A . 84 Royal Dec ee 1006/1985 in Spain and A . 2077 o he I alian Ci il Code.
43
T ade Union and Labou Rela ions (Consolida ion) Ac 1992, s 179.
20
han o dina y cou s. By con as , in he UK a CBA gene ally lacks independen legal
s a us, so en o cemen usually a ises h ough indi idual employmen con ac s.
3.3 The In e na ional Legal F amewo k
Collec i e Ba gaining Ag eemen s (CBAs) a e a cen al ins umen in labou ela ions
ac oss Eu ope, ecognised bo h in na ional legal sys ems and in in e na ional human
igh s amewo ks. While some in e na ional o ganisa ions engage wi h employmen -
ela ed ma e s, hei in ol emen in he egula ion o collec i e ba gaining is o en
limi ed, inciden al, o seconda y o hei p ima y manda es.
44
A in e na ional le el, he ole o he In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion (ILO) mus be
acknowledged. The ILO is an agency o he Uni ed Na ions which aims o p omo e
wo ke s’ igh s and social p o ec ion, h ough in e na ional con en ions ha equi e
implemen a ion om he signa o y s a es and o he policy measu es designed o
suppo go e nmen s and social pa ne s in imp o ing indus ial ela ions and use o
collec i e ba gaining.
Wi h e e ence o Collec i e Ba gaining, he ILO has adop ed a numbe o ins umen s:
Con en ion No. 154 A icle 2 (ILO, 1981) de ines Collec i e Ba gaining as:
“ex end[ing] o all nego ia ions which ake place be ween an employe , a g oup o
employe s o one o mo e employe s' o ganisa ions, on he one hand, and one o mo e
wo ke s' o ganisa ions, on he o he , o (a) de e mining wo king condi ions and e ms
o employmen ; and/o (b) egula ing ela ions be ween employe s and wo ke s; and/o
(c) egula ing ela ions be ween employe s o hei o ganisa ions and a wo ke s'
o ganisa ion o wo ke s' o ganisa ions”.
Con en ion No. 87 on F eedom o Associa ion and P o ec ion o he Righ o O ganise
(1948) and Con en ion No. 98 on he Righ o O ganise and o Ba gain Collec i ely
(1949). While hese Con en ions do no exp essly gua an ee he igh o s ike, ILO
supe iso y bodies — he Commi ee on F eedom o Associa ion and he Commi ee
o Expe s — ecognise s ike ac ion as a undamen al igh o p o ec wo ke s’
economic and social in e es s.
While hese ins umen s a e impo an policy ools, hey do no cons i u e an
in e na ional legal sys em ha di ec ly egula es collec i e ba gaining. The e ec s o
such Con en ions a he na ional le el depend on he cha ac e is ics o he legal
sys em. Fo example, while he UK is a membe o he ILO, i also has a dualis legal
sys em, meaning in e na ional ea ies only ake e ec domes ically i a i ied h ough
legisla ion. As he UK has no a i ied Con en ions 87 o 98, hese ins umen s
cu en ly ha e no legal e ec in UK law.
45
44
R Pede sini, ‘In e na ional o ganisa ions and he ole o collec i e ba gaining’ (2019) 25(2) T ans e : Eu opean
Re iew o Labou and Resea ch 181, 181-203.
45
O'Lea y (n 11) 9.

21
The In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion (ILO) also con ibu es o he policy deba e
h ough epo s such as Wo k o a B igh e Fu u e,
46
in which i a i ms ha collec i e
ba gaining is bo h a undamen al igh and a powe ul mechanism o achie ing
economic g ow h and social jus ice. The epo calls o s onge engagemen wi h
collec i e ep esen a ion o wo ke s and employe s h ough social dialogue, and
emphasises ha S a es mus ensu e ha all wo ke s and employe s a e gua an eed
he igh o collec i e ba gaining.
The ILO has also conside ed issues pe aining o employmen ela ions in he wo ld o
spo . In i s 2012 In e na ional S anda d Classi ica ion o Occupa ions, he ILO
iden i ied he main asks o a hle es and spo s playe s, which a e o ain and compe e
in spo ing e en s, ei he indi idually o as pa o a eam, o inancial gains. In he
2020 Decen Wo k in he Wo ld o Spo , he ILO u he de ines p o essional a hle es
as all a hle es and spo s pe sons, ega dless o hei employmen s a us, who gain
income h ough compe i i e spo and o e an ac i i y ha is con olled by a spo s
o ganisa ion, whe he a club o a ede a ion.
The In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion (ILO) has also add essed issues ela ed o
employmen ela ions in he wo ld o spo . In i s In e na ional S anda d Classi ica ion
o Occupa ions,
47
he ILO iden i ies he main asks o a hle es and spo s playe s as
aining and compe ing in spo ing e en s—ei he indi idually o as pa o a eam—
o inancial gain. In i s 2020 epo Decen Wo k in he Wo ld o Spo ,
48
he ILO u he
de ines p o essional a hle es as all indi iduals who de i e income om compe i i e
spo , ega dless o employmen s a us, and whose ac i i y is con olled by a spo s
o ganisa ion, whe he a club o a ede a ion.
49
4. The Eu opean Union and CBAs in Spo
4.1 EU Compe ence
A Eu opean Union le el, he igh o collec i e ba gaining is p o ec ed unde A icle
28 o he Cha e o Fundamen al Righ s o he Eu opean Union:
“Wo ke s and employe s, o hei espec i e o ganisa ions, ha e, in acco dance wi h
Union law and na ional laws and p ac ices, he igh o nego ia e and conclude
collec i e ag eemen s a he app op ia e le els and, in cases o con lic s o in e es , o
ake collec i e ac ion o de end hei in e es s, including s ike ac ion.”
The impac o Eu opean Union Law on he a ea discussed in his Repo mus be
ca e ully sc u inised. The EU has become a global ma ke and no ma i e powe ,
capable o se ing s anda ds ha become he no m beyond he bounda ies o i s
e i o y.
50
Fu he mo e, he EU can exe cise a pi o al ole in he a ea o spo as i is
46
Global Commission on he Fu u e o Wo k, Wo k o a b igh e u u e (ILO 2019).
47
In e na ional Labou O ice, In e na ional S anda d Classi ica ions o Occupa ions: ISCO-08 (ILO 2012).
48
Ibid. 210.
49
Issues pape o discussion a he Global Dialogue Fo um on Decen Wo k in he Wo ld o Spo (Gene a, 20–
22 Janua y 2020) 1.
50
C Dam o, ‘Ma ke powe Eu ope’ (2012) 19(5) Jou nal o Eu opean Public Policy 682, 690.
22
less ulne able o poli ical p essu es han Membe S a es. In pa icula , Membe
S a es may be eluc an o ac agains he in e es s o SGBs as hey can o en exe cise
poli ical le e age be e han o he s akeholde s.
The in e en ion o he Eu opean Union, howe e , is o some ex en limi ed by i s
compe ence. Bo h in he a ea o Spo , and in he ield o employmen , he legisla i e
compe ence o he Union is limi ed. In spo , A icle 165 TFEU es ablishes ha he EU
canno adop any binding legisla i e measu e aiming o ha monise he legisla ion o
Membe S a es, bu i s ole is jus o suppo , coo dina e and supplemen he ac ion o
Membe S a es. Simila ly, in he ield o employmen he EU can acili a e and suppo
he ac ion o Membe S a es, and adop Di ec i es o he se ing o minimum
equi emen s in speci ic ields (e.g. wo king condi ions, social p o ec ion, equali y
be ween men and women…).
51
Howe e , unde A icle 153 TFEU, he Union is
exp essly p ohibi ed om legisla ing on ma e s ela ed o sala y, igh o associa ion,
igh o s ike and o impose lock-ou s.
This has no p e en ed he EU om adop ing ha monising measu es, a emp ing o
ensu e g ea e and mo e uni o m p o ec ion o he wo k o ce h oughou he Eu opean
Union.
52
I mus also be no ed ha , while he legisla i e compe ence in a speci ic ield migh be
limi ed, such as he compe ence in Spo , he Eu opean Union can always adop
binding legisla ion when he objec i e is o ensu e he unc ioning o he in e nal
ma ke . Unde A icle 114 TFEU, he EU would be able o ac when necessa y o
p o ec o enhance he unc ioning o he in e nal ma ke , e en when he ac ion has a
di ec impac in a di e en policy ield.
53
4.2 Collec i e Ag eemen s and he In e nal Ma ke
Despi e he limi ed compe ence, Eu opean Union Law p o isions apply o CBAs. In
pa icula , indus ial ac ions ha can a ise in he con ex o Collec i e Ba gaining migh
cons i u e es ic ions on eedom o mo emen p inciples. Fu he mo e, he e is an
inhe en ension be ween A icle 101 TFEU, which p ohibi s ag eemen s be ween
unde akings ha es ic o dis o compe i ion, and CBAs, whe e associa ions (o
unde akings) come oge he o egula e he condi ions o employmen in a ce ain
ma ke .
Wi h ega d o he igh o ake indus ial ac ion, he CJEU has conside ed ha he
economic igh s o he employe may be legi ima ely es ic ed h ough an indus ial
ac ion aken by a ade union, p o ided ha such es ic ion does no go beyond wha
is equi ed o p o ec he igh s o wo ke s.
54
The e o e, he igh o s ike is no
51
T ea y on he Func ioning o he Eu opean Union, a 151.
52
See, o example, Di ec i e 2003/88/EC (Wo king Time Di ec i e) [2003] OJ L 299; Di ec i e (EU) 2019/1152
(T anspa en and P edic able Wo king Condi ions Di ec i e) [2019] OJ L 186.
53
S Wea he ill, ‘The limi s o legisla i e ha monisa ion en yea s a e Tobacco Ad e ising: how he Cou ’s case
law has become a ‘d a ing guide’’ (2011) 12 Ge man Law Jou nal 827.
54
See Cases C-438/05 In e na ional T anspo Wo ke s’ Fede a ion Viking Line ABP [2008] All ER (EC) 127,
and C-341/05 La al un Pa ne i L d S enska Byggnadsa be a e o bunde [2008] All ER (EC) 166.
23
absolu e, bu i s exe cise is subjec o an assessmen o i s p opo ionali y o a
legi ima e objec i e pu sued: such assessmen has been c i icized as essen ially
equi ing ade unions o demons a e ha he indus ial ac ion is a measu e o las
eso agains a se ious h ea .
55
The CJEU has also ecognised ha ce ain es ic ions o compe i ion a e inhe en in
collec i e ag eemen s be ween o ganisa ions ep esen ing employe s and wo ke s,
and hey a e jus i ied by social policy objec i es when hey a e necessa y o he
imp o emen o wo king condi ions.
56
Unde his app oach, ag eemen s ha a e
en e ed in o as pa o collec i e ba gaining be ween employe s and employees, and
which di ec ly imp o e wo king condi ions (e.g., wages, job secu i y), all ou side he
applica ion o A icle 101 TFEU.
57
This app oach, as o iginally de eloped, p esen s wo limi s: i s , he excep ion ceases
o apply i i a ec s hi d pa ies, such as comme cial igh s holde s. Second, he
excep ion applies only o employees, excluding many a ypical wo ke s who may be
classi ied as independen con ac o s o ‘unde akings’.
The app oach o he Cou was u he e ined in FNV Kuns en,
58
a case in which he
CJEU assessed a Du ch collec i e ag eemen se ing minimum ees o eelance
musicians. Sel -employed indi iduals, such as musicians, o e hei se ices on a
gi en ma ke in e u n o emune a ion and pe o m hei ac i i ies as independen
economic ope a o s;
59
as such, hey a e no mally ea ed as independen
unde akings, ende ing he ag eemen discussed in he case an an i-compe i i e
ag eemen be ween an associa ion o unde akings, a he han social pa ne s.
Con e sely, in cases whe e sel -employed indi iduals do no de e mine independen ly
[ hei ] conduc on he ma ke ” and “ope a e as an auxilia y wi hin he p incipal’s
unde aking”, because hey do no bea inancial o comme cial isks o he ac i i y,
hey will lose he s a us o independen ade .
60
Essen ially, i he indi iduals a e
o mally ea ed as sel -employed, bu hey a e in ac inancially elian on a single
en i y, which can dic a e wo king condi ions, hey will no be conside ed independen
ade , bu ‘ alse sel -employed pe sons’ and collec i e ag eemen s hey en e in o
may bene i om he Albany excep ion.
61
In his con ex , he ca ego isa ion o sel -employed s a us o an indi idual unde
na ional law does no necessa ily a ec he assessmen unde Eu opean Union Law.
62
Such an assessmen is based on he c i e ia illus a ed abo e and is independen o
he app oach aken a na ional le el. This case law has he po en ial o signi ican ly
s eng hen a gumen s o ex ending labou p o ec ions o hose sel -employed a hle es
55
O'Lea y (n 11) 152.
56
G Mon i, ‘Collec i e labou ag eemen s and EU compe i ion law: Fi e econ igu a ions’ [2021] 17(3) Eu opean
Compe i ion Jou nal 714, 714-744.
57
C-67/79, Albany In e na ional S ich ing [1999] ECR I-5751, a pa a. 59
58
C-413/13, FNV Kuns en In o ma ie en Media S aa de Nede landen [2014] ECLI:EU:C:2014:2411.
59
Ibid. pa a. 27.
60
See also C-217/05, Con ede ación Española de Emp esa ios de Es aciones de Se icio [2006] EU:C:2006:784,
pa as. 43 and 44
61
Mon i (n 57) 714 and A Ju kowska-Gomulka, A Piszcz and SO Pais, ‘Collec i e Ag eemen s on Wo king
Condi ions o Solo Sel -Employed Pe sons: Pe spec i e o EU Compe i ion Law’ (2024) 29 Bialos ockie S udia
P awnicze 65.
62
O'Lea y (n 11) 144.
24
who ope a e unde he con ol o he SGBs, which would no be able o jus i y he
decision no o engage in collec i e ba gaining.
To cla i y he app oach wi h ega d o collec i e ag eemen s and sel -employed
indi iduals, he EU Commission adop ed a se o Guidelines in 2022.
63
The Guidelines
acknowledge ha ce ain sel -employed pe sons ace signi ican hu dles in in luencing
hei wo king condi ions. When hese indi iduals a e no en i ely independen om he
p incipal, and hey a e in si ua ions compa able o wo ke s, collec i e ag eemen s
egula ing hei wo king condi ions will all ou side he scope o A icle 101 TFEU;
u he mo e, he Commission has pledged no o in e ene agains collec i e
ag eemen s o sel -employed pe sons, when he e is a signi ican imbalance o powe
in hei ela ionship wi h hei coun e pa y.
Howe e , i mus also be no ed ha nei he he case law o he CJEU, no he
Guidelines o he Commission ede ine he no ion o “wo ke ”; such a s a us can only
be ecognised by na ional Cou s o o he public au ho i ies. The Guidelines essen ially
in o m he au ho i ies how o ea collec i e ag eemen s in ol ing ce ain ca ego ies
o sel -employed indi iduals unde compe i ion law. Pending he ecogni ion o he
s a us o sel -employed as wo ke s, he indi iduals and hei ep esen a i es do no
ha e he legal ce ain y ha hey will be co e ed by he Albany excep ion when hey
engage in collec i e ba gaining.
64
Fu he , he ac ha a collec i e ag eemen would
no be exemp ed om he applica ion o A icle 101 TFEU does no mean ha his
would be immedia ely unlaw ul, bu ha i s e ec s in e ms o inhe ency, p opo ionali y
and e iciency would ha e o be conside ed o assess i s legali y.
In conclusion, while he in e en ion o he EU is cons ained by i s limi ed legisla i e
compe ence, as e lec ed in he measu es adop ed and hei con en , he CJEU and
he ins i u ions ha e signalled an app oach ha aims o o e labou p o ec ion based
on he na u e o he wo king ela ionship a he han he label used o de ine i . A i s
co e, he posi ion o he EU demons a es an in en ion o s ike a balance be ween he
ma ke and he need o s eng hen he p o ec ion o wo ke s, whe he employed o
sel -employed. Whe e he CJEU and he ins i u ions can expand he p o ec ion is by
using e e ences o economic ac o s o ex end he no ion o ‘wo ke ’ o include
indi iduals who may no wo k unde ‘pe sonal subo dina ion’ (i.e. classic employe -
employee con ol), bu ins ead wo k in a ela ionship o economic dependency, such
as eelance s o independen con ac o s who wo k mos ly o one o wo clien s.
Realis ically, hese indi iduals a e no pe o ming independen ly on he ma ke , bu
hey a e wo king o a small numbe o con ac ual pa ne s.
65
This – ex ended – no ion
i s e y well he si ua ion o many a hle es, indi iduals who p o ide a se ice o
economic alue in e u n o some o m o emune a ion.
63
Communica ion om he Commission, Guidelines on he applica ion o Union compe i ion law o collec i e
ag eemen s ega ding he wo king condi ions o solo sel -employed pe sons (2022/C 374/02). The p ima y
objec i e o he Guidelines was o egula e he s a us o gig-wo ke s, b oadly de ined as eelance wo ke s
pe o ming on-demand se ices o cus ome s ia an online pla o m.
64
In an a emp o u he cla i y he issue, he EU has ecen ly adop ed Di ec i e 2024/2831, which equi es
Membe S a es o p omo e he ole o he social pa ne s and o encou age he collec i e ba gaining igh s o
pla o m wo ke s. Di ec i e (EU) 2024/2831 (Pla o m Wo k Di ec i e) [2024] OJ L, 2024/2831.
65
M Risak and T Dullinge , The concep o ‘wo ke ’ in EU law: s a us quo and po en ial o change (ETUI, The
Eu opean T ade Union Ins i u e, 2020) h ps://www.e ui.o g/publica ions/ epo s/ he-concep -o -wo ke -in-eu-
law-s a us-quo-and-po en ial- o -change accessed 23 June 2025.
31
Finally, he coexis ence o bipa i e and ipa i e ag eemen s highligh s a lexible and
p agma ic app oach o collec i e ba gaining, adap ing o he speci ic indus ial
ela ions con ex s and go e nance s uc u es p e alen wi hin di e en spo s and
na ional ju isdic ions.
6. Na ional Legal F amewo ks
While he EU p o ides a b oad amewo k o labou igh s, indi idual coun ies
implemen CBAs di e en ly based on hei indus ial ela ions adi ions and he
na ional legal amewo ks. In his sec ion, he Repo will p o ide a b ie o e iew o
he amewo k applied in Spain, I aly, Republic o I eland, he Uni ed Kingdom, and
Finland, ollowed by a compa a i e discussion.
6.1 Spain
The igh o collec i e ba gaining is ecognised in he Spanish Cons i u ion o 1978.
88
Collec i e Ag eemen s in Spain a e legally binding,
89
en o ceable by he pa ies, and
labou au ho i ies can ake ac ion o ensu e hei implemen a ion.
90
The legal amewo k o he ope a ion o ade unions in Spain is es ablished by he
O ganic Law o T ade Union F eedom 1985,
91
which includes ules pe aining o he
ecogni ion o unions o he pu pose o engaging in collec i e ba gaining and indus ial
ac ions. When ecognised as 'mos ep esen a i e o ganiza ions,' employe s'
associa ions and ade unions gain speci ic p i ileges. These include he au ho i y o
nego ia e mul iemploye collec i e ag eemen s, secu e ins i u ional ep esen a ion
(such as in ol emen in ipa i e bodies, go e nmen consul a ions, and social pac s),
and engage in ou -o -cou labou dispu e esolu ion sys ems. Fu he mo e, a aining
legal ep esen a i eness is c ucial o eligibili y o ecei e public unding.
92
Spanish Law ecognises a hle es' employmen ela ionships as a dis inc ca ego y
go e ned by Royal Dec ee 1006/1985,
93
which egula es he special employmen
ela ionship o p o essional a hle es. This amewo k is supplemen ed by he Wo ke s'
S a u e (Es a u o de los T abajado es),
94
which inco po a es he a ou abili y
p inciple—collec i e ag eemen s and indi idual con ac s canno unde cu s a u o y
minimum s anda ds,
95
and he possibili y o he Public Au ho i y o ex end he
88
A . 37.1
89
A . 37, Spanish Cons i u ion.
90
A . 152 Real Dec e o Legisla i o 2/1995, de 7 de ab il, po el que se ap ueba el ex o e undido de la Ley de
P ocedimien o Labo al.
91
Ley O gánica 11/1985, de 2 de agos o, de Libe ad Sindical.
92
Ibid. A . 6.
93
Real Dec e o 1006/1985, de 26 de junio, po el que se egula la elación labo al especial de los depo is as
p o esionales.
94
Dec e o Legisla i o 2/2015, de 23 de oc ub e, po el que se ap ueba el ex o e undido de la Ley del Es a u o de
los T abajado es
95
Ibid. A . 84.

32
applica ion o he Ag eemen o co e all wo ke s in he indus y, ega dless o whe he
hey we e membe s o he union nego ia ing he ag eemen .
96
Whe e no o he wise egula ed, gene al labou law applies o a hle es, p o ided i does
no con adic he special egime.
97
In he na ional legal amewo k, Law 3/2007
98
on
gende equali y ac s as a undamen al cons ain on spo -speci ic CBAs, ensu ing
hey do no de ia e om he minimum igh s i es ablishes.
Collec i e ba gaining in Spain is highly s uc u ed and ope a es on mul iple le els
(na ional, egional, company).
99
Sec o al CBAs speci ic o spo s—such as hose in
oo ball, baske ball, and u sal—a e nego ia ed by ecognised playe s’ unions and
league o club associa ions. These CBAs ypically egula e co e employmen e ms
such as wages, buyou clauses, wo king hou s, heal h p o ec ion, insu ance, ma e ni y
igh s, and pos -ca ee planning.
In Spain, he landscape o Collec i e Ba gaining Ag eemen s (CBAs) in spo is
no ably de eloped, pa icula ly wi hin oo ball and baske ball, co e ing bo h male and
emale a hle es.
In oo ball, wo dis inc CBAs o emale playe s highligh p og essi e ad ancemen s
in he spo . One is a bipa i e "Ag eemen be ween Spanish Women’s Na ional
Foo ball Team and he Spanish Foo ball Fede a ion (RFEF)" ha is binding and ully
implemen ed, co e ing economic condi ions and image igh s o na ional eam
playe s. The o he is a ipa i e "Collec i e Ba gaining Ag eemen o Female Foo ball
Playe s who p o ide hei se ices in Clubs o he Fi s Di ision o Women’s Foo ball,"
which is also binding and ully implemen ed, co e ing emune a ed p o essional
playe s o op- ie clubs, including hose om a ilia ed eams. Fo male oo ball, he e
is a bipa i e "Collec i e Ba gaining Ag eemen o P o essional Foo ball Ac i i ies"
be ween he Na ional P o essional Foo ball League (LFP) and he Spanish Foo ball
Playe s’ Associa ion, which is equally binding and ully implemen ed, co e ing
p o essional playe s o LFP clubs. Ac oss all hese oo ball ag eemen s, he scope o
co e age is comp ehensi e, encompassing wages, con ac ual equi emen s, wo king
ime, aining condi ions, lea e, oca ional aining, heal h and wel a e, social
p o ec ion, image and comme cial igh s, and en o cemen /dispu e esolu ion.
Simila ly, in male baske ball, he "Collec i e Ba gaining Ag eemen ACB – ABP o he
Ac i i y o P o essional Baske ball ACB" is a bipa i e, binding, and ully implemen ed
ag eemen be ween baske ball clubs a ilia ed wi h he ACB and hei male
p o essional playe s, wi h an equally b oad scope o co e age.
Howe e , no all spo s disciplines bene i om a CBA. One u sal o ganisa ion
epo ed ha while he e is no o mal CBA in place, an ag eemen exis s wi h he
oo ball associa ion o equi e p o essional con ac s and in oduce economic con ols
96
Ibid. A . 92. The Ag eemen will be ex ended i i is in w i ing and includes ce ain clauses speci ied in A . 92
(.e.g de ails o he pa ies, scope o applica ion…).
97
A . 21, Real Dec e o 1006/1985.
98
Ley O gánica 3/2007, de 22 de ma zo, pa a la igualdad e ec i a de muje es y homb es.
99
Comisión Consul i a Nacional de Con enios Colec i os, ‘Collec i e Ba gaining in Eu ope’ (Comisión
Consul i a Nacional de Con enios Colec i os, 2004)
h ps://www.mi es.gob.es/ iche os/minis e io/sec_ abajo/ccncc/B_Ac uaciones/Es udios/Collec i eBa gainingI
nEu ope.pd accessed 16 Feb ua y 2025.
33
o con ac s and sala ies. This ag eemen in ol es he playe s' union (comp ising only
h ee membe s), he league, and b oade s akeholde s such as he go e nmen , CSD
(Consejo Supe io de Depo es), and spo ede a ions. Despi e he absence o a
o mal CBA, a hle e employmen and wel a e a e go e ned by he na ional legal
amewo k a icula ed abo e, wi h pa icula e e ence o:
1. Royal Dec ee 1006/1985
2. Law 39/2022 on Spo
100
3. Gene al labou law p o isions ia A icle 21 o Royal Dec ee 1006/1985
Na ional law equi es o mal ecogni ion o a hle e unions o associa ions o collec i e
ba gaining pu poses in Spain, and he c i e ia o equi emen s o ecogni ion a e in
place i hey a e cons i u ed as unions. Howe e , addi ional issues a ise om he
plu alis ep esen a ion model in Spain. Mul iple unions may claim o ep esen
a hle es, leading o in e nal di isions and complica ing he elec ion o a single
ba gaining ep esen a i e. Playe s mus pa icipa e in union elec ions o de e mine
who ep esen s hem in CBA nego ia ions bu a e no equi ed o join a union.
Signi ican s uc u al challenges we e iden i ied in women’s u sal. Responden s
highligh ed limi ed ede a ion coope a ion, unde pe o ming club s uc u es, and
inancial ins abili y. One o ganisa ion s a ed ha only a single p i a e ag eemen
exis s: he club-le el CBA signed by Pescados Rubén Bu ela Fú bol Sala and i s
women’s i s eam. No na ional o sec o -wide CBA exis s o women’s u sal.
6.2 I aly
In I aly, employmen ela ionships in spo a e p ima ily egula ed h ough gene al
labou law, he I alian Cons i u ion, and ci il law p inciples. The I alian Cons i u ion
(A icle 36) gua an ees ai pay and digni ied wo king condi ions o all wo ke s, while
A icle 39 ecognises ade union eedom and he igh o collec i e ba gaining. On
he basis o A icle 39, unions ha a e “ egis e ed” a e able o nego ia e collec i e
ba gaining ag eemen s ha apply e ga omnes – indus y-wide.
101
The I alian Ci il
Code egula es collec i e ag eemen s as all ypes o con ac ual ela ionships. The
Wo ke s’ S a u e p o ec s he igh s o wo ke s o join and be ep esen ed by a union,
as well as p ohibi ing an i-union conduc s, and an i-disc imina ion p ac ices.
102
In he absence o s a u o y p o isions, ag eemen s be ween social pa ne s ha e
de ined he key amewo k: he T ipa i e P o ocol o 23 July 1993 — e ised in 2009
and 2018 and adap ed o a ious sec o s es ablishes co e p inciples on wage policy,
cos -o -li ing adjus men s, he s uc u e and iming o collec i e ba gaining, and
wo kplace ep esen a ion.
100
Ley 39/2022, de 30 de diciemb e, del Depo e.
101
I mus howe e be no ed ha his p o ision needed implemen a ion in o dina y law o ha e e ec . See S
Leona di, Collec i e ba gaining and minimum wage egime in I aly (Eu opean T ade Union Ins i u e, 2025).
102
Legge 20 maggio 1970, n 300, No me sulla u ela della libe à e digni à dei la o a o i, della libe à sindacale e
dell'a i i à sindacale, nei luoghi di la o o e no me sul collocamen o.
34
I aly has a dis inc i e wo- ie ba gaining sys em. Na ional CBAs a e nego ia ed a
sec o al le el be ween ecognised ade unions and employe associa ions. They se
ou gene al minimum s anda ds, while decen alised o company-le el ag eemen s
may supplemen o de oga e om hem unde ce ain condi ions. While his lexibili y
can allow adap a ion o local con ex s, i also poses isks o unde cu ing p o ec ions.
The p inciple o a ou abili y (p incipio di a o e) es ablishes ha in he e en o a
con lic be ween he p o isions o na ional law and collec i e ba gaining, he mos
a ou able o he wo ke will apply. Simila ly, A icle 2077 o he I alian Ci il Code
es ablishes ha Collec i e Ag eemen s p e ail agains indi idual employmen
con ac s, unless he la e is mo e a ou able o he wo ke .
Collec i e ba gaining ag eemen s a e no di ec ly en o ceable unless inco po a ed in o
indi idual con ac s,
103
bu in p ac ice, hey a e widely applied and unc ion as
no ma i e s anda ds in many sec o s—including spo .
Wi h speci ic e e ence o spo , Law 91/1981 es ablishes a amewo k o p o essional
spo spe sons in I aly, wi h speci ic e e ence o hei employmen s a us.
104
The ecen
e o m in oduced wi h Legisla i e Dec ees 36/2021
105
aimed o c ea e symme y
be ween he ea men o p o essional and ama eu spo spe sons, by c ea ing he
no ion o spo s wo k.
106
The la e includes p o essional spo spe son, as well as any
egis e ed wo ke . This egula o y amewo k has c ea ed a dis inc ion be ween he
sel -employed spo wo ke , he p o essional employed wo ke and he ama eu spo s
wo ke . Acco dingly, he p o essional spo s wo ke is p esumed o be employed, while
he ama eu is p esumed o be an independen con ac o , sel -employed.
107
Since Janua y 2024, a Collec i e Ag eemen o spo s wo ke s has been in o ce,
aiming a including all ac i i ies ha may be conside ed “spo ing” and all indi iduals
o en i ies o whom such ac i i ies may be pe o med. The CBA egula es a se ies o
aspec s, including minimum (and maximum) sala y and ules on dispu e esolu ion. A
spo -speci ic le el, o he examples o CBAs can be obse ed.
Collec i e ba gaining ag eemen s a e p ominen in bo h I alian oo ball and baske ball,
co e ing male and emale p o essional a hle es. In oo ball, wo key CBAs a e
iden i ied. Fo male oo ball, he e is a ipa i e "Collec i e Ag eemen o Spo s
Pe o mance Rela ionships be ween P o essional Playe s and P o essional Se ie A
Clubs," which is binding and ully implemen ed, co e ing p o essional playe s wi hin
Se ie A clubs. The CBA was enewed in 2025, including p o isions aiming a
p o ec ing he sus ainabili y o he sys em: unde clause 5.2.7.1, acco ding o which,
Se ie A clubs a e allowed o educe playe s’ ixed sala ies by 25% in he e en o
elega ion o Se ie B, p o ided he sala y does no all below he minimum se by he
ag eemen (depending on he playe ’s age g oup). The educ ion applies om he
103
S Leona di, M Conce a Amb a and A Cia ini, ‘I alian collec i e ba gaining a a u ning poin ’ in Leona di and
Pede sini (eds) Mul i-employe ba gaining unde p essu e: decen alisa ion ends in i e Eu opean coun ies
(ETUI 2018)188.
104
Legge 23 ma zo 1981, n 91, No me in ma e ia di appo i a socie à e spo i i p o essionis i.
105
Dec e o legisla i o del 28/02/2021 n. 36, A uazione dell'a icolo 5 della legge 8 agos o 2019, n. 86, ecan e
io dino e i o ma delle disposizioni in ma e ia di en i spo i i p o essionis ici e dile an is ici, nonche' di la o o
spo i o.
106
The label o p o essional as opposed o ama eu spo spe son does no a ec he employmen s a us o he
a hle e conce ned.
107
Dec e o legisla i o del 28/02/2021 n. 36, A . 26 and 28.
35
season ollowing elega ion and con inues un il any p omo ion back o Se ie A, which
es o es he o iginal sala y. This ule applies o con ac s signed om 2 Sep embe
2025, al hough indi idual ag eemen s may s ipula e o he wise.
Fo emale oo ball, a speci ic "Collec i e Ba gaining Ag eemen o Clubs and Playe s
o he Se ie A Femminile" is in place, also binding and ully implemen ed, co e ing
p o essional playe s in Se ie A Femminile clubs. In male baske ball, a ipa i e
"Collec i e Ba gaining Ag eemen on P o essional Baske ball Playe s" exis s, which is
binding bu cu en ly has i s "implemen a ion pending," indica ing i is in he p ocess o
ull adop ion. This ag eemen co e s p o essional baske ball clubs in Se ie A and hei
playe s, including empo a ily egis e ed indi iduals. Ac oss all hese I alian CBAs, he
scope o co e age is ex ensi e, encompassing wages, con ac ual equi emen s,
wo king ime, aining condi ions, lea e, oca ional aining, heal h and wel a e, social
p o ec ion, image and comme cial igh s, and p o isions o en o cemen and dispu e
esolu ion.
Challenges include ensu ing compliance wi h CBAs in lowe leagues and ama eu
ie s, whe e en o cemen is weake and union membe ship less widesp ead.
Fu he mo e, while CBAs a e in luen ial, hei no ma i e e ec o en depends on
en o cemen h ough spo s-speci ic a bi a ion bodies a he han o dina y labou
cou s. Fo ins ance, dispu es in oo ball a e equen ly esol ed wi hin he FIGC's
Na ional A bi a ion Panel, limi ing ecou se o gene al legal p o ec ions.
The e is cu en ly no o mal ecogni ion o inco po a ion o ansna ional CBAs in I aly,
hough AIC and GIBA a e a ilia ed wi h in e na ional o ganisa ions (e.g., FIFPRO) and
may align hei ad ocacy and con ac ual p inciples wi h ansna ional amewo ks.
6.3 Uni ed Kingdom
The Uni ed Kingdom egula es employmen h ough a common law amewo k
suppo ed by s a u o y p o isions. UK labou ela ions a e b oadly cha ac e ised by
olun a y, p i a e con ac ual ela ions be ween employe s and ade unions, wi h
limi ed legal in e en ion in dispu es. Minimum igh s (minimum wage, un ai dismissal,
lea e, disc imina ion) a e gua an eed h ough a se ies o legisla i e ins umen s, such
as he Employmen Righ s Ac 1996, he Na ional Minimum Wage Ac 1998 and he
Equali y Ac 2010.
The co e legisla ion go e ning collec i e ba gaining is he T ade Union and Labou
Rela ions (Consolida ion) Ac 1992 (TULRCA). I p o ides bo h collec i e igh s o
ecognised independen ade unions (e.g., o ba gain collec i ely, ecei e in o ma ion)
and indi idual igh s o union membe s (e.g., p o ec ion om de imen o union
membe ship). A ade union ha is independen (no con olled by he employe ) mus
be ecognised by he employe in o de o i o engage in collec i e ba gaining.
108
While he legisla ion p o ides a s uc u e o ade union ecogni ion and collec i e
ba gaining, i does no c ea e a legal obliga ion on employe s o en e in o o conclude
108
T ade Union and Labou Rela ions (Consolida ion) Ac 1992 Schedule A1, s. 6.
36
collec i e ag eemen s. Collec i e ag eemen s a e o dina ily no legally en o ceable
unless explici ly made so in w i ing.
109
Howe e , unde he Employmen Righ s Ac
1996, i he e ms o a collec i e ag eemen a e inco po a ed in o indi idual
employmen con ac s, hey can become en o ceable be ween an employe and
employee.
110
The de e mina ion o whe he he collec i e ag eemen has been
e ec i ely inco po a ed in o a con ac is le o he cou 's decision. Indus ial ac ion
in he UK ypically cons i u es a b each o con ac , and is law ul only i i mee s speci ic
legal equi emen s ega ding i s pu pose, he ballo ing o union membe s, and no ice
gi en o he employe .
111
The o e iew shows how he legal amewo k egula ing indus ial ela ions in he UK
is no pa icula ly ap o encou age he signing o collec i e ba gaining ag eemen s.
This explains why, compa ed o o he coun ies analysed in his sec ion, he UK
p esen s a lowe incidence o collec i e ba gaining ag eemen s, wi h igu es indica ing
ha only 29% o he wo k o ce is co e ed by CBAs in he UK, wi h e en lowe co e age
in he p i a e sec o a 20.7%, and only 12% o wo ke s in unions.
112
The UK has a decen alised and olun a y collec i e ba gaining sys em, wi h
company-le el nego ia ions being he no m, while na ional CBAs a e uncommon.
113
In
spo , his leads o a agmen ed ba gaining landscape, wi h nego ia ions p ima ily
aking place a he club o league le el. This decen alisa ion diminishes he ba gaining
powe o a hle es, es ic ing unions' abili y o nego ia e s anda dised e ms ac oss he
indus y.
114
In UK p o essional spo , collec i e ba gaining ope a es on a olun a y basis. Playe s’
unions such as he P o essional Foo balle s' Associa ion (PFA), Rugby Playe s
Associa ion (RPA), and P o essional C icke e s' Associa ion (PCA) nego ia e
ag eemen s wi h leagues and go e ning bodies. These ag eemen s co e ma e s
such as minimum sala ies, pensions, inju y insu ance, playe wellbeing, and pos -
e i emen suppo , and a e aligned wi h na ional legisla ion. While hese CBAs a e no
legally binding pe se, hey a e commonly inco po a ed by e e ence in o playe
con ac s, gi ing hem con ac ual o ce o indi idual en o cemen .
A Collec i e Ag eemen is in place in Rugby Union in Wales and England. In Wales,
he ag eemen is be ween he Playe s Associa ion and he Na ional Go e ning Body,
while in England i is signed by he Playe Union, League, and Game Union.
Impo an ly, he legal s a us o a hle es in he UK spo ing sys em has been discussed
in he seminal case o Jess Va nish. In Va nish B i ish Cycling and UK Spo [2020]
(EAT), an eli e cyclis a emp ed o a gue ha she had been un ai ly dismissed and
109
T ade Union and Labou Rela ions (Consolida ion) Ac 1992, S. 179. O’Lea y no ices ha he explici inclusion
o a s a emen ha he pa ies ag ee o make he con ac legally en o ceable is a a e occu ence. See O'Lea y (n
11) 98.
110
Employmen Righ s Ac 1996 S 1(4)(j). Case law has iden i ied e ms ha a e no o dina ily ap o
inco po a ion in an employmen con ac , such as he mechanism o dispu e esolu ion be ween an employe and
a ade union. See Kau MG Ro e G oup L d [2005] ICR 625.
111
T ade Union and Labou Rela ions (Consolida ion) Ac 1992, s. 219, ss. 226-234 and 234A.
112
De Spiegelae e (n 9).
113
Panne (n 6) 189.
114
Comisión Consul i a Nacional de Con enios Colec i os (n 16).

37
disc imina ed agains a e he unding ag eemen was no enewed. To succeed, she
needed o p o e she was a wo ke o employee. Despi e s ic obliga ions in he
ag eemen , he ibunal held she was no employed because he e was no mu ual
obliga ion o wage-wo k ba gain. The Employmen Appeal T ibunal upheld he
decision, con i ming ha unded eli e a hle es a e no au oma ically wo ke s unde UK
law.
115
While UK spo bene i s om well-de eloped suppo s uc u es, he lack o s a u o y
suppo o collec i e ba gaining means ha he ep esen a ion o wo ke s depends
hea ily on he goodwill and coope a ion o employe s. The esul is a p agma ic sys em
based on consensus and long- e m ela ionships, al hough his can lea e gaps whe e
employe s e use o ecognise unions, pa icula ly in women’s o semi-p o essional
spo s, and a lack o di ec en o ceabili y.
6.4 I eland
A icle 40.6.1 o he Cons i u ion o I eland p o ec s he igh o o m a ade union.
Howe e , his nei he includes an au oma ic igh o join a union, no p o ides
cons i u ional p o ec ion o collec i e ba gaining.
116
Since 1946, I eland has had s a u o y mechanisms in place o p omo e and egula e
collec i e ba gaining. Unde Pa III o he Indus ial Rela ions Ac 1946, pa ies o a
collec i e ag eemen could apply o he Labou Cou o ha e i egis e ed as a
Regis e ed Employmen Ag eemen (REA). Once egis e ed, such ag eemen s
became binding on all employe s and wo ke s in he sec o , en o ceable bo h h ough
inco po a ion in o indi idual employmen con ac s and by c iminal penal ies o non-
complian employe s. Howe e , a se ies o cons i u ional challenges signi ican ly
weakened hese p o ec ions.
117
I ish cou s ha e ound key aspec s o he
amewo k—including elemen s o he REA — o be uncons i u ional, he eby
unde mining he legal ounda ion o sec o -wide collec i e ba gaining in ce ain
indus ies. To add ess his gap, he go e nmen in oduced he Indus ial Rela ions
(Amendmen ) Ac 2015. The Ac in oduced a e ised de ini ion o collec i e
ba gaining, and enhanced p o ec ions agains ic imisa ion o wo ke s. Howe e , his
legisla ion o e s e y limi ed p o ec ion o collec i e ba gaining, as i does no include
any obliga ions on employe s o ecognise ade unions o he pu pose o ba gaining,
and Regis e ed Employmen Ag eemen s a e held o be binding only on he pa ies o
he ag eemen .
118
Fu he changes we e enac ed h ough he Employmen
(Miscellaneous P o isions) Ac 2018, which p o ided a se ies o p o ec i e measu es
o wo ke s, including banning ze o-hou con ac s, and in oducing wo weeks o paid
pa en al lea e.
115
O’Lea y, Sel mann and Smok ina (n 13) 17.
116
EI Co L d Kennedy [1968] IR 69; Dublin Colleges Academic S a Associa ion Ci y o Dublin Voca ional
Educa ion Commi ee [1981] 7 JIC 3101.
117
See among o he s John G ace F ied Chicken Ca e ing JLC [2011] IEHC 277 and McGowan Labou Cou
[2013] IESC 21.
118
Indus ial Rela ions (Amendmen ) Ac 2015, s. 6.
38
Unde he T ade Union Ac s,
119
i a ade union espec s ce ain equi emen s o
membe ship and cons i u ion, i can be egis e ed. I egis e ed, he union will be able
o apply o a licence o engage in collec i e ba gaining.
T adi ionally, indus ial ela ions in I eland we e based on a olun a is model,
ad oca ing o minimal legal in e en ion and judicial o e sigh . Ins ead, dispu es and
employmen e ms we e add essed h ough di ec nego ia ion, wi h each side elying
on i s ba gaining powe o each an ag eemen .
120
The absence o s a e in e en ion
has howe e consequences on he ecogni ion o unions and he abili y o each
ag eemen s, which depend mo e on indus ial ac ion, a he han legal obliga ions.
121
In u n, his migh help explaining he low le el o Collec i e Ba gaining co e age in
I eland, abou 34%, and one o he lowes in Wes e n Eu ope. Rela edly, union densi y
has been d opping, es ima ed a 22% o e all and 16% in he p i a e sec o .
122
In p ac ice, I eland ope a es a mixed model wi h sec o al ba gaining, wi h some
sec o s using indus y-wide CBAs, while o he s elying on company-le el ba gaining.
The Collec i e Ba gaining Ag eemen (CBA) landscape in spo in I eland is gene ally
unde de eloped. The Gaelic A hle ic Associa ion (GAA) go e ns ama eu spo s and
does no engage in o mal collec i e ba gaining, al hough he Gaelic Playe s
Associa ion (GPA) ope a es as a ep esen a i e body. Gene al labou laws and
collec i e ba gaining ag eemen s a e no applicable as a hle es a e ama eu . Dialogue
be ween he GPA and GAA has p oduced ou comes on playe wel a e, axa ion, and
expenses, bu no legally binding CBA exis s.
Con e sely, p omising de elopmen s can be seen in bo h ugby and oo ball. Fo
ugby, a bipa i e "Collec i e Ag eemen be ween he I ish Rugby Foo ball Union and
Rugby Playe s I eland" is in place, which is binding and ully implemen ed. This
ag eemen co e s p o essional ugby playe s con ac ed o he IRFU, whe he hey
a e based in I eland o ab oad. In oo ball, a no able bipa i e ag eemen i led "Equal
Pay (Male/Female Na ional Team Appea ances)" exis s, which is also binding and ully
implemen ed. This ag eemen in ol es he Foo ball Associa ion o I eland (FAI), an
independen ad iso , cap ains o bo h male and emale na ional eams, and he
P o essional Foo balle s' Associa ion o I eland (PFAI). Bo h I ish ag eemen s
demons a e a comp ehensi e scope, co e ing essen ial aspec s such as wages,
con ac ual equi emen s, wo king ime, aining condi ions, lea e, oca ional aining,
heal h and wel a e, social p o ec ion, image and comme cial igh s, and p o isions o
en o cemen and dispu e esolu ion.
The s uc u e o spo s employmen in I eland u he complica es collec i e
ba gaining. Many a hle es, pa icula ly in eam spo s, a e classi ied as sel -employed
o ecei e i egula income, making o mal employmen ela ionships—and he e o e
119
Including, T ade Union Ac 1871, T ade Union Ac 1941, T ade Union Ac 1975 and T ade Union Ac 1990.
120
T Dobbins, ‘I ish indus ial ela ions sys em no longe olun a is ’ (Eu o ound, 21 Ap il 2005)
<h ps://www.eu o ound.eu opa.eu/en/ esou ces/a icle/2005/i ish-indus ial- ela ions-sys em-no-longe -
olun a is > accessed 20 June 2025.
121
A Eus ace, Collec i e Bene i : Ha nessing he powe o ep esen a ion o economic and social p og ess
(Repo o Fó sa, 2021) 20.
122
De Spiegelae e (n 9).
39
CBAs—mo e di icul o es ablish. Speci ic employmen - ela ed issues a ec ing
a hle es and go e ning bodies in I eland ela e o he ea men o a hle es who c oss
ju isdic ions (I eland and UK).
The e is cu en ly no e idence o ansna ional CBAs being ecognised o applied in
I eland. Ne e heless, I ish playe s’ associa ions may adop p inciples om Eu opean
o global bodies such as EAPA, FIFPRO, and he Wo ld Playe s Associa ion in hei
ad ocacy wo k.
6.5 Finland
The igh o collec i e ba gaining in Finland is oo ed in a long adi ion o ipa i e
coope a ion. I da es back o 1940 when labou ma ke o ganisa ions i s ecognised
each o he as nego ia ing pa ne s, and u he o malised in 1968.
123
Fo decades,
Finland’s indus ial ela ions we e cha ac e ised by a highly cen alised model, wi h
na ional incomes policy ag eemen s and close coo dina ion be ween he peak
o ganisa ions o ade unions, employe s, and he go e nmen .
124
This model
embedded consensus as a co e alue and ex ended in o a eas beyond employmen ,
such as pensions policy.
The legal amewo k o collec i e ba gaining and labou ela ions is ancho ed in he
Collec i e Ag eemen s Ac ,
125
which de ines he igh s and obliga ions o he pa ies
o collec i e ag eemen s, and es ablishes he p ocedu e o con i ming sec o al
ag eemen s as gene ally binding. Unde he p inciple o gene al applicabili y—in
place since he 1970s and con i med h ough legisla ion in 2001—employe s who a e
no pa y o a collec i e ag eemen mus s ill comply wi h he e ms o a sec o al
ag eemen deemed ep esen a i e o hei indus y.
126
This ensu es a le el playing
ield and p e en s compe i i e ad an age h ough a oidance o collec i e ba gaining.
Na ional legisla ion such as he Employmen Con ac s Ac , Annual Holidays Ac ,
Wo king Hou s Ac , and Co-ope a ion Ac egula e co e con ac ual e ms, wo king
ime, and wo kplace coope a ion. Fo mal dispu e esolu ion mechanisms a e p o ided
o in he Ac on Media ion in Labou Dispu es and he Ac on he Labou Cou .
The Finnish sys em has unde gone signi ican s uc u al change since he mid-2010s.
In 2017, cen alised na ional pay ba gaining o mally ended, ma king a shi owa ds
sec o al and company-le el ba gaining.
127
While his end e lec s b oade OECD
pa e ns o decen alisa ion, in Finland i has aken he o m o coo dina ed
123
P Jonke -Ho én, ‘Goodbye cen alised ba gaining? The eme gence o a new indus ial ba gaining egime’ in
T Mülle , K Vandaele and J Wadding on (eds), Collec i e ba gaining in Eu ope: owa ds an endgame (ETUI
2019) 197, 199.
124
P Jonke -Ho én, ‘Goodbye cen alised ba gaining? The eme gence o a new indus ial ba gaining egime’ (n
1) 197.
125
Työeh osopimuslaki - Collec i e Ag eemen s Ac (436/1946)
126
Laki yöeh osopimuksen yleissi o uuden ah is amises a - Ac on con i ma ion o he gene al applicabili y o
collec i e ag eemen s (56/2001)
127
J Visse , ‘Did employe s abandon collec i e ba gaining? A compa a i e analysis o he weakening o collec i e
ba gaining in he OECD’ (2024) 55 Indus ial Rela ions Jou nal 350, 354.
40
decen alisa ion, wi h employe s’ o ganisa ions con inuing o exe cise s ong
in luence o e sec o al wage-se ing.
128
Recen esea ch highligh s a s uc u al shi in Finland om a long-s anding adi ion
o highly cen alised, sec o -le el collec i e ba gaining owa ds mo e decen alised
a angemen s. In some cases, ba gaining has mo ed en i ely o he le el o indi idual
o ganisa ions; in o he s, hyb id models combining sec o al amewo ks wi h locally
nego ia ed supplemen s ha e eme ged.
129
This decen alisa ion has no occu ed
uni o mly ac oss he economy: i is mo e p e alen in ce ain sec o s and less common
in o he s, e lec ing di e ences in wo k o ce composi ion, economic condi ions, and
ba gaining adi ions.
The obse ed impac s o decen alisa ion on wages and wo king condi ions ha e
gene ally been modes . Some g oups, pa icula ly hose in s onge ba gaining
posi ions, may achie e highe wage g ow h unde decen alised a angemen s, while
o he s see li le change. Howe e , decen alisa ion can also inc ease dispa i ies
be ween di e en segmen s o he wo k o ce, wi h ou comes a ying by indus y,
employe esou ces, and he s eng h o wo ke ep esen a ion. Mo eo e , shi s
owa ds local-le el ba gaining ha e, in some ins ances, p o ed sho -li ed, wi h
sec o -wide ag eemen s emaining impo an o main aining s abili y and a le el
playing ield.
130
These ends a e ele an o he spo sec o because hey highligh he po en ial
consequences o eplacing o weakening sec o al o league-wide collec i e
ag eemen s. Whe e ba gaining is le en i ely o he club o eam le el, dispa i ies in
esou ces and ba gaining powe be ween o ganisa ions could lead o une en
employmen condi ions o a hle es. Con e sely, e aining a coo dina ed amewo k a
he sec o al o league le el can help ensu e minimum s anda ds, p omo e equali y,
and p o ide s abili y ac oss he spo .
In Janua y 2025, a signi ica i e e o m en e ed in o o ce, expanding he scope o
local ba gaining, allowing employe s ou side employe s’ associa ions o conclude
local ag eemen s—some hing p e iously p ohibi ed whe e p o isions de ia ed om
s a u o y no ms. The e o m applies ega dless o he ype o employee ep esen a ion
in he company, including company-speci ic CBAs, and is o e seen by he
Occupa ional Sa e y and Heal h Au ho i y.
131
In Finnish spo , p o essional a hle es a e co e ed by he gene al labou law
amewo k and any ele an sec o al o gene ally binding collec i e ag eemen s. The
128
M Wuokko, E Kuo elah i and N Jensen-E iksen, ‘Mo e han mee s he eye: Finnish employe s and he
cen alised labou ma ke model, 1960s– 2020s’ (24 Ma ch 2025) Scandina ian Economic His o y Re iew, and J
Visse , ‘Did employe s abandon collec i e ba gaining? A compa a i e analysis o he weakening o collec i e
ba gaining in he OECD’ (2024) 55 Indus ial Rela ions Jou nal 350.
129
A Kauhanen, ‘The e ec s o he decen aliza ion o collec i e ba gaining on wages and wage dispe sion:
E idence om he Finnish o es and IT indus ies’ (2024) 62 B i ish Jou nal o Indus ial Rela ions 319.
130
A Kauhanen, T Maczulskij and K Riukula, ‘The incidence and e ec s o decen alized wage ba gaining in
Finland’ (2024) 45 J Labo Res 232.
131
‘Oppo uni ies o local collec i e ba gaining o expand’ (Val ioneu os o, 22 Ap il 2024)
h ps:// al ioneu os o. i/en/-/1410877/oppo uni ies- o -local-collec i e-ba gaining- o-expand accessed 12
Augus 2025.
47
7.3 S eng hs, Weaknesses, and Legal Implica ions.
The ag eemen s analysed demons a e a willingness o Eu opean spo s s akeholde s
o engage in s uc u ed ansna ional ba gaining and add ess issues pe aining o he
wo king condi ions o a hle es a sup a-na ional le el. In pa icula , he FIFPRO-UEFA-
ECA- EPFL ‘Minimum Requi emen s’ Ag eemen is an au onomous ag eemen unde
EU law and is o icially ecognised by he Eu opean Commission, enhancing i s legal
legi imacy wi hin he EU legal and policy dimension.
137
Wi h his in mind, FIFPRO has emphasised i s commi men o p o ec ing playe s'
igh s, con inuing dialogue wi h s akeholde s in o 2024, also highligh ing how he
Eu opean Sec o al Social Dialogue o P o essional Foo ball has os e ed
collabo a ion among s akeholde s o enhance wo king condi ions and s eng hen
oo ball compe i ions.
138
Fu he mo e, as men ioned abo e, he e appea s o be
momen um o g ea e use o social dialogue, po en ially beyond he oo ball sec o .
Howe e , o ensu e ha Social Pa ne s can bene i om such momen um, i is
app op ia e o highligh he inhe en limi s o ansna ional collec i e ba gaining.
The Minimum Requi emen s Ag eemen in oo ball e ec i ely cons i u es a
Memo andum o Unde s anding (MoU) a he han a o mal Collec i e Ba gaining
Ag eemen (CBA). The issues o di e gen labou laws p esen a signi ican obs acle
o i s ull implemen a ion and in gene al, he ealisa ion o ansna ional CBAs in
Eu ope. Fo example, in a numbe o Eu opean coun ies, many oo balle s a e no
classi ied as employees, which dep i es hem o s anda d labou p o ec ions and
complica es e o s o impose uni o m s anda ds.
139
In his con ex , howe e , i is
pa icula ly signi ican ha he Cycling Join Ag eemen s p o ide o emune a ion
s anda ds applicable o bo h employed and sel -employed ide s, he eby signalling
he po en ial o CBAs o apply o a hle es who would be classi ied as sel -employed
in ce ain ju isdic ions.
While in coun ies whe e a hle es a e ecognised as employees, in eg a ion o
ansna ional p o isions in o domes ic law is mo e easible, his is ne e heless a ely
au oma ic and o en depends on he willingness o na ional ede a ions o align wi h
in e na ional s anda ds.
140
T ansna ional ag eemen s, he e o e, end o lack
en o ceable mechanisms and ins ead ely on he goodwill o clubs, educing hei
e ec i eness in coun ies wi h weak labou p o ec ions.
137
UEFA (n 128).
138
FIFPRO, ‘FIFPRO Eu ope and con inen ’s s akeholde s o expand and s eng hen suppo o na ional social
dialogue’ (FIFPRO, 2023b) h ps:// i p o.o g/en/who-we-a e/ i p o-membe s/ i p o-eu ope/ i p o-eu ope-and-
con inen -s-s akeholde s- o-expand-and-s eng hen-suppo -o -na ional-social-
dialogue#:~: ex =The%20Eu opean%20Sec o al%20Social%20Dialogue,sus ainabili y%20o %20clubs%20and
%20compe i ions accessed 02 June 2025.
139
FIFPRO, ‘No mal’ Employmen Righ s o Playe s in Eas e n Eu ope’ (FIFPRO, 2020)
h ps:// i p o.o g/en/suppo ing-playe s/condi ions-o -employmen /s anda d-playe -con ac s/p ope -
employmen -con ac s- o -eas e n-eu opean-playe s accessed 29 May 2025.
140
OM Ya oshenko e al, ‘Ha moniza ion o Labo Righ s o A hle es in he EU: Challenges and P ospec s in he
Con ex o In eg a ion o Na ional Legisla ion’ (2024) Eu opean Poli ics and Socie y 1–15.

48
Some coun ies ha e a emp ed o in eg a e ansna ional CBAs in o hei domes ic
legal amewo ks, wi h a ying deg ees o success. In Spain, na ional CBAs a e o en
aligned wi h UEFA/FIFPRO ag eemen s, ensu ing ha in e na ional labou s anda ds
a e e lec ed in domes ic con ac s.
141
In I aly, some ansna ional ag eemen s ha e
been inco po a ed in o na ional CBAs, pa icula ly in oo ball and ugby, helping o
s anda dise employmen condi ions ac oss clubs. Howe e , in he UK, due o i s
agmen ed labou ela ions, ansna ional CBAs ha e had limi ed in luence, wi h
leagues and clubs e aining signi ican au onomy o e labou ela ions.
142
Ne e heless, as labou igh s ad ocacy con inues o g ow, he e is an inc easing
p essu e on in e na ional spo s go e ning bodies o s eng hen global collec i e
ba gaining mechanisms and ecen ag eemen s, such as he Eu oLeague Ag eemen ,
show p omising ad ances in his ield.
I mus be no ed ha baske ball and o he spo s ha e engaged in simila ini ia i es,
bu hei ag eemen s lack he legal o ce o CBAs, ins ead unc ioning as
ecommenda ions a he han en o ceable con ac s.
143
Fo example, in he con ex o
he Eu oLeague, a p i a ely go e ned baske ball compe i ion o med by a collec ion o
eli e Eu opean clubs, he Eu oLeague Baske ball Playe s Associa ion has en e ed in o
a ansna ional collec i e ag eemen wi h Eu oLeague ha es ablishes minimum
employmen s anda ds ac oss he pa icipa ing clubs.
144
Eu oleague i sel does no
employ he playe s, bu has appoin ed playe ep esen a i es o i s decision-making
bodies, o e ing a deg ee o ins i u ional balance.
145
8. Findings and Recommenda ions
This epo highligh s he complex and agmen ed landscape o collec i e ba gaining
in he Eu opean spo sec o . While se e al well-es ablished Collec i e Ba gaining
Ag eemen s (CBAs) exis — pa icula ly in oo ball, baske ball, and ugby — co e age
emains une en, especially in women’s spo s, Olympic disciplines, and among sel -
employed o indi idual a hle es. Na ional amewo ks a y conside ably: coun ies
such as Spain, I aly and Finland p o ide a s onge legal basis o sec o al CBAs, while
sys ems in he UK and I eland ely hea ily on olun a ism and lack legal en o ceabili y.
The classi ica ion o a hle es as wo ke s o independen con ac o s signi ican ly
141
Comisión Consul i a Nacional de Con enios Colec i os (n 16).
142
De Spiegelae e (n 11) and Panne (n 6).
143
In e na ional Labou O ganisa ion, ‘Issues pape o discussion a he Global Dialogue Fo um on Decen Wo k
in he Wo ld o Spo ’ (ILO, 2020) h ps://www.ilo.o g/ esou ce/o he /global-dialogue- o um-decen -wo k-
wo ld-spo -issues-pape accessed 26 Feb ua y 2025.
144
ELPA, ‘Eu oLeague Baske ball and Eu oLeague Playe s Associa ion Announce Renewal o Eu oLeague
F amewo k Ag eemen ’ (Eu oleague Baske ball, 2024)
h ps://www.eu oleaguebaske ball.ne /en/news/eu oleague-baske ball-and-eu oleague-playe s-associa ion-
announce- enewal-o -eu oleague- amewo k-ag eemen / accessed 29 May 2025.
145
UNI Global Union, ‘Wo ld Playe Heal h and Sa e y Summi Highligh s Need o Playe Cen e ed Change’
(UNI Global Union, 2025) h ps://uniglobalunion.o g/news/wo ld-playe -heal h-and-sa e y-summi -highligh s-
need- o -playe -cen ed-change/ accessed 29 May 2025.
49
a ec s hei access o collec i e igh s, wi h employmen s a us emaining a con es ed
and inconsis en ca ego y.
A EU le el, he legal amewo k ecognises he igh o collec i e ba gaining unde
A icle 28 o he Cha e o Fundamen al Righ s and h ough he ILO Con en ions
(Nos. 87 and 98). Howe e , obs acles emain, pa icula ly conce ning compe i ion law
and he posi ion o solo sel -employed a hle es. The CJEU has a i med ha collec i e
ba gaining can all ou side A icle 101 TFEU when i aims o imp o e wo king
condi ions, and ha such exemp ion can apply o non-s anda d wo ke s.
The e a e p omising de elopmen s: ansna ional ini ia i es demons a e he po en ial
o social dialogue s uc u es. Howe e , implemen a ion a he na ional le el is
inconsis en , and a hle es’ ep esen a ion is equen ly unde mined by go e nance
p ac ices ha ely on a hle es' commissions wi h no collec i e ba gaining unc ion.
In summa y, he key indings a e: (a) EU and na ional laws gene ally legi imize spo
CBAs and social dialogue; (b) mul iple binding CBAs al eady exis in Eu opean
oo ball, ugby and o he spo s (as mapped in Secs. 4–7), hough co e age is une en
(e.g. weake in women’s and lowe - ie spo s); and (c) collec i e ba gaining can b ing
signi ican bene i s (balanced pay s uc u es, wo ke p o ec ions, s able ela ions),
p o ided i is adap ed o spo s’ special con ex .
8.2 Challenges, Good P ac ices, and Replica ion Models
S uc u al and legal challenges: Spo ’s agmen ed go e nance (clubs, leagues,
ede a ions, in e na ional bodies and mul iple ju isdic ions) complica es ba gaining.
Fo example, global bodies (e.g. FIFA) some imes impose ules (calenda s, ans e
windows) wi hou playe consul a ion. In many coun ies o spo s, playe s’ unions a e
weak o new, so collec i e ba gaining is no well-es ablished. Compe i ion law
unce ain y also de e s ag eemen s: al hough EU law ole a es labou CBAs o wo ke
wel a e, na ional in e p e a ions a y. Co e age gaps a e ano he challenge –
women’s leagues and smalle spo s o en lack any o mal CBA. Finally, en o cemen
can be di icul .
Good p ac ices / success ul ag eemen s: Se e al models s and ou . A he na ional
le el, examples om F ance, Spain, and I aly highligh an inc easing p ac ice o
include minimum s anda d p o isions in binding collec i e ag eemen s. In o he
coun ies (UK and I eland) he applica ion o ag eemen s is le o olun a y ac ions o
he pa ies. A he in e na ional le el, join nego ia ions ha e p oduced p omising
esul s bo h in Foo ball and Cycling. These examples show how b oad pa icipa ion
(bipa i e o ipa i e) and comp ehensi e co e age (pay, sa e y, wel a e) yield du able
ag eemen s.
Replica ion models: Many o he abo e app oaches can be adap ed elsewhe e. Fo
ins ance, he ipa i e ba gaining model o F ench ugby – in ol ing clubs, playe s’
union and ede a ion – could be applied o o he spo s. Fede a ions and unions migh
de elop model con ac s o minimum s anda ds (as I alian women’s socce did) ha
smalle clubs can adop . The Eu opean oo ball social dialogue model sugges s ha
50
sec o al commi ees ( o ugby, baske ball, e c.) could add ess c oss-bo de issues
join ly. Finally, Eu ope can d aw on he No h Ame ican spo s model: in he US,
leagues nego ia e sala y caps and e enue-sha ing ia CBAs, which ensu es inancial
s abili y. Eu opean s akeholde s could emula e his by ag eeing collec i e sala y ules
unde ag eed e ms. O e all, combining hese good p ac ices and inno a ions would
help o he spo s and coun ies build e ec i e collec i e ba gaining amewo ks.
8.3 Recommenda ions o S akeholde s
Based on hese indings (Secs. 2–7), each s akeholde g oup should conside he
ollowing ac ions:
EU and na ional policymake s: Legisla e and acili a e collec i e ba gaining in spo .
Fo example, explici ly ecognize playe s’ unions as social pa ne s, and ensu e
g ea e cla i y abou he applica ion o compe i ion law o collec i e ag eemen s in
spo s. A he EU le el, con inue o back sec o al dialogue, and conside ex ending i
o o he spo s. Na ional go e nmen s should equi e ha spo CBAs, once
nego ia ed, a e binding and en o ceable (as in Spain, Finland and F ance) and o e
esou ces ( unding, aining) o suppo nego ia ions. In p ac ice, his means including
spo CBAs in labou laws o spo s policies and p omo ing dialogue pla o ms.
A hle e unions and playe associa ions: o ensu e e ec i e collec i e nego ia ion,
i is pa amoun ha a hle es’ unions and playe s associa ions p esen hemsel es as
a uni ed on , gua an eeing ep esen a i eness and s eng hening hei claim. G ea e
sha ing o bes p ac ices amongs unions can help du ing nego ia ions, by allowing
pa ies o emphasize he documen ed bene i s o collec i e ba gaining.
Spo go e ning bodies and ede a ions: Emb ace s uc u ed dialogue wi h playe s.
C ucially, Spo s Go e ning Bodies mus ecognise and engage wi h ep esen a i e
social pa ne s. Playe s’ and a hle es’ ep esen a i es mus be e ec i ely in ol ed in
he decision-making p ocess, o ensu e i p oduces ules ha a e ai e , s onge and
en o ceable. By ea ing playe s as legi ima e s akeholde s, ede a ions will imp o e
compliance and sha ed commi men o spo policies.
Clubs and leagues: View playe s as pa ne s in ensu ing a sus ainable model o
go e nance. Engage in collec i e ba gaining o c ea e s able sala y and wo king-
condi ion amewo ks, bu also explo e wel a e s anda ds ound in model ag eemen s:
o example, implemen insu ance, heal h ca e and pension p o isions nego ia ed in
success ul CBAs. Recogni ion o he igh o unionise and ba gain collec i ely, as well
as he inclusion o playe s’ ep esen a i es in he decision-making p ocess will build
us be ween he social pa ne s. In sho , clubs and leagues will bene i om he
enhanced s abili y and goodwill ha well-nego ia ed CBAs b ing.
51
Annex I
Mapping o he exis ing CBAs in he UK and Eu ope
Coun y
Spo
Ti le
Cha ac e is ics
Ac o s Co e ed
Scope/Co e age
Eu ope
Foo ball
(Male)
Ag eemen
Rega ding he
Minimum
Requi emen s o
S anda d Foo ball
Playe Con ac s
T ipa i e, non-
binding, pa ially
implemen ed
EPFL, ECA, UEFA, FIFPRO Di ision Eu ope
(Co e age: Signa o ies and hei membe s a
na ional le el)
Wage, Con ac ual
equi emen s, Wo king ime,
T aining condi ions, Lea e,
Voca ional aining, Heal h and
wel a e, Social p o ec ion,
Image and comme cial igh s,
En o cemen and dispu e
esolu ion
Eu ope
Baske ball
(Male)
Eu oLeague
F amewo k
Ag eemen
Bipa i e, binding,
ully implemen ed
Eu oLeague clubs; playe s employed/con ac ed by
hem
Wage, Con ac ual
equi emen s, Wo king ime,
T aining condi ions, Lea e,
Voca ional aining, Heal h and
wel a e, Social p o ec ion,
Image and comme cial igh s,
En o cemen and dispu e
esolu ion
Eu ope
Cycling
(Male)
Join Ag eemen s
on he wo king
condi ions o ide s
hi ed by UCI
P oTeams and
UCI Wo ldTeams
( e sion on
01.01.2024)
Bipa i e, binding,
ully implemen ed
Cyclis es P o essionnels Associés (CPA);
Associa ion In e na ionale des G oupes Cyclis es
P o essionnels (AIGCP); ide s employed by UCI
Wo ldTeams o UCI P oTeams
Hi ing and Con ac ual Te ms,
Remune a ion, Bonuses and
P izes, Condi ions o Wo k and
o Res , Compensa ion o
Sala y, Insu ance and Social
Bene i s, Da a P o ec ion,
Dispu e Resolu ion
52
Aus ia
Foo ball
(Male)
Collec i e
Ag eemen o
Foo ball Playe s in
he Aus ian
Foo ball League
Bipa i e, binding,
ully implemen ed
All clubs ac i e in he compe i ions o he ÖFBL; all
playe s employed by hese clubs in compe i ions o
he ÖFBL
Wage, Con ac ual
equi emen s, Wo king ime,
T aining condi ions, Lea e,
Voca ional aining, Heal h and
wel a e, Social p o ec ion,
Image and comme cial igh s,
En o cemen and dispu e
esolu ion
Belgium
Foo ball
(Bo h)
S anda d Model
Con ac o
Remune a ed
Foo ball Playe s
Bipa i e, non-
binding, ully
implemen ed
Belgian oo ball clubs; playe s employed/con ac ed
by hem
Wage, Con ac ual
equi emen s, Wo king ime,
T aining condi ions, Lea e,
Voca ional aining, Heal h and
wel a e, Social p o ec ion,
Image and comme cial igh s,
En o cemen and dispu e
esolu ion
Belgium
Volleyball
(Bo h)
Collec i e
Ba gaining
Ag eemen on
Remune a ion
Condi ions o
Remune a ed
Volleyball Playe s
and Coaches
Bipa i e, binding,
ully implemen ed
Volleyball clubs o he Belgian Volleyball League (la
Ligue belge du olley-ball); ully o pa ially
employed playe s and coaches acco ding o he law
o 24 Feb ua y 1978 on "con a de a ail des
spo i s émuné és"
Wage, Con ac ual
equi emen s, Wo king ime,
T aining condi ions, Lea e,
Voca ional aining, Heal h and
wel a e, Social p o ec ion,
Image and comme cial igh s,
En o cemen and dispu e
esolu ion
Belgium
Foo ball
(Bo h)
Collec i e
Ba gaining
Ag eemen on
Wo king
Condi ions and
Wages o
Remune a ed
Foo ball Playe s
Bipa i e, binding,
ully implemen ed
Belgian oo ball clubs; playe s acco ding o he law
o 24 Feb ua y 1978 on "con a de a ail des
spo i s émuné és"
Wage, Con ac ual
equi emen s, Wo king ime,
T aining condi ions, Lea e,
Voca ional aining, Heal h and
wel a e, Social p o ec ion,
Image and comme cial igh s,
En o cemen and dispu e
esolu ion

53
Belgium
Mul ispo
(Bo h)
Collec i e
Employmen
Ag eemen on
Minimum Income
Bipa i e, binding,
ully implemen ed
All a hle es unde he Commission Na ionale
Pa i ai e du Spo (CP 223)
Wage, Con ac ual
equi emen s, Wo king ime,
T aining condi ions, Lea e,
Voca ional aining, Heal h and
wel a e, Social p o ec ion,
Image and comme cial igh s,
En o cemen and dispu e
esolu ion
Denma k
Foo ball
(Female)
Female Playe s
Con ac
Bipa i e, binding,
ully implemen ed
Di isions o eningens A bejdsgi e o ening (DBU)
(di isional associa ion); Spille o eningen (Danish
oo ball playe s' union, SPF)
Wage, Con ac ual
equi emen s, Wo king ime,
T aining condi ions, Lea e,
Voca ional aining, Heal h and
wel a e, Social p o ec ion,
Image and comme cial igh s,
En o cemen and dispu e
esolu ion
Denma k
Foo ball
(Male)
Foo ball
Ag eemen 2025-
2030
Bipa i e, binding,
ully implemen ed
P o essional oo ball clubs; playe s employed by
hem
Wage, Con ac ual
equi emen s, Wo king ime,
T aining condi ions, Lea e,
Voca ional aining, Heal h and
wel a e, Social p o ec ion,
Image and comme cial igh s,
En o cemen and dispu e
esolu ion
Denma k
Foo ball
(Female)
Collec i e
Ag eemen o he
Female’s Na ional
Team
Bipa i e, binding,
ully implemen ed
DBU; emale na ional eam playe s
Wage, Con ac ual
equi emen s, Wo king ime,
T aining condi ions, Lea e,
Voca ional aining, Heal h and
wel a e, Social p o ec ion,
Image and comme cial igh s,
En o cemen and dispu e
esolu ion
54
Denma k
Foo ball
(Male)
Collec i e
Ag eemen o he
Men’s Na ional
Team
Bipa i e, binding,
ully implemen ed
DBU; male na ional eam playe s
Wage, Con ac ual
equi emen s, Wo king ime,
T aining condi ions, Lea e,
Voca ional aining, Heal h and
wel a e, Social p o ec ion,
Image and comme cial igh s,
En o cemen and dispu e
esolu ion
Denma k
Foo ball
(Male)
Playe Con ac
T ipa i e, binding,
ully implemen ed
P o essional Danish oo ball Clubs; playe s
employed/con ac by hem, including ama eu s and
ainees
Wage, Con ac ual
equi emen s, Wo king ime,
T aining condi ions, Lea e,
Voca ional aining, Heal h and
wel a e, Social p o ec ion,
Image and comme cial igh s,
En o cemen and dispu e
esolu ion
Denma k
Handball
(Male and
Female)
Playe Con ac
Bipa i e, binding,
ully implemen ed
P o essional Danish Handball Clubs; playe s
employed/con ac by hem,
Wage, Con ac ual
equi emen s, Wo king ime,
T aining condi ions, Lea e,
Voca ional aining, Heal h and
wel a e, Social p o ec ion,
Image and comme cial igh s,
En o cemen and dispu e
esolu ion
55
Finland
Ice
Hockey
(Male)
Collec i e
Ag eemen
be ween
Jääkiekon SM-
Liiga OY and he
Finnish Ice Hockey
Playe s’
Associa ion
ega ding he
Ac i i y o he
Finnish Eli e
League (incl. he
Chl) and he
Ac i i y o he Eli e
League Teams
Bipa i e, binding,
ully implemen ed
Clubs (owne s) o he league; playe s o hese clubs
Wage, Con ac ual
equi emen s, Wo king ime,
T aining condi ions, Lea e,
Voca ional aining, Heal h and
wel a e, Social p o ec ion,
Image and comme cial igh s,
En o cemen and dispu e
esolu ion
F ance
Handball
(Female)
Collec i e
Ag eemen o
P o essional
Women’s Handball
T ipa i e, binding,
pa ially
implemen ed
Clubs pa icipa ing in 1s and 2nd di ision o he
Female Handball League (LFH) o ganised and
managed by he F ench Handball Fede a ion;
playe s employed by hese clubs; coaches
employed by hese clubs
Wage, Con ac ual
equi emen s, Wo king ime,
T aining condi ions, Lea e,
Voca ional aining, Heal h and
wel a e, Social p o ec ion,
Image and comme cial igh s,
En o cemen and dispu e
esolu ion
F ance
Handball
(Male)
Collec i e
Ag eemen on Fi s
Di ision Men’s
Handball
T ipa i e, binding,
ully implemen ed
Handball clubs o he 1s and 2nd di isions; playe s
unde an exclusi e p o essional con ac o unde a
mul i-ac i e ("p o essionel plu iac i ") p o essional
con ac wi h hese clubs, incl. young playe s unde
a " ainee" con ac wi h hese clubs bound by a
aining ag eemen , head coach(s) and assis an
coach(s) o hese clubs
Wage, Con ac ual
equi emen s, Wo king ime,
T aining condi ions, Lea e,
Voca ional aining, Heal h and
wel a e, Social p o ec ion,
Image and comme cial igh s,
En o cemen and dispu e
esolu ion
56
F ance
Mul ispo
(Bo h)
Na ional Collec i e
Con en ion on
Spo
Bipa i e, binding,
ully implemen ed
All employe s and employees o he F ench spo
sec o (incl. spo clubs)
Wage, Con ac ual
equi emen s, Wo king ime,
T aining condi ions, Lea e,
Voca ional aining, Heal h and
wel a e, Social p o ec ion,
Image and comme cial igh s,
En o cemen and dispu e
esolu ion
F ance
Rugby
(Male)
Collec i e
Ag eemen on
P o essional
Rugby
T ipa i e, binding,
ully implemen ed
Clubs (membe s) o he UCPR and possibly also
non-membe s o UCPR who a e membe s o he
LNR); p o essional ugby playe s and coaches o
hese clubs
Wage, Con ac ual
equi emen s, Wo king ime,
T aining condi ions, Lea e,
Voca ional aining, Heal h and
wel a e, Social p o ec ion,
Image and comme cial igh s,
En o cemen and dispu e
esolu ion
F ance
Baske ball
(Male)
Collec i e
Ag eemen on
P o essional
Baske ball –
Playe s’ Chap e
T ipa i e, binding,
ully implemen ed
P o essional F ench baske ball clubs
(companies/associa ions) who a e membe s o he
LNB; playe s and coaches unde con ac wi h
hese clubs
Wage, Con ac ual
equi emen s, Wo king ime,
T aining condi ions, Lea e,
Voca ional aining, Heal h and
wel a e, Social p o ec ion,
Image and comme cial igh s,
En o cemen and dispu e
esolu ion
F ance
Foo ball
(Male)
P o essional
Foo ball Cha e /
Na ional Collec i e
Con en ion on he
Foo ball Sec o
T ipa i e, binding,
ully implemen ed
P o essional F ench oo ball clubs
(companies/associa ions); playe s and coaches
employed by hese clubs
Wage, Con ac ual
equi emen s, Wo king ime,
T aining condi ions, Lea e,
Voca ional aining, Heal h and
wel a e, Social p o ec ion,
Image and comme cial igh s,
En o cemen and dispu e
esolu ion
63
Uni ed
Kingdom
Foo ball
(Male)
P o essional
Foo ball
Nego ia ing and
Consul a i e
Commi ee
(PFNCC)
Cons i u ion
T ipa i e, o um
o nego ia ion
and consul a ion,
includes dispu e
esolu ion
mechanisms
P o essional Foo balle s’ Associa ion (PFA), The
Foo ball League Limi ed (EFL), The FA P emie
League Limi ed (PL), The Foo ball Associa ion
Limi ed (FA); p o essional oo ball playe s
employed by clubs in membe ship o EFL and he
PL
S anda d e ms and condi ions
o con ac s o employmen
(incl. con ac ual obliga ions,
minimum pay, pension
p o ision, ea men o bene i s
in kind, holidays); Heal h and
sa e y o Playe s, and
app op ia e insu ance
a angemen s; Code o
p ac ice o clubs and playe s;
Minimum s anda ds o he
esolu ion o dispu es; E ec s
o any applicable legisla ion;
No majo changes in
egula ions a ec ing Playe ’s
e ms and condi ions wi hou
PFNCC ag eemen ; Facili a e
consul a ion on any ma e
ela ing o p o essional oo ball

62
Annex II
LIST OF SOURCES
A. Table o Cases
Eu opean Union
Wal a e Union Cyclis e In e na ionale (C-36/74) [1974] ECR 1405
Union Royale Belge Socié és de Foo ball Associa ion and o he s Bosman and
o he s (C-415/93) [1995] ECR I-4921
Albany In e na ional S ich ing Bed ij spensioen onds Tex ielindus ie (C-67/79)
[1999] ECR I-5751
Con ede ación Española de Emp esa ios de Es aciones de Se icio (C-217/05)
[2006] EU:C:2006:784
Da id Meca-Medina and Igo Majcen Commission o he Eu opean Communi ies
(C-519/04 P) [2006] ECR I-6991
La al un Pa ne i L d S enska Byggnadsa be a e o bunde (C-341/05) [2008] All
ER (EC) 166
In e na ional T anspo Wo ke s’ Fede a ion Viking Line ABP (C-438/05) [2008]
All ER (EC) 127
FNV Kuns en In o ma ie en Media S aa de Nede landen (C-413/13) [2014]
ECLI:EU:C:2014:2411
Eu opean Supe league Company (ESL) FIFA and UEFA (C-333/21) [2023]
EU:C:2023:1011
UL and Royal An we p FC Union oyale belge des socié és de oo ball associa ion
ASBL (URBSFA) (C-680/21) [2023] EU:C:2023:188
In e na ional Ska ing Union Commission (C-124/21 P) [2023] EU:C:2023:1012
Fédé a ion in e na ionale de oo ball associa ion (FIFA) BZ (C-650/22) [2024]
ECLI:EU:C:2024:824
O he Ju isdic ions
Eas ham Newcas le Uni ed Foo ball Club [1964] Ch 413 (ChD) (England and
Wales)
Au oclenz L d Belche and O he s [2011] UKSC 41 (England and Wales)
B aganza BP Shipping L d [2015] UKSC 17 (England and Wales
Dublin Colleges Academic S a Associa ion Ci y o Dublin Voca ional Educa ion
Commi ee [1981] 7 JIC 3101 (Republic o I eland)
EI Co L d Kennedy [1968] IR 69 (Republic o I eland)
Fe guson John Dawson and Pa ne s (Con ac o s) L d [1976] IRLR 346 (CA)
(Republic o I eland)
John G ace F ied Chicken Ca e ing JLC [2011] IEHC 277 (Republic o I eland)
Kau MG Ro e G oup L d [2005] ICR 625 (Republic o I eland)
McGowan Labou Cou [2013] IESC 21 (Republic o I eland)
63
B. Legisla ion and Ins umen s
In e na ional Ins umen s
ILO Employmen Rela ionship Recommenda ion No 198 (2006)
ILO Con en ion No 87 on F eedom o Associa ion and P o ec ion o he Righ o
O ganise (1948)
ILO Con en ion No 98 on he Righ o O ganise and o Ba gain Collec i ely (1949)
ILO Con en ion No 154 conce ning he P omo ion o Collec i e Ba gaining (1981)
Global Commission on he Fu u e o Wo k, Wo k o a b igh e u u e (ILO 2019)
In e na ional Labou O ice, In e na ional S anda d Classi ica ions o Occupa ions:
ISCO-08 (ILO 2012)
In e na ional Labou O ganisa ion, ‘Issues pape o discussion a he Global
Dialogue Fo um on Decen Wo k in he Wo ld o Spo ’ (ILO, 2020)
h ps://www.ilo.o g/ esou ce/o he /global-dialogue- o um-decen -wo k-wo ld-
spo -issues-pape accessed 26 Feb ua y 2025
In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion, Collec i e ba gaining: a policy guide (2015)
h ps:// esea ch eposi o y.ilo.o g/esplo o/ou pu s/encyclopediaEn y/Collec i e-
ba gaining/995218593702676# ile-0 accessed 3 June 2025 (No publishe
p o ided in o iginal)
In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion, P o essional A hle es and he Fundamen al
P inciples and Righ s a Wo k: ILO B ie (ILO Technical B ie , ILO 2024)
h ps://doi.o g/10.54394/UPJT5382
Eu opean Union
T ea y on he Func ioning o he Eu opean Union
Cha e o Fundamen al Righ s o he Eu opean Union
Di ec i e 2003/88/EC (Wo king Time Di ec i e) [2003] OJ L 299
Di ec i e (EU) 2019/1152 (T anspa en and P edic able Wo king Condi ions
Di ec i e) [2019] OJ L 186
Di ec i e (EU) 2024/2831 (Pla o m Wo k Di ec i e) [2024] OJ L, 2024/2831
Eu opean Commission, Di ec o a e-Gene al o Employmen , Social A ai s and
Inclusion, ‘Sus ainabili y and go e nance: he ole o social dialogue’ in
Publica ions O ice (ed), Employmen and social de elopmen s in Eu ope 2019:
sus ainable g ow h o all: choices o he u u e o Social Eu ope (Publica ions
O ice 2019) 210
Eu opean Commission, ‘P o essional oo ball - Sec o al social dialogue’ (Eu opean
Commission, 2025) <h ps://employmen -social-a ai s.ec.eu opa.eu/policies-and-
ac i i ies/eu-employmen -policies/social-dialogue/c oss-indus y-and-sec o al-
social-dialogue/p o essional- oo ball-sec o al-social-
dialogue_en#:~: ex =In%202005%2C%20i %20was%20es ima ed,law%20con a
c s%20is%20s ill%20widesp ead.> accessed 2 June 2025
64
Eu opean Commission, Whi e Pape on Spo COM(2007) 391 inal
Na ional Legisla ion
Collec i e Ag eemen s Ac (436/1946) (Finland)
Ac on con i ma ion o he gene al applicabili y o collec i e ag eemen s (56/2001)
(Finland)
Indus ial Rela ions Ac 1946 (I eland)
Indus ial Rela ions (Amendmen ) Ac 2015 (I eland)
Legge 20 maggio 1970, n 300, No me sulla u ela della libe à e digni à dei
la o a o i, della libe à sindacale e dell'a i i à sindacale, nei luoghi di la o o e
no me sul collocamen o (I aly)
Legge 23 ma zo 1981, n 91, No me in ma e ia di appo i a socie à e spo i i
p o essionis i (I aly)
Dec e o Legisla i o 2/2015, de 23 de oc ub e, po el que se ap ueba el ex o
e undido de la Ley del Es a u o de los T abajado es (Spain)
Dec e o legisla i o del 28/02/2021 n 36, A uazione dell'a icolo 5 della legge 8
agos o 2019, n. 86, ecan e io dino e i o ma delle disposizioni in ma e ia di en i
spo i i p o essionis ici e dile an is ici, nonche' di la o o spo i o (I aly)
Real Dec e o 1006/1985, de 26 de junio, po el que se egula la elación labo al
especial de los depo is as p o esionales (Spain)
Ley O gánica 11/1985, de 2 de agos o, de Libe ad Sindical (Spain)
Real Dec e o Legisla i o 2/1995, de 7 de ab il, po el que se ap ueba el ex o
e undido de la Ley de P ocedimien o Labo al (Spain)
Ley O gánica 3/2007, de 22 de ma zo, pa a la igualdad e ec i a de muje es y
homb es (Spain)
Ley 39/2022, de 30 de diciemb e, del Depo e (Spain)
Employmen Righ s Ac 1996 (Uni ed Kingdom)
T ade Union and Labou Rela ions (Consolida ion) Ac 1992 (Uni ed Kingdom)
C. Academic Li e a u e
Books and Chap e s in Edi ed Collec ions
Eus ace, A, Collec i e Bene i : Ha nessing he powe o ep esen a ion o
economic and social p og ess (Repo o Fó sa, 2021)
Jonke -Ho én P, ‘Goodbye cen alised ba gaining? The eme gence o a new
indus ial ba gaining egime’ in T Mülle , K Vandaele and J Wadding on (eds),
Collec i e ba gaining in Eu ope: owa ds an endgame (ETUI 2019) 197
O'Lea y, L, Employmen and Labou Rela ions Law in he P emie League, NBA
and In e na ional Rugby Union (TMC Asse P ess 2017)
65
Palme , W, ‘B exi and Social Dialogue in Spo ’ in J Ko nbeck (ed) Spo and B exi
(Rou ledge 2022)
Panne , D, Collec i e Ba gaining in Spo : Challenges and Bene i s (UCL P ess
2015)
Leona di, S, Amb a, MC and Cia ini, A, ‘I alian collec i e ba gaining a a u ning
poin ’ in S Leona di and R Pede sini (eds) Mul i-employe ba gaining unde
p essu e: decen alisa ion ends in i e Eu opean coun ies (ETUI 2018)
Jagodzinski, R, ‘T ansna ional collec i e ba gaining: a li e a u e e iew’ in
Schömann e al (eds) T ansna ional collec i e ba gaining a company le el. A new
componen o Eu opean indus ial ela ions? (ETUI 2012)
Jou nal A icles
Bosold, A and Maye , J, ‘A hle e pa icipa ion in decision-making in eli e spo : a
scoping e iew’ (2025) Spo in Socie y
Chappele , JL, ‘The uns oppable ise o a hle e powe in he Olympic sys em’
(2020) 23(5) Spo in Socie y 795
Dam o, C, ‘Ma ke powe Eu ope’ (2012) 19(5) Jou nal o Eu opean Public Policy
682
Fa ag, S, ‘Olympians as Labo e s: How Unionizing Can Help A hle es Ba gain o
Compensa ion and Be e S uc u al Suppo ’ [2021] 32 Fo dham In ell P op Media
& En LJ 689
Fiege, L and Sel mann, M, ‘Social dialogue in p o essional spo s in Eu ope:
owa ds democ a ic go e nance be ween he Eu opean Spo Model and na ional
indus ial ela ions?’ [2024] Jou nal o Eu opean Public Policy
Hay e , J and Visse , J, ‘Making collec i e ba gaining mo e inclusi e: The ole o
ex ension’ [2021] 160(2) In e na ional Labou Re iew 169
Ju kowska-Gomulka, A, Piszcz, A and Pais, SO, ‘Collec i e Ag eemen s on
Wo king Condi ions o Solo Sel -Employed Pe sons: Pe spec i e o EU
Compe i ion Law’ (2024) 29 Bialos ockie S udia P awnicze 65
Kauhanen A, ‘The e ec s o he decen aliza ion o collec i e ba gaining on wages
and wage dispe sion: E idence om he Finnish o es and IT indus ies’ (2024) 62
B i ish Jou nal o Indus ial Rela ions 319
Kauhanen A, Maczulskij T and Riukula K, ‘The incidence and e ec s o
decen alized wage ba gaining in Finland’ (2024) 45 J Labo Res 232
Kelle , B, ‘Sec o al Social Dialogue in P o essional Foo ball: Social Pa ne s,
Ou comes and P oblems o Implemen a ion’ [2018] SSRN Elec onic Jou nal
Mi ag, J e al, Good Go e nance in he Employmen Rela ions o A hle es in
Olympic Spo s in Eu ope: Unde s anding–E alua ing–Imp o ing (Uni e si y o
Rijeka, Facul y o Law 2022)
Mi ag, J e al, Unde s anding he Employmen Rela ions o A hle es in Olympic
Spo s in Eu ope: Fac Repo (Uni e si y o Rijeka, Facul y o Law 2022)
Mon i, G, ‘Collec i e labou ag eemen s and EU compe i ion law: Fi e
econ igu a ions’ [2021] 17(3) Eu opean Compe i ion Jou nal 714
66
O’Lea y, L, Sel mann, M and Smok ina, V, ‘Eli e A hle es and Wo ke S a us’
[2024] Indus ial Law Jou nal
Pa ish, R, ‘Social dialogue in Eu opean p o essional oo ball’ [2011] 17(2)
Eu opean Law Jou nal 213
Pede sini, R, ‘In e na ional o ganisa ions and he ole o collec i e ba gaining’
(2019) 25(2) T ans e : Eu opean Re iew o Labou and Resea ch 181
Visse J, ‘Did employe s abandon collec i e ba gaining? A compa a i e analysis o
he weakening o collec i e ba gaining in he OECD’ (2024) 55 Indus ial Rela ions
Jou nal 350
Wea he ill, S, ‘The limi s o legisla i e ha monisa ion en yea s a e Tobacco
Ad e ising: how he Cou ’s case law has become a ‘d a ing guide’’ (2011) 12
Ge man Law Jou nal 827
Wuokko M, Kuo elah i E and Jensen-E iksen N, ‘Mo e han mee s he eye: Finnish
employe s and he cen alised labou ma ke model, 1960s– 2020s’ (24 Ma ch
2025) Scandina ian Economic His o y Re iew, 1-21.
Ya oshenko, OM e al, ‘Ha moniza ion o Labo Righ s o A hle es in he EU:
Challenges and P ospec s in he Con ex o In eg a ion o Na ional Legisla ion’
(2024) Eu opean Poli ics and Socie y 1–15
Zwysen, W and D ahokoupil, J, ‘Collec i e ba gaining and powe : Wage p emium
o collec i e ag eemen s in Eu ope 2002–2018’ [2024] 62(2) B i ish Jou nal o
Indus ial Rela ions 335
D. Miscellaneous (Repo s/O ganisa ional Publica ions/Online Resou ces)
Comisión Consul i a Nacional de Con enios Colec i os, ‘Collec i e Ba gaining in
Eu ope’ (Comisión Consul i a Nacional de Con enios Colec i os, 2004)
h ps://www.mi es.gob.es/ iche os/minis e io/sec_ abajo/ccncc/B_Ac uaciones/E
s udios/Collec i eBa gainingInEu ope.pd accessed 16 Feb ua y 2025
De Spiegelae e, S, ‘Time o Ac ion! How Policy can S eng hen (Mul i-Employe )
Collec i e Ba gaining in Eu ope’ (Uni Eu opa, 2024) h ps://www.uni-
eu opa.o g/wp-con en /uploads/si es/3/2024/04/Uni-Eu opaRepo Annex-1.pd
accessed 17 Ma ch 2025
ELPA, ‘Eu oLeague Baske ball and Eu oLeague Playe s Associa ion Announce
Renewal o Eu oLeague F amewo k Ag eemen ’ (Eu oleague Baske ball, 2024)
h ps://www.eu oleaguebaske ball.ne /en/news/eu oleague-baske ball-and-
eu oleague-playe s-associa ion-announce- enewal-o -eu oleague- amewo k-
ag eemen / accessed 29 May 2025
Eu ode , ‘Collec i e Ba gaining Ag eemen in EU: Explained’ (Eu ode , 2025)
<h ps://www.eu ode .com/blog/collec i e-ba gaining-ag eemen s-
eu ope#:~: ex =The%20mos %20 undamen al%20aspec s%20o ,wi h%2015%20
yea s%20o %20 enu e.> accessed 3 June 2025
FIFPRO, ‘FIFPRO Eu ope and con inen ’s s akeholde s o expand and s eng hen
suppo o na ional social dialogue’ (FIFP o, 2023b) h ps:// i p o.o g/en/who-we-
a e/ i p o-membe s/ i p o-eu ope/ i p o-eu ope-and-con inen -s-s akeholde s- o-
expand-and-s eng hen-suppo -o -na ional-social-
dialogue#:~: ex =The%20Eu opean%20Sec o al%20Social%20Dialogue,sus aina
bili y%20o %20clubs%20and%20compe i ions accessed 2 June 2025

67
FIFPRO, ‘No mal’ Employmen Righ s o Playe s in Eas e n Eu ope’ (FIFP o,
2020) h ps:// i p o.o g/en/suppo ing-playe s/condi ions-o -employmen /s anda d-
playe -con ac s/p ope -employmen -con ac s- o -eas e n-eu opean-playe s
accessed 29 May 2025
G aham, M, Ga on, G and Yellin, F, WPA: ‘#Righ 2O ganise Su ey & Repo –
E ec i e A hle e Rep esen a ion in Global Spo ’ (UNI Global Union – Wo ld
Playe s Associa ion, 2023) h ps://uniglobalunion.o g/wp-con en /uploads/WPA-
R2O-Repo _Digi al-1.pd accessed 5 Ma ch 2025
Molina Romo, Ó, ‘Rep esen a i eness o he Eu opean Social Pa ne
O ganisa ions: P o essional Foo ball Sec o ’ (Eu opean Founda ion o he
Imp o emen o Li ing and Wo king Condi ions, 2023)
h ps://www.eu o ound.eu opa.eu/en/publica ions/ epo /2023/ ep esen a i eness
-o - he-eu opean-social-pa ne -o ganisa ions-p o essional- oo ball-sec o
accessed 11 June 2025
Risak, M and Dullinge , T, ‘The concep o ‘wo ke ’ in EU law: s a us quo and
po en ial o change’ (ETUI, The Eu opean T ade Union Ins i u e, 2020)
h ps://www.e ui.o g/publica ions/ epo s/ he-concep -o -wo ke -in-eu-law-s a us-
quo-and-po en ial- o -change accessed 23 June 2025
T Dobbins, ‘I ish indus ial ela ions sys em no longe olun a is ’ (Eu o ound, 21
Ap il 2005) h ps://www.eu o ound.eu opa.eu/en/ esou ces/a icle/2005/i ish-
indus ial- ela ions-sys em-no-longe - olun a is accessed 20 June 2025
UEFA, ‘Ag eemen ega ding he minimum equi emen s o s anda d playe
con ac s in he p o essional oo ball sec o in he Eu opean Union and he es o
he UEFA e i o y’ (UEFA, 2025) h ps://edi o ial.ue a.com/ esou ces/0259-
0 842 7a 4d-790c6cd56074-1000/m spc_au onomous_ag eemen .pd accessed
30 May 2025
UNI Global Union, ‘Wo ld Playe Heal h and Sa e y Summi Highligh s Need o
Playe Cen e ed Change’ (UNI Global Union, 2025)
h ps://uniglobalunion.o g/news/wo ld-playe -heal h-and-sa e y-summi -highligh s-
need- o -playe -cen ed-change/ accessed 29 May 2025
Val ioneu os o, ‘Oppo uni ies o local collec i e ba gaining o expand’
(Val ioneu os o, 22 Ap il 2024) h ps:// al ioneu os o. i/en/-
/1410877/oppo uni ies- o -local-collec i e-ba gaining- o-expand accessed 12
Augus 2025
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Funded by he Eu opean Union. Views and opinions exp essed
a e howe e hose o he au ho (s) only and do no necessa ily
e lec hose o he Eu opean Union o he Eu opean Educa ion
and Cul u e Execu i e Agency (EACEA). Nei he he Eu opean
Union no EACEA can be held esponsible o hem.